4.

0 Analysis of the section

 A satisfactory & economic design of a concrete of a concrete structure rarely depends

on a complex theoretical analysis.
 It is achieved more by deciding or a practical overall layout of the structure, careful
attention to detail & sound construction practice.
 However, we still need to analyze the individual member sections, which should be
kept simple.
 The 3 most important principles that unite the analysis are:
- The stress & stains are related by the material properties, including the stress –
strain curves for concrete and steel.
- The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape of the cross
– section.
- The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads for
static equilibrium.
 The above principles are true irrespective of how the stresses and strains are
distributed, or how the member is loaded, or whatever the shape of the cross – section.
 This chapter describes & analysis the action of a member section under load. It
derives the basic equations used in design & also those equations required for the
preparation of design charts.

4.1 Stress – strain relations

4.1.1 Concrete

 The behavior of structural concrete (fig.4.1) is represented by a parabolic stress –

strain relationship, up to εo, from which point the strain increase while the stress
remains constant.
 εo & tangent modulus at the origin are both specified as a function fcu (characteristic
strength of concrete).
 The ultimate design stress is given by
0.67 f cu 0.67 f cu
  0.45 f cu
m 1.5
 At where, 0.67 factor is the difference between bending strength factor (0.8) multiply
with crushing concrete strength factor (0.85) of the concrete, and γm = 1.5 is the
 difference between the site curing factor (1.13) multiply with laboratory curing factor
(1.3).
 The ultimate strain o 0.0035 is typical for all concrete grades.

Figure 4.1 Short – term design stress – strain curve for concrete for concrete in
compression.

4.1.2 Reinforcing steel

 The representative short – term design stress – strain curve for reinforcement is given
in fig. 4.2.
 The behavior of the steel is identical in tension & compression, being linear in the
elastic range up to the design yield stress of fy/γm.
 Within the elastic range, the relationship between the stress & strain is
Stress = Elastic modulus (Es) x strain (εo) [4.1]
 So, design yield stain is

fy
m
y 
Es

 At ultimate,
- For high yield steel (fy = 460N/mm2)
460
 y  1.05  0.00219
200000
- For mild steel ((fy = 250N/mm2)
250
-  y  1.05  0.0019
200000

4.2 The distribution of strains and stresses across a section

 The theory of bending for R.C. assumes that the concrete will cracks in the regions of
tensile strains & that, after cracking, all the tension is carried by the reinforcement.
 Another assumption is that plan sections of a structural member remain plane after
straining, so that across the section there must be a linear distribution of strains.
 Fig. 4.3 shows the cross – sections of a member subject to bending, & the resultant
strain diagram, together with 3 different types of stress distribution in the concrete.
 - The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly
proportional to the strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels
encountered under working conditions and is used at the serviceability limit state.
- The rectangular – parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when
the compressive strains are within the plastic range & it is associated with the
design for ultimate limit state.
- The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the
rectangular – parabolic distribution.
- There is compatibility of strain between the reinforcement & the adjacent concrete,
so εst & εsc can be determined from strain diagram.
d  x
 st   cc   [4.2]
 x 
 x  d1 
 sc   cc   [4.3]
 x 
d = effective of beam
d’ = depth of compression steel
 With analysis of a section with known steel strains,
d
x
 st
1
 st
At ultimate limit state, εcc = 0.0035, fy = 460N/mm2, εst = 0.00219
d
x  0.615d
0.00219
1
0.0035
 To ensure yield of tension steel at the ultimate state:
x  0.615d
 At the ultimate limit state, it is important that member section in flexure should be
ductile & that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel & not
by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete.
 Yielding of steel reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that
redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting in a safer & more
economical structural.
 To be very certain of tension steel yielding, the code of practice limits the depth of
neutral axial so that
 x  (  b  0.4)d
Moment at the section after redistribution
b 
moment at the section before redistribution
 b  0.9(for moment redistribution not greater than 90%)
x  0.5d
 This limit will normally be adopted for ultimate limit state. If larger moment
redistribution required, smaller x is required.

4.3 Bending and the equivalent rectangular stress block

 For R.C. design, it is usual to commence the design for the conditions at the ultimate
limit state, which is then followed by check to ensure that the ultimate limit state,
which is then followed by checks to ensure that the structure is adequate for the
serviceability limit state without excessive deflection or cracking of the concrete.
 For this reason, we will consider the simplified rectangular stress block, which can be
used for the design at the ultimate limit state.
 The rectangular stress block is shown in fig. 4.4.

 The stress block (rectangular) has a depth s = 0.9x. So the centroid of stress block =
s/2 = 0.45x from the top edge of the section.
 The moment of resistance will be similar for both the rectangular & rectangular –
parabolic stress blocks.

4.4 Singly reinforced rectangular section in bending

 Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force Fst in the reinforcing steel,
and a resultant compressive force in the concrete Fcc which acts through the centroid
of the effective area of concrete in compression, as in fig. 4.4.
 For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment, M must be balanced by the moment of
resistance of the section so that
M = Fcc x z = Fst x z
Where z is the level arm between Fcc & Fst
Fcc = stress x area of action
= 0.45fcu x bs
And
Z = d – s/2
0.67 f cu
M  bs ( z )
1.5
 0.45 f cu b[2(d  z )]z
 0.9 f cu b(d  z ) z 4.7
 0.9 f cu bdz  0,9 f cu bz 2

M  0.9 f cu bz  0.9 f cu bdz  0

2

M
z 2  zd  0
0.9 f cu b
z z M
( )2   0
d d 0.9 f cu d 2 b
let
M
k
f cu bd 2
2
z z k
    0
 d  d 0.9
4k
1 1
0.9  z
2 d
k
z  d [0.5  0.25  4.8
0.9
Which is the equation in the code of practice BS 8110 for the lever arm, z of a singly
reinforcement section
From eqn. M = Fcc x z = Fst x z
fy
Fst  As
m
 0.95 f y As
M
As  4.9
0.95 f y z
 The equation 4.8for the level arm z can be used to set up a table & draw a level – arm as
shown in fig. 4.5, & the curve may be used to determine the level arm z, instead of
solving equation 4.8.
 The upper limit of the lever – arm curve, z = 0.95d, is specified by BS8110. The lower
limit of z = 0.775d is when the depth of neutral axis x = d/2, which is the maximum
value allowed by the code for a singly reinforcement section in order to provided a
ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure. When z = 0.775d & from
eqn. 4.7.
M  0.9 f cu b(d  z ) z
 0.9 f cu b(d  0.775d ) x0.775d
or M  0.156f cu bd 2
The coefficient 0.156 has actually been calculated using a concrete stress as more
precisely equal 0.67fcu/γm = 0.67fcu/1.5 = 0.447fcu instead of 0.45 fcu.
M
When k   0.156
bd 2 f cu
Compression reinforcement is also required to supplement the moment of resistance
of the concrete.
Procedure:

1. Determine the design working loads (Dead load, Live load, Wind load …)

2. Determine the load combination factor. (1.4Gk, 1.6Qk …)

3. Calculate the ultimate design load.

4. Apply the live load patter. (Refer to example 3.2)

5. Calculate the critical moment and shear for each case and plot the bending and shear
envelopes.

6. Calculate the area of steel reinforcement, As base on BS 8110 clause 3.4.4.4 (beam).
- determine the K value (if K < k’ = 0.156, no compression bar required)
- calculate the lever am, z. (if K >0.156, z = 0.775d)

7. Check the minimum areas of reinforcement in members (clause 3.12.5) and its
maximum areas of reinforcement in members (clause 3.12.6). 0.13% < As < 4%

8. Check the spacing of reinforcement (clause 3.12.11). Min. clearance = 35 ~ 50mm.

9. Sketch the detailing (refer BS 8110 figure 3.24).

Example 4.1 Design of a singly reinforced rectangular section

The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the section in fig. 4.6 is 185kNm. Determine
the area of tension reinforcement, As required given the characteristic material strengths are fy
= 460kN/mm2 & fcu = 30kN/mm2.

M
K
bd 2 f cu
185kNm

260(440) 2 (30)
 0.122  0.156 clause 3.4.4.4

 Therefore, compression steel is not required.

k
Level arm, z  d[0.5  0.25  ] clause 3.4.4.4
0.9
0.122
 440[0.5  ]
0.9
 369mm

M
Az  clause 3.4.4.4
0.95 f y z
185kNm

0.95(460)(369)
 1148mm 2

 Provide 3T25, As = 1470mm2 > 1148mm2

 b - 2(cover) - 2(link  ) - 3(25)
M inimum clearest 
2
260  2(30)  75

2
 62.5mm  35mm

b=260

3T25

Analysis Equation for a singly reinforced section.

The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a given section
with a known area of steel reinforcement.

For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile in the fig. 4.4

Fcc  Fst
0.45 f cu bs  0.95 f y As
Therefore depth of stress block is
0.95f y As
s [4.11]
0.45 f cu b
s
x
0.9

 Moment of resistance of the section is

M  Fst z
s
 0.95 f y As (d  )
2
0.95 f y As
 0.95 f y As (d  ) [4.12]
0.9 f cu b

The above equations assume the tension reinforcement has yield (x < 0.615d). If this is not
the case, the problem would require solving by trying successive values of x until Fcc = Fst.

With the steel strains and hence stresses being determined from εst = εcc(d-x/x) & stress = Es x
εs.

For this case, stress = Es x εs should be used in equation 4.12 instead of 0.95fy.
Example 4.2 Analysis of singly reinforced rectangular section in bending

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross – section shown in fig. 4.7 given
that the characteristic strength are fy = 460Nmm-2 for the reinforcement & fcu = 30Nmm-2 for
the concrete.

For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile force on the section

Fcc = Fst

Therefore

Fcc  Fst
0.45 f cu bs  0.95 f y As
0.45(30)(300) s  0.95(460)(1470)
s  159mm
x  177mm  0.615d  319.8mm

 The steel has yieldd & f st  0.95 f y

M  Fst z
s
 0.95 f y As (d  )
2
159
 0.95(460)(1470)(520  )
2
 283kNm
4.5 Rectangular section with compression reinforcement at the ultimate limit state.

 The equations in this section have been derived for the case where the reduction in
moment at a section due to moment redistribution is not greater than 10%. Otherwise,
need to deal with effect of moment redistribution.

 From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section when
M > 0.156fcubd2
 The design ultimate moment > moment of resistance of concrete, ►compression
reinforcement is required.
 To ensure tension failure with a ductile section, the depth of neutral axis, x < 0.5d.
s
z  d 
2
0.9 x
d 
2
0.9 x0.5d
d 
2
 0.775d
For equilibrium in fig. 4.8
Fst = Fcc + Fsc
So that with the reinforcement at yield,
0.95fyAs = 0.45fcubs + 0.95fyA’s
Or with x = 0,5d, s=0.9xd/2 =0.45d
۞ 0.95fyAs = 0.201fcubd + 0.95fyA’s [4.13]
Taking moment about the centroid of the tension steel,
M = Fccz + Fsc(d-d’)
= 0.201fcubd(0.775d) + 0.95fyA’s(d-d’)
= 0.156fcubd2 + 0.95fyA’s(d-d’) [4.14]
 M  0.156 f cu bd 2
A' s  [4.15]
0.95 f y (d  d ' )

Multiplying both sides of eqn. [4.13] by z = 0.775d

0.95fyAsz = 0.201fcubdz + 0.95fyA’sz
0.156 f cu bd 2
As   A' s [4.16]
0.95 f y z

Where z = 0.775d
Hence the area of compression steel, A’s & tension steel, As, can be calculated.
Substitute k’ = 0.156 & k = M / (bd2fcu) into eqn. 4.15 & eqn. 4.16.
kbd 2 f cu  k ' f cu bd 2
A' s 
0.95 f y (d  d ' )

(k  k ' ) f cu bd 2
or A' s  [4.17]
0.95 f y (d  d ' )

k ' f cu bd 2
As   A' z [4.18]
0.95 f y z

In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yield so that the
steel stress fsc = 0.95fy.
From fig. 4.8
 sc 0.0035
 [4.19]
x  d' x
x  d'  sc

x 0.0035
d'  sc
or  1 
x 0.0035
At yield with fy = 460N/mm2, εsc =εy = 0.00219
d' 0.00219
 1  0.37 [4.20]
x 0.0035
With x = d/2
d' 0.00219
 1
d/2 0.0035
d'
 0.185 [4.21]
d
 The ratio of d’/d for the yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by using
their yield strain in eqn. 4.19 for value of fy = 460N/mm2, the application of 4.21 will
provided an adequate safe check.
  If d’/d > 0.185, it is necessary to calculate εsc from eqn. 4.19 & then determine fsc from
fsc = Es x εsc = 200000εsc
so, in this case
M  0.156 f cu bd 2
A' s 
f sc (d  d ' )
0.156 f cu bd 2
& As  (  A' s )
f sc z

Example 4.3 Design of a rectangular section with compression reinforcement (moment

redistribution factor β≥0.9)

The section shown in Fig. 4.10 is to resist an ultimate moment of 285kNm. The
characteristic strengths are fy = 460N/mm2 & fcu = 30N/mm2. Determine the areas o
reinforcement required.

M
k
bd 2 f cu
285 x10 6
  0.156  Compression steel is required
260 x 440 2 x30

d ' 50
  0.11  0.2 Compression bar has yielded
d 440

(k  k ' ) f cu bd 2

A' s 
0.95 f y (d  d ' )
(0.189  0.156)(30)(260)(440) 2

0.95 x 460(440  50)
 292mm 2
 k ' f cu bd 2
As   A' s
0.95 f y z
0.156 x30 x 260 x 440 2
  292
0.95 x 460(0.775 x 440)
 1873mm 2

Example 4.4 Analysis of a doubly reinforcement rectangular section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance o the cross – section shown in fig. 4.11 given
that the characteristic strengths are fy = 460Nmm-2 for the reinforcement & fcu = 30Nmm-2 for
the concrete.

For equilibrium,

Fst = Fsc + Fcc

Assuming that the steel stresses fst & fsc are the design yield values, then

0.95fyAs = 0.45fcubs + 0.95fyA’s

0.95 f y ( As  A' s )
s
0.45 f cu b
0.95(460)(2410  628)

(0.45)(30)(280)
 206mm

x = s/0.9 = 206/0.9 = 229mm

x/d = 229/510 = 0.45<0.615d

So, the tension steel have yielded. Also

d’/x = 50/229 = 0.22<0.37

So, the compression steel also have yielded as assumed.

Taking moment about the tension steel,

s
M  Fcc (d  )  Fsc (d  d ' )
2
s
 0.45 f cu bs(d  )  0.95 f y A' s (d  d ' )
2
205
 0.45(30)(280)(206)(510  )  0.95(460)(620)(510  50)
2
 441kNm

If the depth of neutral axis was such that the compression or tensile steel had not yield, it
would have been necessary to try successive values of x until

Fst = Fsc + Fcc

Balances with the steel strains & stress being calculated from eqn. 4.2, 4.3 & 4.1, the steel
stresses at balance would then be used to calculate the moment of resistance.

4.6 Flanged section in bending at the ultimate limit state

 T – section & L – section which have their flanges in compression can both design &
analysed in a similar manner.
 As the flanges generally provide a large compressive area, it is usually unnecessary to
consider the case where compression steel is required.
 For singly reinforced section it is necessary to consider two conditions:-
- The stress block lies within the compression flange,
- The stress block extends below the flange.
4.6.1 Flanged section – The depth of the stress block lies within the flange, s < h f (fig.
4.12)

 The beam can be considered as an equivalent rectangular section of breadth bf equal

to the flange width. This is because the non – rectangular section below the neutral
axis is in tension and is, therefore inactive. Thus, k = M/bfd2fcu can be calculated &
the lever arm determined from the lever arm curve of figure 4.5 or eqn. 4.8.
 The relation between the lever arm, z & depth, x is given by
z = d – s/2
if s < hf, stress block does lie within the flange as assumed &
M
As 
0.95 f y z
Example 4.5 Analysis of a flanged section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T – section shown in fig. 4.13. The fy =
460Nmm-2 & fcu = 30Nmm-2. Assume initially that the stress block lies within the flange &
the reinforcement is strained to the yield, so that fst = 0.95fy.

For no resultant axial force on the section,

Fcc = Fst

0.45 f cu b f s  0.95 f y As
0.95 f y As
s
0.45 f cu b f
0.95(460)(1470)
  59mm
0.45(30)(800)

s
x
0.9
59
  66mm  150mm
0.9

Hence the stress block does lie within the flange & with this depth of neutral axis the steel
will have yielded as assumed.

z = d – s/2 = 420 – 59/2 = 390mm

Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement the moment of resistance is
M = Fcc(z)

= 0.45fcubfz

= 0.45(30)(800)(59)(390)10-6

= 249kNm

4.6.2 Flange section – The depth of the stress block extends below the flange, s>hf.

 Can use section 4.1 to check if s extends below hf.

 Alternatively, can calculate Mf (with s = hf).
So that if M > Mf, the stress block must extend below the flange, & s>hf
 In this case the design can be carried out by either
- Using an exact method to determined the depth of the neutral axis, as in example
4.6 or
- Designing for the conservative condition of x = d/2 as describes at the end of this
section.
Example 4.6 Design of a flanged section with the depth of the stress block below the flange

The T – section beam shown in fig. 4.14 is required to resits an ultimate design moment of
180kNm. The characteristic material strength are fy = 460Nmm-2 & fcu = 30Nmm-2.
Calculate the area of reinforcement required.

In the figure

Fcf = the force developed in the flange.

Fce = the force developed in the area of web in compression

Moment of resistance, Mf of the flange

Mf = Fcfz1 or

Mf = 0.45fcubfhf(d-hf/2)

= 0.45(30)(400)(100)(350-100/2)(10-6)

= 162kNm < 180kNm

>> The stress block must extent below the flange.

It is now necessary to determine the depth, sw, of the web in compression, where sw = s – hf

For equilibrium:
Applied moment

180 = Fcfz1 + Fcwz2

= 162 + 0.45fcubwswz2

= 162 + 0.45(30)(200sw(250-sw/2)10-6

This eqn. can be rearranged into

s w  500s w  13.33x10 3  0
2

500  500 2  4(13333)

sw 
2
 28.5mm or 471.5mm

Hence, sw = 28.5mm

So, x = s/0.9 = (100+28.5)/0.9 = 142mm<175mm (0.5d)

If x<0.5d, compression reinforcement is not required.

For equilibrium

Fst = Fct + Fcw

0.95 f y As  0.45 f cu b f h f  0.45 f cu bw s w

0.95(460) As  0.45(30)[(400)(100)  (200)(28.5)]
As  1410mm 2
Example 4.7 Analysis of a flanged section

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the T – section shown in fig. 4.15, given fy =
460Nmm-2, fcu = 30Nmm-2.

The compressive force in the flange, is

Fcf = 0.45fcubfhf

= 0.45(30)(450)(150)10-3

= 911.2kN

Then tensile force in the reinforcing steel, assuming it has yielded, is

Fst = 0.95fyAs

= 0.95(460)(2410)10-3

= 1053.2kN>fcf

Hence, s > hf

Fcw = 0.45fcubw(s-hf)

= 0.45(30)(300)(s-150)10-3

= 4.05(s-150)
For equilibrium

Fcw = Fst – Fcf

4.05(s-150) = 1053.2 – 911.2

s = 185mm

x = s/0.9 = 185/0.9 = 206mm

Fcw = 142kN

If Fcf > Fst, then the section would be analysed as in example 4.2 for a rectangular section of
dimension bf x d

Taking moment about the centroid of the reinforcement,

M = Fcf(d – hf/2) + Fcw(d – hf – [s – hf]/2)

= Fct(d – hf/2) + Fcw(d – hf/2 – s/2)

= [911.2(440 – 150/2) +142(440 – 185/2 – 150/2)]10-3

= 371kNm
Example 4.8 Design of a flanged section with depth of neutral axis x = d/2

A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s > hf can be achieved by setting te
depth of neutral axis to x = d/2, the maximum depth allowed in the code. Design equations
can be derived for this condition as follow.

Depth of stress block, s = 0.9x = 0.45d

Divide the flanged section within the depth of the stress block into area and 2 as shown in fig.
4.16

Area 1 = bws = 0.45bwd

Area 2 = (bf – bw)hf

Fc1 = 0.45fcu(0.45bwd) = 0.20fcubwd

Fc2 = 0.45fcuhf(bf – bw)

Taking moments about Fc2 at the centroid of the flange

M = Fst(d – hf/2) – Fc1(s/2 – hf/2)

= 0.95fyAs(d – hf/2) – 0.2 fcubwd(0.45d – hf)/2

M  0.1 f cu bw d (0.45d  h f )
As  [4.23]
0.95 f y (d  0.5h f )
Eqn. 4.23 should not be used when hf > 0.45d or hf > s, where x = d/2

Applying [4.23] to example 4.6

180 x10 6  0.1(30)(200)(350)(0.45 x350  100)

As 
0.95(460)(350  0.5(100))
 1465mm 2 (compare with 1410mm 2 of example 4.6

Before using eqn. 4.23 for calculating As, it is necessary to confirm that compression
reinforcement is not required. This is achieved by using eqn. 4.24 to check that the moment
of resistance of concrete, Mc, is greater than the design moment, M.

4.6.3 Flanged section with compression reinforcement.

 With x = d/2 in fig. 4.16 and taking moments about As, the maximum resistance
moment of the concrete is
Mc = Fc1z1 + Fc2z2
= 0.156fcubwd2 + 0.45fcu(bf – bw)(d-hf/2) [4.24]
Note that the value of 0.156 was derived previously for the rectangular section,
Dividing through by fcubfd2
Mc bw hf bw hf
 0.156  0.45 (1  )(1  ) [4.25]
f cu b f d 2 bf d bf 2d

 If the applied design moment, M > Mc, compression reinforcement is required. In

which case the areas of steel can be calculated from
M  Mc
A' s  [4.26]
0.95 f y (d  d ' )

And considering the equilibrium of forces on the section

Fst = Fc1 + Fc2 + Fsc
So that
0.2 f cu bw d  0.45 f cu h f (b f  bw)
As   A' s [4.27]
0.95 f y

Note, d’/x < 0.37, otherwise the design compressive steel stress is less than 0.95fy.
 When, because of moment redistribution, βb < 0.9 the limiting depth of neutral axis is
less than d/2 and these equations will require modification using the factors.
Applying eqn. 4.24 to example 4.6
Mc = Fc1z1 + Fc2z2
= 0.156fcubwd2 + 0.45fcu(bf – bw)(d-hf/2)
= 0.156(30)(200)(350)2 + 0.45(30)(400 – 200)(350 – 100 / 2)
= 115kNm < 180kNm
>> Compression steel is required.
If Mc > M, no compression steel is required.