An Analysis of Gender Bias in Sports Journalism
Osama Khalid, Kwunming Pang, Jessica Ip, Quentin Lee
Abstract— Gender bias is an important issue especially
in journalism. There is a plethora of work that deals with
understanding gender bias in sports journalism, however
the methods currently employed by a large subsection
of the literature are not scalable and limited in their
functionality as they rely on hand coded datasets. We in
contrast propose an unsupervised approach which uses
a keyword based classification method to quantitatively
analyze the disparity that exists in the amount of coverage
and the language used in the coverage by the media to
represent women in sports. We compare our findings with
prior literature and conclude that women in sports are
more likely to be under represented using less formal
language than their male counterparts.
I. INTRODUCTION
Following Hillary Clinton’s 2016 campaign, re-
searchers showed that in the political sphere the crit-
icism that female candidates face is more gendered
and sexist in nature[23]. The work done by [10] un-
derscored that the propagation of stereotypes is used
by the dominant groups to reinforce their own status
quo and argue that the portrayal of women by mass
media plays a vital role in this reinforcement of gender
stereotypes.
The gendered framing by the mass media is perhaps
quite significant with regards to sports as it is the
primary source of information consumption for a vast
majority of the population [1]. In the comparative
analysis performed by [12], the authors showed that
even the coverage of international sporting events like
the Olympics is gendered, with the commentary of
female events having more sexist undertones in contrast
to the male events.
According to [21], the form and magnitude of this
gender bias is dependent on multiple factors, like the
league of play, and even the medium. The authors
suggest that the language used by television news to
frame gender is different from the language used in
print media.
With these nuances in consideration, we plan to limit
the focus of our project to the print coverage of college
level sport. We develop an unsupervised method to
quantitatively explore the extent to which the coverage
of NCAA sports is gendered.
The two main research questions we set out to
explore are:
RQ1: Is there a quantitative difference in the
amount of coverage that women sports get as
compared to men sports?
RQ2: Is there a statistical difference in the kind
of language used in the coverage of women sports,
compared to men’s sports?
In the context of this paper, section II discusses
related works in this domain and the main findings of
those works and section III discusses the unsupervised
method used to explore these research questions, sec-
tion IV builds upon the methods from Section III and
contains the results of the experiments while section V
discusses the implications of our findings and section
VI concludes this project by considering the possible
extensions of our work.
II. R ELATED W ORKS
According to [5], the media not only reports on
events occurring in society but is also tied to the ideol-
ogy of the dominant group. It reflects the cultural myths
of this dominant group. This subsequently leads to the
reinforcement of stereotypes against the subordinate
groups.
By quantitatively analyzing 1,470 minutes of tele-
vision coverage of sports and athletes in Sweden dur-
ing 1996[14], the authors concluded that compared to
men’s sports, only 11.7% of women’s sports is covered
by television networks. The authors concluded that
this disparity in coverage gives the impression to the
viewers that women athletes are less important and less
interesting than their male counterparts.
[3] sampled 424 photographs from the Washington
post’s sports section and 319 photographs from the
Los Angeles Times’ sport section published from July
1980 to June 1981 and looked at the representation of
male and female athletes in the photographs. Like [14],
they too concluded that women athletes are underrepre-
sented in the photographs with males being represented
in 94% of the Washington Posts’ and 90% of the Los
Angeles Time’s photos.
 While the research conducted by [14] and [3] focused Function ArticleExtraction(HTML)
on the amount of coverage and its relationship to Input: HTML Code
gender, [20] focused not on the amount, but the content Output: Cleaned Article text
of the coverage. The authors analyzed 504 covers of Define:
Sports Illustrated from 1957 to 1989 and concluded that <> → 1 Unit Distance;
out of the 769 images of athletes only 6.6% portrayed Di → Distance between text block i and i + 1;
female athletes. And out of the subset of images which hDi → Average distance between neighboring
portrayed athletes in active poses only 2.2% portrayed text blocks;
females. argmax(Li ) → length of the longest word in
In order to understand the representation of gender text block i;
at an international stage, [12] compared the variations Wi → total words in text block i;
in the representation of women in the 1992 Summer Tij → ikj 1 ;
Olympics and the 1996 Olympics. The authors ana- M ax → maximum words in the set T ;
lyzed the language used in the coverage of gymnastics while not the end of document do
and went on to conclude women athletes were dispro- find ”<” and next ”>”;
portionately more likely to be called by their first name remove all text within ”<” and ”>”;
compared to their male counterparts. end
[9] proposed a language model based method to while not the end of document do
quantify the language directed towards female and male if argmax(Li )> 30 then
athletes. They used their proposed model on tennis remove text block2 ;
post game interviews and concluded that female tennis end
players are more likely to get asked questions based if Di < hDi then
on their haircuts and fashion choices unlike their male concatenate Di and Di+1
counterparts. end
This gender bias is not just limited to the physi- end
cal space. The language used in e-sports matches is for k in T do
also gendered[17]. By analyzing 275,396,751 messages if Wk == M ax then
return k
posted in 927,247 channels on the popular social gam-
end
ing platform, Twitch, the authors of [17] concluded that
end
the language directed towards female gamers is more
Algorithm 1: Extracting article text from HTML
likely to include words which deal with appearance like
Code
“gorgeous” and “cute”,

III. M ETHODS Conference, from 3,767 to 130 (Figure 1).

A. Article Retrieval
About 1300 colleges in the USA are part of the
National Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA). Each
college is located within a particular city and each
city has a list of associated newspapers. Using publicly
available newspaper listings[13][19], we retrieved the
list of newspapers for each city. This totaled 3,767 for
the 1,300 colleges.
The NCAA is divided into three divisions and each
division is made up of several conferences that partake
in regional competitions. Our main focus will be on the
oldest of these conferences, the Big Ten Conference
and the colleges associated with it. We filtered the
list of newspapers down, to the scope of the Big Ten
The NCAA sanctions 19 men’s sports and 21
women’s sports. Out of the 40 NCAA sports, we focus
only on 12 sports which can be paired up based on
the gender. 10 of the sports have both a Men’s and
Women’s form, however Baseball is exclusively played
by men and softball is an exclusively female sport.
Since both baseball and softball are ball and stick sports
with a similar playing mechanism and scoring system,
we have decided to pair these two sports as well (see
Table I).
1
concatenation of all text blocks between text blocks i and j
2
Since the longest non-coined word in a major
dictionary,“Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism”[22], is thirty
character long, we assume that if a text block contains a longer
word then that block probably has HTML code in it
 Total Schools in
the NCAA = 1305

#Schools in the
Big 10 = 14

#Newspapers in #Newspapers
the US = 3767 in BIG10
Cities = 130

#URLs = #URLs = 332,750 #Relevant

10,195,139 URLs = 4,296

Fig. 1: A Summary of the Data Collection

Total Big Ten

In order to retrieve news articles which are related Women Basketball 16138 199
to the 12 sports. We possibly could have used an Men Basketball 17707 213
Optical Character Recognition System, however since Softball 19711 268
this approach relies on the existence of a collection, Baseball 34444 427
Women Ice Hockey 2192 112
comprising of all the editions of all the 130 newspapers, Men Ice Hockey 4036 189
and requires the scanning of each edition, we opted for Women Lacrosse 11759 208
a more scalable approach. We sampled 1 random article Men Lacrosse 13878 245
each from a set of 45 randomly chosen newspapers Women Volleyball 18049 239
Men Volleyball 1965 38
and checked for the existence of the article on the Women Soccer 28437 417
newspapers website. In all the 45 cases, the website Men Soccer 24324 249
had an online copy of the article. Based on this we
TABLE II: The number of players in the NCAA and
have assumed that newspapers upload copies of all the
the Big Ten Conference
print articles to their websites.
Using each newspaper’s homepage as a seed link,
we used a crawler to collect all the links which had
the same domain as the original seed link. The crawler This method resulted in the generation of 332,750
stopped once it had exhaustively crawled the entire documents corresponding to the 332,750 webpages.
website or if it had crawled a website for 6 hours. The Since most of the 130 newspapers are general interest
6 hours limit was imposed to ensure that the crawling papers, it can be posited that not all the documents are
did not run for an unmanageable amount of time. Using relevant to the 12 sports.
this method we managed to collect 332,750 URLs(See We define a relevant document as any document
Table II). which can be associated with one of the 12 sports.
Using algorithm 1, we cleaned up all the retrieved One possible method to identify relevant documents
webpages to extract the article text. could be to check for the mention of the sport. However
if an article is a continuation of an ongoing series, it
might not explicitly mention the sport and this method
Men’s Basketball ↔ Women’s Basketball would fail. Alternatively we could use filters which use
Baseball ↔ Softball sport-specific keywords. If for example a document has
Men’s Ice Hockey ↔ Women’s Ice Hockey
Men’s Lacrosse ↔ Women’s Lacrosse words like “rebound” and “dribbling”, the document
Men’s Volleyball ↔ Women’s Volleyball can be related to Basketball. Domain knowledge is
Men’s Soccer ↔ Women’s Soccer required to create these keyword based filters.
TABLE I: Paired Sports For this paper, we opted for a filter created by using
player names to return the relevant documents. This
 Men Women
Basketball 1086 1192
Baseball/Softball 475 126
Ice Hockey 537 118
Lacrosse 151 36
Volleyball 17 255
Soccer 161 142
TABLE III: The number of retrieved documents
type of a filter has the advantage over the conventional
mentioned-sport filter, as it is able to retrieve docu-
ments which do not explicitly mention a sport by name.
And unlike the keyword based filter, this method is
unsupervised and does not require domain knowledge.
This unsupervised method can not only retrieve the
relevant documents but can also classify them based on
the gender of the mentioned players . We acknowledge
that this retrieval method is somewhat limited, as it will
not be able to retrieve documents which do not mention
a player by name. As the current scope of our project
deals with gendered documents, documents which do
not explicitly make use of gendered language are not
considered relevant to our experiments (see Table III).
The set of keywords used in this method were
generated by using a spider to retrieve the list of Big
Ten players (see Table II)from the NCAA statistics
website [18] for the 2017 season(See Section V). This
method can be repeated to get the list of players for
any season. Using the filters created from this player
list, we were able to retrieve 4,296 documents out of
the original set of 332,750 (see Fig 1).
B. Statistically Over-represented Words
Since the documents for each sport type can only
have two classes, male or female, a TFIDF based
approach would not be able to identify the statistically
over-represented words. Instead like [17], we use log-
odd ratios with informative Dirichelt priors[15]to iden-
tify words that are over-represented in our datasets.
Given a background corpus α and a sport s, we cal-
culate the log-odds ratio ws between that two classes,
male, m and, female, f . The log-odds for a word in
any sport corpus can be calculated as follows:
m +α
yw f
yw
(m−f ) s w s + αw
δw s = log − log
nm + α0 − (yw
m +α )
s w nf + α0 − (yw s + αw )
Here nm is the size of the male corpus, n is f
the size of the female corpus, yw m is the count of
s
f
word w in corpus m for a sport s and similarly yw s If the gender of the players was not a significant fea-
is the count of word w in corpus f for a sport s.
α0 is the size of the background corpus and αw is the
frequency of word w in the background corpus. For
Men Women
Basketball 480 459
Baseball/Softball 736 766
Ice Hockey 222 151
Lacrosse 84 115
Volleyball 66 465
Soccer 172 287
TABLE IV: The Number of Games played
our background corpus, we wanted to use a corpus
which is not derived solely from news articles as this
might add an unwanted bias, and we opted for the
Brown Corpus[8]. An unwanted artifact of our retrieval
method is the over representation of player names in
our document sets, so in order to minimize this, we
preprocessed our datasets to remove the detected first
name, last name filter combinations
IV. R ESULTS
A. Coverage
Out of the 4,296 documents that were retrieved,
2,427 were labeled as male and 1,869 were labeled as
female. One could argue that this difference in coverage
might be a product of the fact that the men’s teams
have played more games in the 2017 season than their
female counterparts. In order to investigate this claim,
we aggregated the total number of games that each
university played (see Table IV). In total 4003 games
were played and out of these 2243 were played by
women’s teams and 1760 by their male counterpart.
Basketball was the outlier in terms of the number of
articles published(see Fig 2). Both the men’s basketball
teams and the women’s basketball teams,compared to
all the other 10 sports, received a disproportionately
large amount of coverage for the number of games that
they played.
We calculated the correlation coefficient between
the men’s sports and the coverage they receive to
be 0.7555 and between the women’s sports and the
coverage they receive to be 0.9752(excluding basketball
in both cases). From this we can see that, separately,
the coverage both men’s and women’s sports received
f is strongly correlated with the number of matches they
(1) play. However when gender is ignored and both the
dataset are combined, the overall correlation coefficient
drops to 0.4099(excluding Basketball).
ture, then the correlation of the combined dataset would
have been similar to the correlation of the separate
datasets. The drop in correlation can be interpreted as
 Fig. 2: Relationship between number of games played and number of articles published
being indicative of the fact that the difference between
the numbers of articles published is gender dependent.
This gender bias is further illustrated in Figure 3, which
shows the proportion of articles that were published
for each gender for each sport and the proportion of
games played by each gender for each sport. From
Tables III and IV, it can be seen that even though
men and women played a comparable number of
baseball/softball matches, (49.0%, 51.0% respectively),
79.0% of the articles published were about baseball and
just 21.0% were about softball. This disparity is even
more extreme in case of lacrosse, in which even though
men played just 42.2% of the games, 80.8% of the
articles were published about the men’s team. The only
exceptions to this trend are basketball and volleyball. In
the case of basketball, 51.1% of the games were played
by the men’s team and 47.6% of the articles were about
the men’s team.
For men, lacrosse had the greatest difference(38.6%)
between the proportion of games played and the num-
ber of articles published. In case of women the greatest
difference was for volleyball. Women played 87.6% of
the volleyball games and were covered in 93.8% of
the articles, a difference of 6.2%. Overall it can be
observed that women are underrepresented in 4 out of
the 6 sports under consideration.
We represent the relationship between the number of
articles and games played, for both genders, using the
linear regression models shown in equations 2 and 3.
Am = 0.5489Pm + 127.49 (2)
Af = 0.1272Pf + 89.99 (3)
in the above equations, Am and Af represent the
number of articles published about men’s and women’s
teams respectively and Pm and Pf represent the number
of games played by men’s and women’s teams respec-
tively.
It can be seen from the above models that, on
average, for every one game that a men’s team plays
about 0.5489 articles are published but for every one
game that a women’s team plays, only 0.1272 articles
are published.
B. Content
In order to analyze the linguistic difference in the
contents of the documents, for each sport pair, we
ranked all the words according to their log-odd scores
(equation 1). In order to avoid the bias created by the
over representation of our search filters, we removed
all the filter terms. We retrieved the top 10 and the
bottom 10 ranks. The top 10 ranks represented words
that were statistically over-represented for the male
datasets, and the bottom 10 ranks represented words
 (a) Proportion of articles published for each gender
Fig. 3: Gender and Proportionality
that were statistically over-represented for the female
datasets. Table V shows the 10 most over represented
words for each gendered sport.
Using the consensus of a grad student and a domain
expert we were able to classify the retrieved words into
three distinct types.
Type I: Technical Words: a word that is associated
with the sport, it can include technical terms like
‘netminders’, location names like ‘layola’ or events and
trophies named after past players like ‘Naismith’ and
‘tenpac12’.
Type II: Player Names: Since our dataset does not
contain the keywords we used to filter the documents,
this type of words include instances of just a player’s
first name like ‘cara’ or last name like ‘seider’, or of
names of players on opposing teams, or names of play-
ers who professionally play the sport like ‘olofsson’.
Type III: Unrelated Words: This type includes
words not directly related to the sport like ‘barack’
Using this classification we can observe that the top
9 over represented words for Baseball were all Type II,
whereas for softball all the words were Type I. It can
also be seen that for all sports, the male sports had an
over representation of Type II words.
One explanation of this over representation of Type II
words can be that articles which cover women’s sports
are more focused and primarily discuss one individual
player (the filter word), while for men’s sports the
articles are more diverse and do not just talk about one
player but also discuss the opposing teams. This would
explain the occurrences of names like ‘Jaylon’ who
played basketball at the University of Evansville, which
is not in the Big Ten. The occurrences of professional
players like ‘Olofsson’ can be interpreted as indicative
of the fact that players on men’s teams are more likely
(b) Proportion of games played by each gender
to be compared to professional players and mentioned
in the same article as them.
From the sample of top 10 words, it can be observed
that the out of the 32 names present in the male corpus,
only one;‘kevin’, was a first name. For women 3 out of
the 13 names were first names. This result seems to be
consistent with the findings of[14], who in their study
of media coverage of cross-country skiing reported that
commentators used men’s first names 5.1% of the times
and in comparison women’s first names were used
21.5% of the times. While last names were used 29.1%
of the times for men and 18.2% of the times for women.
The disproportionate use of first names for women
can be understood using the semiotics framework pro-
posed by [6]. In this context, the use of first names
can symbolize informality. [11] argues that members of
dominant groups are more often referred to formally;
using their last names, while the subordinate members
are referred to more informally, thus creating a power
differential. Language can be used as a tool to reinforce
social power. In this context the disparity in the medias
use of language underscores sports as a masculine
activity and projects womens participation as anomic
as sports are incongruent to the female stereotype.
V. D ISCUSSION AND L IMITATIONS
As discussed in the previous section, more type I
words are used in relation to women than they are
to men. The use of language can be considered to be
ideologically mediated [2], and one could argue that the
over use of type I words stems from the newspapers
perception of their audience. The newspapers might
believe that the readership of the articles about female
athletes themselves are not well versed in the nuances
of the sport and the use of technical terms is to help
 rosenbaum
californias

followup
blaisdell

watkins
Women

aanhpi
revzen

viejo
lorin
this audience better understand the sport. Conversely

aclu
in case of the mens sports, the use of more Type II
might signify that the newspapers believe that sports
saintfrancis

jovanovski
Volleyball

boogaard
are an integral part of the habitus[4] of the readers and

mcgrath
Reagan

wilkins

gillies
Mens
as such they do not need to explain the technicalities to
Men

bray
Li
their audience. If sports are perceived as a masculine
Goalscorers activity, then women athletes are considered outsiders

Netminders
Hardfought
Secondbest

with not as power as their male counterparts. Language

Women

josephs
starters
Libero
can be used as a tool to signal and reinforce the power
boyle

Katy

Cara
of male athletes in the sporting world.
Using an unsupervised approach, we were able to
Ice Hockey

TABLE V: Statistically over-represented represented gendered words in each sport

answer the two research questions we had initially set
potterfield

szmatula
olofsson
calgary

topline
out to explore.
dumba
disney
Men

lhes

RQ1: Is there a quantitative difference in the

csu

ahl

amount of coverage that women sports get as

Onegoal

compared to men sports?

Women

Skillset
Scorers

Barack
Libero

loyola
Cara

Rick

Our findings (see IV-A) found that there is indeed

Nov
usa

a statistical difference in the amount of coverage that

the two genders receive. And if both the men’s and
zuckerberg

hennepin

Threerun
freeland

women’s teams play the same number of games, the

kislyak

renfroe
Soccer

godley
stanek

torey

men’s teams on average receive 4.32 times more cov-

Men

lhp

erage than their female counterparts.

RQ2: Is there a statistical difference in the kind
cummings

Type III: Unrelated Words

everyones

Type I Technical Words

Type II Player Names
sparking
rescigno

mindset
Women

of language used in the coverage of women sports,

11of18
Bushs
top20

Legend:
ashs

compared to men’s sports?

uni

We have observed (see IV-B) that the articles about

women’s sports are more likely to mention the players’
metrodome
skywalker
Lacrosse

bannons

redskins

first names and are more likely to explain the various

fivestar

stinner
howen

sydow
brandi

kevin

basics of the sports and subsequently are more likely

Men

to assume less knowledge amongst the readership .

While the articles about men are more likely to use
mccutcheon
14thranked

the players’ last names and are less likely to explain

naismith
Women

andone

hurdler
boxing
11seed
touted

perrys

basic concepts.
8of8

Overall our findings are consistent with previous

studies conducted on professional level sports[12]. One
tournamentncaa

major take away from our work is that it shows that

supersectional

sportswright

gender bias is present even at non-professional levels,

Basketball

skywalker

statencaa

and it can only be minimized by putting in a collective

braggin
peoria

jaylon
wentz
Men

effort at all levels from the most basic to the most

uis

professional.
At this point we would like to acknowledge, that
spokeswoman

Backandforth
allconference

Sevengame

our work is not exhaustive enough as it relies on just

Midseason
basepaths

mankato
Women

12 sports and considers only 14 out of potentially 1300

Out-hit

Redhot
Mitt

colleges. It is also limited in terms of its temporal scope

as it only focuses on the coverage from the year 2017.
Base/Softball

VI. F UTURE W ORK

struttmann
tenpac12
rowson

browns
leidner

In the future we would like to scale up our work

cullen
seider

diggs
klans
Men

staal

to include a retrospective study that looks at how the

differences in coverage and language have changed
over the years. We would also like to perform a more
exhaustive analysis of all 1300 colleges.
Our current work analyzes the text of the articles at
a word level. In the future we would like to expand this
and use LIWC[16] to analyze the text at an attribute
level3 .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Lily Smith, the Visual Arts
Director at The Daily Iowan for helping us with the
domain knowledge required to interpret Table: V.
VII. C ONTRIBUTIONS AND L ESSONS
A. Quentin Lee
Wrote the second progress report, coordinated group
members on their responsibilities for the progress re-
ports.
“I learned the process of sifting through large
amounts of data to narrow down the data to manageable
amounts so that that data can then be processed and
analyzed. I also learned more about writing scientific
papers that apply to computer science topics and what
is necessary to make sure that the paper is a high
enough quality to be comparable to published scientific
papers.”
B. Jessica Ip
Counted the raw number of articles that are relevant
to each school for each sport and for both genders.
Created charts that compared the number of articles per
city with each sport and the number of articles per city
with the revenue of the school. Analyzed the number of
articles with the win/loss ratio of each sport and given
that some schools do not have the team for the sport
we are analyzing, those are given 0-0 as the entry.
“The revenue of each school does not necessarily
indicate that the school will receive more attention from
newspapers: Ohio St and Michigan have the highest
revenues, respectively, out of the Big Ten schools, but
the number of articles that pertain to the school does
not reflect that statistic. Additionally, there is no direct
correlation between the publicity a school gets and the
performance of its teams. Because the condition of the
newspaper data is that any newspaper based in the city
of the Big Ten counts towards its article count, larger
cities receive more hits than smaller cities. Minneapolis
is the largest city in the Big Ten and therefore there are
more article hits because there are more newspapers
3
In this context we define the classes used by LIWC as attributes
that report on the athletics in that city, but that does
not accurately reflect the performance of the team.”
C. Kwunming Pang
Collected raw scores for the log-odds ratios, did the
literature survey.
“I learned a lot of things in the project, including how
to communicate and work with the team members, as
well as the process to do a research.”
D. Osama Khalid
Wrote this entire report, and basically did all the
non-trivial work and most of the trivial work as well,
including but not limited to designing the algorithms,
running the experiments and tabulating the results
Since I have written this entire report, all the dis-
cussions and inferences in this report represent my
learning.
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