Manufacturing processes:

Manufacturing is a mechanical process used to convert or to produce a raw material in to some

useful product.
Classification of manufacturing processes:
1. Machining Processes
2. Joining Processes
3. Deforming Processes
All these processes are discussed below-
1) Machining Processes
A product is geometrically finished material as per the specification. To achieve this any one of
the machining process is used. Machining process is a metal cutting process, in which finished
product is obtained by removing the excess material from raw material or work piece. For
machining suitable cutting tool must be used.
The property of material having an ability to machine easily is called as machinability. Various
machining processes such as turning, drilling, milling, shaping etc are used to remove excess
material from work piece. However all machining processes generate chips during the process.
Eg. turning, drilling, milling, shaping etc.

2) Joining Process:
Products requiring the joining/assembly of two or more parts of two metals or non metal are
usually joined by one of the joining processes The joining processes are the secondary
manufacturing processes where the starting raw materials Processed by some primary
manufacturing, processes such as casting, forging, forming etc.
Various joining processes are-
For metals: welding, brazing, soldering, nuts and bolts, screwing and riveting etc.
For non metals: chemical bonding such as adhesive.
These joining processes essentially involve joining pieces either permanently or temporarily so
that they perform the necessary function.
Methods of Joining:
1 Permanent Joining: Welding, brazing and soldering.
2 Temporary Joining: Screw fastening with nut, bolts and screws.
3 Semi-permanent or Mechanical joining: Pressing and rivets.
 4 Adhesive bonding: by employing synthetic glue such as epoxy resin.
Welding is a process in which two or more metals (materials) different are permanently united
by a metal bond fusion. Bond may be accomplished with or without application of pressure,
and with or without filler metal.
Heat is essential. Thus, a wide variety of welding processes have been developed in which the
combination Pressure and temperature range from high pressure with no temperature to high
temperature with no pressure. The large no. of materials like metals, their alloys and also other
materials such as thermoplastics can be weld.
Various approaches to obtain a satisfactory weld are as follows:

 Heat one metal until it flows into the surface of another - Soldering, Brazing.
 Heat all surfaces to be welded to a liquid state-Gas and Arc welding.
 Apply heat and pressure-Resistance and Forge welding.
 Apply pressure at room temperature-Cold welding.
 Slide one metal over another at high speed-Friction welding.
 Vibrate surfaces together at a high frequency-Ultrasonic welding.
 Use electron beam, laser beam, plasma are and exothermic reactions — other modern
methods.
The choice of a particular fabrication method depends on a number of factors as follows:
1 Type of assembly: permanent, semi-permanent or temporary.
2 Materials being joined: steel, cast iron, aluminum etc.
3 Economy to be achieved.
4 Serviceconditions: temperature, environment.
5 Type of Loading: Heavy loading, impact.

Welding:
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them
to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material.
Welding is used for making permanent joints.
It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine
frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
Welding is the fusion or uniting of metal pans by heat and pressure.
Types :
 1) Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together
by external pressure
2) Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify
Classification of welding processes:
(i). Arc welding : Carbon arc , Metal arc, Metal inert gas,Tungsten inert gas , Plasma arc,
Submerged arc ,Electro-slag.
(ii) Gas Welding : Oxy-acetylene , Air-acetylene ,Oxy-hydrogen.
(iii) Resistance Welding: Butt, Spot ,Seam ,Projection, Percussion.
(iv)Thermit Welding.
(v)Solid State Welding : Friction ,Ultrasonic,Diffusion ,Explosive.
(vi) Newer Welding : Electron-beam ,Laser.
1) Arc welding:

Equipments:
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.) ,Two cables- one for work and one for
electrode, Electrode holder, Electrode ,Protective shield, Gloves ,Wire brush, Chipping hammer
,Goggles.
• Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material and method of
moving torch.
 • The temperature generated during the process is 3300 0C.
• When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch combines with
molten metal and forms oxides, results defective weld
• Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides.
• Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and borax.
• Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid, solid coating or gas.

Gas welding:
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
• Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather)
surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)
• Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent
blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
• Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron
• If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the
envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame
• Has the highest temperature about 34000c
• Used for welding brass and brazing operation
Disadvantages of welding:

1) Welding gives out harmful radiation (light), fumes and spatter.

2) Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces.

3) Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold and position the parts to be welded.

4) Edge preparation of the work-pieces is generally required before welding them.

5) A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.

6) Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded joint is not same as that of
parent metal.

7) A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat-treatment.

WELDING AS COMPARED TO RIVETING &CASTING:

1) in many fields welding has replaced riveting and casting processes.

a) Bridges, ships and boilers which were previously riveted are now welded.

b) Many of the machine tool beds which were earlier cast are now fabricated using welding.

2) Advantages of welding:

a) Welding is more economical and much faster as compared to both casting and riveting. -

b) Welded M.S. structures has more tensile strength and rigidity than cast iron ones.

c) Welding can join dissimilar metals and thus in a complicated structure (depending upon strength),
different parts of the structure can be fabricated with different materials.

d) For the same complexity of a component, the design of a welded structure is simpler as compared to
that Cast pan. Standard rolled sections help considerably in fabricating different structures by welding.

e) Being noiseless as compared to riveting, welding finds extensive use, when making modifications,
addition
Extension in buildings such as offices, hospitals, schools.

f) Since no patterns are involved, the chances of obsolescence are negligible. Also cost of pattern making

Storing is eliminated.

g) Fabrication by welding involves less inventory, less man-power and much less handling.

h) Against riveted construction welding fabrication involves less cost.

i) Complicated Structural shapes parts not easily obtainable with riveting or casting can be produced by
well without much difficulty.

j) Welding design involves lower costs and it is very flexible also.

k) Fabrication by welding saves machining costs involved in cast parts.

l) Welded pressure vessels are more (fluid and) pressure tight as compared to riveted ones. Moreover,

Pressure tightness, the rivets must be caulked. Welding can produce a 100 % efficient joint which is
difficult make by riveting.

m) Welded structures are comparatively lighter than corresponding riveted ones as it does not require c

Plates, connecting angles, gusset plates, etc.

n) Welding can be carried out at any point on a structure, but, riveting always requires enough
clearance.

o) Drilling holes in the plates in order to accommodate rivets, breaks material continuity and weakens a
rivets structure.

p) Cost of standard rolled sections is much less as compared to that of a casting with the result that well

Structures involve less material costs.

q) Welded structure can be modified or altered without much difficulty.

r) Riveting high strength steels presents the problem s of acquiring high strength steel rivets.

s) Old structures can easily be reinforced by welding.

t) Advantages of Casting:

Screw Fastening: The joining obtained by bolts and screws is temporary in nature and can be
disassembled when required.
Riveting: Rivets are semi-permanent fastening devices and the joint can be separated only by destroying
the Rivet without harming the parent elements. These types of mechanical fastening involve making
holes in the mating parts which are to be properly accounted for, at design stage.
Adhesive Bonding: Adhesive bonding is the process of joining materials with the help of adhesives. An
Adhesive is a substance that fastens or bonds the materials to be joined by means of surface
attachment. Most adhesives are available in liquid, paste or granular forms.

Braze welding:

The process in which the filler metal is not distributed in the joint by capillary action but is deposited as
a bead is termed as braze welding.

Soldering (soft soldering):

a) The filler metal which melts at the temperature lower than 425 °C is known as ‘solder’ & the
process in which it is used is known as soft-soldering or simply soldering.
b) Soldered joints do not resist corrosion to the same extent that brazed or welded joints do.

Soldering :

1) Soldering is a quick and useful method of making joints in light articles made from steel, copper and
brass andwire joints such as occurs in electrical work. Thus when two similar or dissimilar metals are
joined by a third non-ferrous fusible alloy at a temperature lower than 4250c, the process is termed
soldering.

2) lt should not be used where much strength is require (Fe3d, or in cases where the joint will be
subjected to vibration or heat, as solder is comparatively weak and has a low melting point.

3) Soldering alloys are of low strength and melt at lower temperature w.r.t. the parent metals. In
soldering process, the strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the filler metal used. The tensile
strength of such joint is extremely low & average strength does not exceed 20 N/mm2

4) Its normally used for obtaining a neat leak-proof joint or a low resistant electrical joint. When wider
surfaces are joined by soldering the process is termed sweating.

5) Soldering is mainly used for tin, zinc, lead and galvanized plates, electrical connections on laps and
seams or on the narrow surfaces. Metals such as brass, copper, nickel, aluminum, steel, iron, are also
sometimes soldered.

6) The soldered joints are not suitable for high temperature service because of the low melting
temperatures of the, filler metals used.

7) A blow torch or soldering iron constitutes the equipment for heating the base metals and melting the
solder and the flux.

Brazing (Hard Soldering):

1) Brazing is a process in which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by a non-ferrous filler metal
or an alloy,which melts above 425 °C but below the melting point of base metal. Where much higher
strength is required, an alternative is brazing, where the joining metal -employed is brass, a harder,
 stronger and more rigid metal than solder. Spelter generally called " speller " and its composition
dependsthe spelter shall have a lower melting point than the Steel.
2) The filler metal which has the melting point higher than 425 °C is known as ‘spelter’ and the process
in which it is used is known as brazing or hard soldering.
3) Spelter may be obtained in the form of sticks, or in a granular state when it may be mixed with the
flux before being applied to the joint. lf it is used in this form, the granules should not be too fine or
they may fuse and oxidize away instead of melting into the joint. .

4) The temperatures of the various hard solders vary from about 600 to 900 °C.

Principle of operation :

a) Brazing involves the melting of a comparatively low melting point filler material against the base
metal pieces to be joined while they are clean and free from oxides & oils. It is not necessary to melt the
base metal.

b) The molten (brazing) filler material wets the base metal surfaces, spreads along the joint (to be
brazed) by capillary action, and adheres and solidifies to form the brazed joint.

c) Capillary flow plays a major role in producing good basements, provided the base metal surfaces are
wet by the molten filler material.

d) The flux which is employed during brazing melts at a lower temperature than the brazing filler
material, wets the surfaces to be brazed, removes the oxide film & gives clean surfaces.

Advantages of Brazing

a) Any metal can be brazed.

b) Joint is clean and gives a stronger joint than soldering
c) lt gives a pressure-tight joint, especially copper brazed joint where light clearance is kept and
deep penetration of the spelter into the point is obtained.
d) lt has high thermal and electrical conductivity.
e) As the temperature involved in brazing is not high, the problem of distortion and residual
stresses is low.
f) Brazing operation can be mechanised, thus, it has a large scope in fabrication work.
g) A combined brazing and heat treatment can be carried out.
h) The most distinct benefit of the brazing technique, however, is the high production rate.
i) Pieces of greatly different thickness can be easily joined.

Difference between Brazing and Welding:

1) Surfaces to be brazed are not raised to fusion point, rather the joint is produced by the solidification
and adhesion of a thin layer of molten filler metal to closely-adjacent mating surfaces; whereas in
welding, the two surfaces to be joined are actually melted.

2) The brazing alloy spreads by capillary action.

3) The molten brazing filler alloy spreads along metal if the joint whereas molten filler metal in welding
solidifies almost at the same place where it melts. For this reason, welded bead shows ripples whereas a
brazed joint does not Difference between a welded joint and a brazed joint.
4) A very important difference between welded joint and a brazed joint is the penetration. A welded
joint achieves penetration into the base metal Whereas there is no penetration into base metal in the
case of brazed joint.