Imp Emf Equations

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Physics Department
Physics 8.07: Electromagnetism II December 18, 2012
Prof. Alan Guth
FORMULA SHEET FOR FINAL EXAM
Exam Date: December 19, 2012
∗∗∗
Some sections below are marked with asterisks, as this section is. The asterisks
indicate that you won’t need this material for the quiz, and need not understand it. It is
included, however, for completeness, and because some people might want to make use
of it to solve problems by methods other than the intended ones.
Index Notation:
·B
A = Ai Bi , ×B
A i = "ijk Aj Bk , "ijk "pqk = δip δjq − δiq δjp
det A = "i1 i2 ···in A1,i1 A2,i2 · · · An,in
Rotation of a Vector:
Ai = Rij Aj , Orthogonality: Rij Rik = δjk (RT T = I)
j=1 j=2 j=3
 
i=1  cos φ − sin φ 0 
 
Rotation about z-axis by φ: Rz (φ)ij = i=2 


 sin φ cos φ 0 



i=3 0 0 1
Rotation about axis n̂ by φ:∗∗∗
R(n̂, φ)ij = δij cos φ + n̂i n̂j (1 − cos φ) − "ijk n
ˆ k sin φ .
Vector Calculus:
∂
Gradient: ϕ)i = ∂i ϕ ,
(∇ ∂i ≡
∂xi
Divergence: ∇
·A
≡ ∂i A i
Curl: × A)
(∇ i = "ijk ∂j Ak
· (∇
ϕ) = ∂ 2ϕ
Laplacian: ∇2 ϕ = ∇
∂xi ∂xi
Fundamental Theorems of Vector Calculus:
b
Gradient: ϕ · d, = ϕ(b) − ϕ(a)
∇

a

Divergence: ∇
·A
d3 x = · da
A
V S
where S is the boundary of V

Curl: (∇ × A) · da =
· d,
A
S P
where P is the boundary of S
8.07 FORMULA SHEET FOR FINAL EXAM, FALL 2012 p. 2
Delta Functions:

ϕ(x)δ(x − x ) dx = ϕ(x ) , ϕ(r )δ 3 (r − r ) d3 x = ϕ(r )

d dϕ
ϕ(x) δ(x − x ) dx = −
dx dx x=x

δ(x − xi )
δ(g(x)) = , g(xi ) = 0
i
|g (xi )|

r −
r 1
∇
·

= −∇2 = 4πδ 3 (r − r )
|r − r | 3 |r − r |
x
r̂j j 1 δij − 3r̂i r̂j 4π
∂i 2
≡ ∂i 3 = −∂i ∂j = 3
+ δij δ 3 (r)
r r r r 3

· 3(d · r̂)r̂ − d = − 8π (d · ∇
∇ )δ 3 (r )
r3 3

× 3(d · r̂)r̂ − d = − 4π d × ∇
∇ δ 3 (r )
r 3 3
Electrostatics:
F = qE , where

1
(r − r ) qi 1 (r − r )

E(r ) = = r ) d3 x
3 ρ(
4π"0 i |r − r |3 4π"0
|r − r |
"0 =permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10−12 C2 /(N·m2 )
1
= 8.988 × 109 N·m2 /C2
4π"0
r
1 ρ(r ) 3
V (r ) = V (r 0 ) − E(r ) · d, =
d x

r0 4π"0 |r − r |
∇
·E = ρ , ∇
×E = 0, = −∇V
E
"0
ρ
∇2 V = − (Poisson’s Eq.) , ρ = 0 =⇒ ∇2 V = 0 (Laplace’s Eq.)
"0
Laplacian Mean Value Theorem (no generally accepted name): If ∇2 V = 0, then
the average value of V on a spherical surface equals its value at the center.
Energy:

1 1
qi qj 1 1 ρ(r )ρ(r )
W = = d3 x d3 x
2 4π"0 rij 2 4π"0 |r − r |
ij
i=j

1 1 2 3
W = 3
d xρ(r )V (r ) = "0 E
d x
2 2
Conductors:
= σ n̂
Just outside, E
"0

2 σ |E|outside
1
Pressure on surface:
Two-conductor system with charges Q and −Q: Q = CV , W = 12 CV 2
N isolated conductors:

Vi = Pij Qj , Pij = elastance matrix, or reciprocal capacitance matrix

j

Qi = Cij Vj , Cij = capacitance matrix

j
a a2
Image charge in sphere of radius a: Image of Q at R is q = − Q, r =
R R
Separation of Variables for Laplace’s Equation in Cartesian Coordinates:

cos αx cos βy cosh γz
V = where γ 2 = α2 + β 2
sin αx sin βy sinh γz
Separation of Variables for Laplace’s Equation in Spherical Coordinates:

Traceless Symmetric Tensor expansion:

1 ∂ 2 ∂ϕ 1
∇ ϕ(r, θ, φ) = 2
2
r + 2 ∇2θ ϕ = 0 ,
r ∂r ∂r r
where the angular part is given by

1 ∂ ∂ϕ 1 ∂ 2ϕ
∇θ ϕ ≡
2
sin θ +
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2
() ()
∇2θ Ci1 i2 ...i n ˆ i2 . . . n̂i = −,(, + 1)Ci1 i2 ...i n̂i1 n̂i2 . . . n̂i ,
ˆ i1 n
()
where Ci1 i2 ...i is a symmetric traceless tensor and
n̂ = sin θ cos φ ê1 + sin θ sin φ ê2 + cos θ ê3 .
General solution to Laplace’s equation:

∞
()

() C
V (r ) = Ci1 i2 ...i r + i1+1
i2 ...i
rî1 r̂i2 . . . r̂i , where r = rr̂
r
=0
Azimuthal Symmetry:

∞
B
V (r ) = A r + +1 { ẑi1 . . . ẑi } r̂i1 . . . r̂i

r
=0
where { . . . } denotes the traceless symmetric part of . . . .
Special cases:
{1} = 1
{ ẑi } = ẑi
{ ẑi ẑj } = ẑi ẑj − 13 δij

{ ẑi ẑj ẑk } = ẑi ẑj ẑk − 1
ẑi δjk + ẑj δik + ẑk δij
5

{ ẑi ẑj ẑk ẑm } = zî ẑj ẑk ẑm − 71 ẑi ẑj δkm + ẑi ẑk δmj + ẑi ẑm δjk + ẑj zˆk δim
1

+ ẑj ẑm δik + ẑk ẑm δij + 35 δij δkm + δik δjm + δim δjk
Legendre Polynomial / Spherical Harmonic expansion:
General solution to Laplace’s equation:

∞

Bm
V (r ) = Am r + +1 Ym (θ, φ)
r
=0 m=−
2π π
Orthonormality: dφ sin θ dθ Y∗ m (θ, φ) Ym (θ, φ) = δ δm m
0 0
Azimuthal Symmetry:
∞

B
V (r ) = A r + +1 P (cos θ)
r
=0
Electric Multipole Expansion:
First several terms:

1 Q p · rˆ 1 r̂i r̂j
V (r ) = + 2 + Q ij + · · · , where
4π"0 r r 2 r3

Q = d x ρ(r ) , pi = d x ρ(r ) xi Qij = d3 x ρ(r )(3xi xj −δij |r |2 ) ,
3 3

dip (r ) = − 1 ∇ p · r̂ 1 3(p · r̂)r̂ − p 1
E = − pi δ 3 (r )
4π"0 r2 4π"0 r 3 3"0
×E
∇ dip (r ) = 0 , dip (r ) = 1 ρdip (r ) = − 1 p · ∇δ
·E
∇ 3 (r )
"0 "0
Traceless Symmetric Tensor version:

∞
1
1 ()
V (r ) = +1
Ci1 ...i rî1 . . . r̂i ,
4π"0 r
=0
where

() (2, − 1)!!
Ci1 ...i = ρ(r ) { xi1 . . . xi } d3 x (r ≡ rr̂ ≡ xi eî )
,!
∞

(2, − 1)!! r
1
= { r̂i1 . . . r̂i } r̂i1 . . . r̂i , for r < r
|r − r | ,! r +1
=0
(2,)!
(2, − 1)!! ≡ (2, − 1)(2, − 3)(2, − 5) . . . 1 = , with (−1)!! ≡ 1 .
2 ,!
Reminder: { . . . } denotes the traceless symmetric part of . . . .
Griffiths version:
∞
1
1
r ρ(r )P (cos θ ) d3 x

V (r ) = +1
4π"0 r
=0
where θ = angle between r and r .

∞

r
∞
1 1
= <
P (cos θ ) ,
+1
√ = λ P (x)
|r − r | r> 1 − 2λx + λ2
=0 =0

1 d
P (x) = (x2 − 1) , (Rodrigues’ formula)
2 ,! dx
1
2
P (1) = 1 P (−x) = (−1) P (x) dx P (x)P (x) = δ
−1 2, + 1
Spherical Harmonic version:∗∗∗

∞
1

4π qm

V (r ) = Ym (θ, φ)
4π"0 2, + 1 r +1
=0 m=−

∗
where qm = Ym r ρ(r ) d3 x

1 4π r ∗
= Y (θ , φ )Ym (θ, φ) , for r < r
|r − r | 2, + 1 r +1 m
=0 m=−
Electric Fields in Matter:
Electric Dipoles:

p = d3 x ρ(r ) r
r δ 3 (r − r d ) , where r d = position of dipole
ρdip (r ) = −p · ∇
= (p · ∇
F )E
=∇ (p · E) (force on a dipole)
= p × E (torque on a dipole)
U = −p · E

Electrically Polarizable Materials:

P (r ) = polarization = electric dipole moment per unit volume
ρbound = −∇ · P , σbound = P · n̂
≡ "0 E
D +P
, ·D
∇ = ρfree , ×E
∇ = 0 (for statics)
Boundary conditions:
⊥ ⊥ σ ⊥ ⊥
Eab ove − Ebelow = Dab ove − Dbelow = σfree
"0

E above − Ebelow = 0 Dabove − Dbelow = Pabove − Pbelow
Linear Dielectrics:
= "0 χe E,
P χe = electric susceptibility
" ≡ "0 (1 + χe ) = permittivity, = "E
D
"
"r = = 1 + χe = relative permittivity, or dielectric constant
"0
N α/"0
Clausius-Mossotti equation: χe = , where N = number density of atoms
1 − Nα
30
or (nonpolar) molecules, α = atomic/molecular polarizability (P = αE)

1 ·E d3 x
Energy: W = D (linear materials only)
2
Force on a dielectric: F = −∇ W (Even if one or more potential differences are
held fixed, the force can be found by computing the gradient with the total
charge on each conductor fixed.)
Magnetostatics:
Magnetic Force:
F = dp ,
+ v × B)
= q (E where p = γm0v , γ=
1
dt 1− v2
c2

=
F Id, × B
= J × B
d3 x
Current Density:

Current through a surface S: IS = J · da
S
∂ρ
Charge conservation: = −∇
· J
∂t
Moving density of charge: J = ρv
Biot-Savart Law:

µ0 d, × (r − r ) µ0 K(r ) × (r − r )
B (r ) = I = da
4π |r − r |3 4π |r − r |3

µ0 J(r ) × (r − r ) 3
= d x
4π |r − r |3
where µ0 = permeability of free space ≡ 4π × 10−7 N/A2
Examples:
= µ0 I φ̂
Infinitely long straight wire: B
2πr
Infinitely long tightly wound solenoid: B = µ0 nI0 ẑ , where n = turns per
unit length
0, z) = µ0 IR2
Loop of current on axis: B(0, ẑ
2(z 2 + R2 )3/2
r ) = 1 µ0 K
Infinite current sheet: B( × n̂ , n̂ = unit normal toward r
2
Vector Potential:

)coul = µ0 J(r ) 3 =∇
×A
A(r d x , B , ∇
·A
coul = 0
4π |r − r |
∇
·B
= 0 (Subject to modification if magnetic monopoles are discovered)
(r ) = A(
Gauge Transformations: A r ) + ∇Λ(
r ) for any Λ(r ). B
=∇
×A
is
unchanged.
Ampère’s Law:

∇
×B
= µ0 J , or equivalently · d, = µ0 Ienc
B
P
Magnetic Multipole Expansion:
Traceless Symmetric Tensor version:

∞
µ0
() { r̂i1 . . . r̂i }
Aj (r ) = Mj;i1 i2 ...i
4π r +1
=0

() (2, − 1)!!
where Mj ;i1 i2 ...i = d3 xJj (r ){ xi1 . . . xi }
,!

Current conservation restriction: d3 x Sym(xi1 . . . xi−1 Ji ) = 0
i1 ...i
where Sym means to symmetrize — i.e. average over all

i1 ...i
orderings — in the indices i1 . . . i
Special cases:
, = 1: d3 x Ji = 0

, = 2: d3 x (Ji xj + Jj xi ) = 0
r ) = µ0 m × r̂
Leading term (dipole): A( ,
4π r 2
where
1 (1)
mi = − "ijk Mj;k
2

1 1
m
= I r × d, = d3 x r × J = Ia ,
2 P 2

where a = da for any surface S spanning P
S
dip (r ) = µ0 ∇ ×m × r̂ µ0 3(m · r̂)r̂ − m

2µ0
B 2
= 3
+ δ 3 (r )
m
4π r 4π r 3
∇
·B dip (r ) = 0 , ∇
×B dip (r ) = µ0 Jdip (r ) = −µ0 m
×∇ δ 3 (r )
Griffiths version:
∞
µ0 I
1

A(r ) = (r ) P (cos θ )d,
4π r +1
=0
Magnetic Fields in Matter:

Magnetic Dipoles:

1 1
m
= I r × d, = d3 x r × J = Ia
2 P 2
Jdip (r ) = −m r δ 3 (r − r d ), where r d = position of dipole

×∇
F =∇ (m · B)
(force on a dipole)
=m ×B (torque on a dipole)
U = −m
·B
Magnetically Polarizable Materials:

M (r ) = magnetization = magnetic dipole moment per unit volume
Jbound = ∇ ×M , × n̂
bound = M
K
≡ 1B
H −M , ∇
×H = Jfree , ∇
·B =0
µ0
⊥ ⊥ ⊥ ⊥ ⊥ ⊥
Bab ove − Bbelow = 0 Hab ove − Hbelow = −(Mabove − Mbelow )

above − Bbelow = µ0 (K × n̂) above − Hbelow = Kfree × n̂
B H
Linear Magnetic Materials:
M = χm H,
χm = magnetic susceptibility
µ = µ0 (1 + χm ) = permeability, = µH
B
Magnetic Monopoles:
r ) = µ0 qm r̂ ;
B( Force on a static monopole: F = qm B

4π r 2
Angular momentum of monopole/charge system: L = µ0 qe qm r̂ , where r̂ points
4π
from qe to qm
µ0 qe qm 1
Dirac quantization condition: = h̄ × integer
4π 2
Connection Between Traceless Symmetric Tensors and Legendre Polynomials
or Spherical Harmonics:
(2,)!
P (cos θ) = { ẑi1 . . . ẑi } n̂i1 . . . n̂i
2 (,!)2
For m ≥ 0,
(,m)
Ym (θ, φ) = Ci1 ...i n̂i1 . . . n̂i ,
(,m)
where Ci1 i2 ...i = dm { û+ ˆ+
i1 . . . u îm+1 . . . ẑi } ,
im z

(−1)m (2,)! 2m (2, + 1)
with dm = ,
2 ,! 4π (, + m)! (, − m)!
1
and û+ = √ (êx + iêy )
2
∗
Form m < 0, Y,−m (θ, φ) = (−1)m Ym (θ, φ)
More Information about Spherical Harmonics:∗∗∗

2 + 1 ( − m)! m
Y£m (θ, φ) = P (cos θ)eimφ
4π ( + m)! £
where P£
m (cos θ) is the associated Legendre function, which can be defined by
(−1)m 2 m/2 d
£+m
P£m (x) = £
(1 − x ) £+m
(x2 − 1)£
2 ! dx
Legendre Polynomials:
SPHERICAL HARMONICS Ylm(θ , φ)
1
l=0 Y00 =
4π
3
Y11 = - sin θeiφ
8π
l=1
3
Y10 = cos θ
4π
1 15
Y22 = sin2 θe2iφ
4 2π
15
l=2 Y21 = - sin θ cosθeiφ
8π
5
Y20 = ( 32 cos2θ 1
2
)
4π
1 35
Y33 = - sin3 θe3iφ
4 4π
1 105
Y32 = sin2 θ cos θe2iφ
4 2π
l=3
1 21
Y31 = - sinθ (5cos2θ -1)eiφ
4 4π
Y30 = 7
( 5 cos3θ 3
cos θ)
4π 2 2
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Maxwell’s Equations:

(i) ∇ = 1ρ
·E (iii)∇ = − ∂B ,
×E
"0 ∂t

(ii) ∇
·B
=0 = µ0 J + 1 ∂E
×B
(iv)∇
c2 ∂t
1
where µ0 "0 =
c2
+ v × B)
Lorentz force law: F = q(E
∂ρ
Charge conservation: = −∇
· J
∂t
Maxwell’s Equations in Matter:
Polarization P and magnetization M
:
ρb = −∇
· P , Jb = ∇
×M
, ρ = ρf + ρb , J = Jf + Jb
Auxiliary Fields:

≡ B −M
H , ≡ "0 E
D + P
µ0
Maxwell’s Equations:

(i) ∇
·D
= ρf = − ∂B ,
×E
(iii)∇
∂t

(ii) ∇
·B
=0 (iv)∇ = Jf + ∂D
×H
∂t
For linear media:
= "E
D , = 1B
H
µ
where " = dielectric constant, µ = relative permeability

∂D
Jd ≡ = displacement current
∂t
Maxwell’s Equations with Magnetic Charge:

(i) ∇ = 1 ρe
·E ×E
(iii)∇ = −µ0 Jm − ∂B ,
"0 ∂t

·B
(ii) ∇ = µ0 ρm (iv)∇ ×B = µ0 Je + 1 ∂E
c2 ∂t

1
Magnetic Lorentz force law: F = qm B − 2 v × E

c
Current, Resistance, and Ohm’s Law:
J = σ(E
+ v × B)
, where σ = conductivity. ρ = 1/σ = resistivity
Resistors: V = IR , P = IV = I 2 R = V 2 /R
,
Resistance in a wire: R = ρ , where , = length, A = cross-sectional area, and ρ =
A
resistivity
V0 −t/RC
Charging an RC circuit: I = e , Q = CV0 1 − e−t/RC
R

EMF (Electromotive force): E ≡ (E · d, , where v is either the velocity
+ v × B)
of the wire or the velocity of the charge carriers (the difference points along the
wire, and gives no contribution)
Inductance:
Universal flux rule: Whenever the flux through a loop changes, whether due to a
changing B or motion of the loop, E = − dΦB , where ΦB is the magnetic flux
dt
through the loop
Mutual inductance: Φ2 = M21 I1 , M21 = mutual inductance

µ0 d,1 · d,2
(Franz) Neumann’s formula: M21 = M12 =
4π P1 P2 |r 1 − r 2 |
dI
Self inductance: Φ = LI , E = −L ; L = inductance
dt
Self inductance of a solenoid: L = n2 µ0 V , where n = number of turns per length,
V = volume
V0 R

Rising current in an RL circuit: I = 1−e L t
R
Boundary Conditions:
D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σf − E
E = 0
1 2
1 = P − P

E1⊥ − E2⊥ = σ −D
D 1 2 1 2
"0
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 −H
H = −n̂ × K
f
1 2

H1⊥ − H2⊥ = M2⊥ − M1⊥ −B
B 1
= −µ0 n̂ × K
2

Conservation Laws:

1 1 2
Energy density: uEM = "0 |E | +
2
|B|
2 µ0
Poynting vector (flow of energy): S = 1 E ×B

µ0
Conservation of energy:

d
Integral form: [UEM + Umech ] = − S · da
dt
∂u
Differential form: = −∇ ·S , where u = uEM + umech
∂t
1 1
Momentum density: ℘EM = 2 S ; 2 Si is the density of momentum in the i’th
c c
direction

1 1 1
Maxwell stress tensor: Tij = "0 Ei Ej − δij |E| + 2
Bi Bj − δij |B|
2
2 µ0 2
where −Tij = −Tji = flow in j’th direction of momentum in the i’th direction
Conservation of momentum:

d 1
Integral form: Pmech,i + 2 3
Si d x = Tij daj , for a volume V
dt c V S
bounded by a surface S
∂
Differential form: (℘mech,i + ℘EM,i ) = ∂j Tji
∂t
Angular momentum:
Angular momentum density (about the origin): ,EM = r ×℘EM = "0 [r ×(E × B)]

Wave Equation in 1 Dimension:
∂2f 1 ∂ 2f
− = 0 , where v is the wave velocity
∂z 2 v 2 ∂t2
Sinusoidal waves:
f (z, t) = A cos [k(z − vt) + δ] = A cos [kz − ωt + δ]
where
ω = angular frequency = 2πν ν = frequency
ω
v = = phase velocity δ = phase (or phase constant)
k
k = wave number λ = 2π/k = wavelength
T = 2π/ω = period A = amplitude
Euler identity: eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
Complex notation: f (z, t) = Re[Ae ˜ i(kz−ωt) ] , where Ã = Aeiδ ; “Re” is usually
dropped.
ω dω
Wave velocities: v = = phase velocity; vgroup = = group velocity
k dk
Electromagnetic Waves:

1 ∂ 2E
1 ∂ 2B
Wave Equations: ∇2 E
− =0, −
∇2 B =0
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂t2
Linearly Polarized Plane Waves:
(r , t) = E r −ωt)
˜0 ei(k·
E n
ˆ , where Ẽ0 is a complex amplitude, n̂ is a unit vector,
and ω/|k| = vphase = c.
n̂ · k = 0 (transverse wave)
= 1 k̂ × E
B
c
Energy and Momentum:
u = "0 E02 cos2 (kz − ωt + δ) , (k = k ẑ)

averages to 1/2
! " 1
= 1E
S ×B = uc zˆ , I (intensity) = |S|
= "0 E02
µ0 2
1 u
℘EM = 2 S = ẑ
c c
Electromagnetic Waves in Matter:
#
µ"
n≡ = index of refraction
µ0 "0
c
v = phase velocity =
n

1 |2 + 1 |B|
2
u= "|E
2 µ
= n k̂ × E
B
c
= 1E
S ×B = uc ẑ
µ n
Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence:
X
"1 E1⊥ = "2 E2⊥ = E
E ,
1 2 El ET
1 1
B1⊥ = B2⊥ B1 = B .
µ1 µ2 2 V1 V2
Bl BT
Incident wave (z < 0): Z
I (z, t) = Ẽ0,I e
E i(k1 z−ωt)
êx ER
BR
I (z, t) = 1 Ẽ0,I ei(k1 z−ωt) êy .

B
V1 Interface
v1
Y

Transmitted wave (z > 0):

T (z, t) = Ẽ0,T ei(k2 z−ωt) êx
E
T (z, t) = 1 Ẽ0,T ei(k2 z−ωt) êy .

B
v2
Reflected wave (z < 0):
R (z, t) = Ẽ0,R ei(−k1 z−ωt) êx
E
R (z, t) = − 1 E
B ˜0,R ei(−k1 z−ωt) êy .
v1
ω must be the same on both sides, so
ω c ω c
= v1 = , = v2 =
k1 n1 k2 n2
Applying boundary conditions and solving, approximating µ1 = µ2 = µ0 ,

˜ n1 − n2 ˜ 2n1 ˜0,I
E0,R = E0,I E0,T = E
n1 + n2 n1 + n2
Electromagnetic Potentials:

=∇
The fields: B ×A
, V − ∂A
= −∇
E
∂t
= A ∂Λ
Gauge transformations: A +∇
Λ , V =V −
∂t
1
Coulomb gauge: ∇
·A
=0 =⇒ ∇2 V = − ρ is complicated)
(but A
"0
Lorentz gauge: ∇ = − 1 ∂V
·A =⇒
c2 ∂t
1 = −µ0 J , 1 ∂2
2
V =− ρ, 2
A where 2
≡ ∇2 −
"0 c2 ∂t2
2
= D’Alembertian
Retarded time solutions (Lorentz gauge):

1 3 ρ(r , tr ) 1 r , tr )
3 J(
V (r , t) = d x , A(
r , t) = d x
4π"0 |r − r | 4π"0 |r − r |
where
|r − r |
tr = t −
c
Liénard-Wiechert Potentials (potentials of a point charge):

1 q
V (r , t) =
vp
4π"0 |r − r p | 1 − ·ˆ
c
(r , t) = µ0
A
qvp
=
vp
V (r , t)
4π |r − r p | 1 −
vp c2
c ·ˆ
where r p and vp are the position and velocity of the particle at the retarded
time tr , and
r − r p
= r − r p , = |r − r p | , ˆ =
|r − r p |
Fields of a point charge (from the Liénard-Wiechert potentials):
q |r − r p | 2
r , t) =
E( ( c − v 2
)u + (r −
r p ) × (u ×
a p )
p
4π"0 (u · (r − r p ))3
r , t) = 1 ˆ × E(
B( r , t)
c
where u = c ˆ − vp
Radiation:
Radiation from an oscillating electric dipole along the z axis:
p(t) = p0 cos(ωt) , p0 = q0 d
Approximations: d λ r,

p0 ω cos θ
V (r, θ, t) = − sin[ω(t − r/c)]
4π"0 c r
r , t) = − µ0 p0 ω sin[ω(t − r/c)] ẑ
A(
4πr
2

µ 0 p0 ω sin θ r , t) = 1 r̂ × E(
=−
E cos[ω (t − r/c)] θˆ , B( r , t)
4π r c
2
1 µ0 p0 ω 2 sin θ
Poynting vector: S = (E × B ) =
cos[ω(t − r/c)] r̂
µ0 c 4π r
! " µ p2 ω 4 sin2 θ $ 2% 1
= 0 0
Intensity: I = S r
ˆ , using cos =
32π 2 c r2 2
! " 2 4
Total power: P = · da = µ0 p0 ω
S
12πc
Magnetic Dipole Radiation:

Dipole moment: m (t) = m0 cos(ωt) ẑ , at the origin

µ0 m0 ω 2 sin θ r , t) = 1 r̂ × E(

E=− cos[ω(t − r/c)] φˆ , B( r , t)
4πc r c
m0
Compared to the electric dipole radiation, p0 → , θ̂ → −φ̂
c
General Electric Dipole Radiation:
(r , t) = µ0 [(ˆ
E r · p¨ )ˆ
r − p¨ ] , r , t) = 1 r̂ × E(
B( r , t) = − µ0 [r̂ ×p] ¨
4πr c 4πrc
Multipole Expansion for Radiation:
The electric dipole radiation formula is really the first term in a doubly infinite
series. There is electric dipole, quadrupole, . . . radiation, and also magnetic
dipole, quadrupole, . . . radiation.
Radiation from a Point Particle:
When the particle is at rest at the retarded time,
rad = q
E [ ˆ × ( ˆ × ap )]
4π"0 c |r − r |
2

rad = 1 |E
2 2
rad |2 ˆ = µ0 q a sin2 θ
Poynting vector: S ˆ
µ0 c 16π 2 c 2
where θ is the angle between ap and ˆ .

µ0 q 2 a 2
Total power (Larmor formula): P =
6πc
(valid for vp = 0 or |vp | c)
Liénard’s Generalization if vp = 0:
2
µ0 q 2 γ 6
v ×
a µ0 q 2 dpµ dpµ
P = a2 − =
6πc c 6πm20 c dτ dτ

For relativists only
Radiation Reaction:
Abraham-Lorentz formula:
2
rad = µ0 q ȧ
F
6πc
The Abraham-Lorentz formula is guaranteed to give the correct average energy
loss for periodic or nearly periodic motion, but one would like a formula
that works under general circumstances. The Abraham-Lorentz formula
leads to runaway solutions which are clearly unphysical. The problem of
radiation reaction for point particles in classical electrodynamics apparently
remains unsolved.
Vector Identities:
Triple Products
A . (B x C) = B . (C x A) = C . (A x B)
A x (B x C) = B(A . C) - C(A . B)
Products Rules
(f g) = f ( g) + g ( f)
∆ ∆ ∆
(A . B) = A x ( x B) + B x ( x A) + (A . )B + (B . )A
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
(f A) = f ( . A) + A . ( f)
∆ ∆ ∆
(A x B) = B . ( x A) - A . ( x B)
∆ ∆ ∆
x (f A) = f ( x A) - A x ( f)
∆ ∆ ∆
(A x B) = (B . )A - (A . )B + A ( . B) - B( . A)
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
Second Derivatives
∆ . ( x A) = 0
∆
x ( f) = 0
∆ ∆
x ( x A) = ( . A) - 2A
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆

MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu
8.07 Electromagnetism II
)DOO
For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.

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MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Vi = Pij Qj , Pij = elastance matrix, or reciprocal capacitance matrix

Qi = Cij Vj , Cij = capacitance matrix

Separation of Variables for Laplace’s Equation in Cartesian Coordinates:

Separation of Variables for Laplace’s Equation in Spherical Coordinates:

General solution to Laplace’s equation:

Legendre Polynomial / Spherical Harmonic expansion:

General solution to Laplace’s equation:

Electric Multipole Expansion:

First several terms:

Traceless Symmetric Tensor version:

Spherical Harmonic version:∗∗∗

Electric Fields in Matter:

Electrically Polarizable Materials:

Magnetic Multipole Expansion:

Traceless Symmetric Tensor version:

where Sym means to symmetrize — i.e. average over all

 dip (r ) = µ0 ∇  ×m × r̂ µ0 3(m  · r̂)r̂ − m

Magnetic Fields in Matter:

Jdip (r ) = −m  r δ 3 (r − r d ), where r d = position of dipole

Magnetically Polarizable Materials:

More Information about Spherical Harmonics:∗∗∗

SPHERICAL HARMONICS Ylm(θ , φ)

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Current, Resistance, and Ohm’s Law:

Mutual inductance: Φ2 = M21 I1 , M21 = mutual inductance

Poynting vector (ﬂow of energy): S = 1 E  ×B 

 I (z, t) = 1 Ẽ0,I ei(k1 z−ωt) êy .

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Transmitted wave (z > 0):

 T (z, t) = 1 Ẽ0,T ei(k2 z−ωt) êy .

Retarded time solutions (Lorentz gauge):

Liénard-Wiechert Potentials (potentials of a point charge):

Magnetic Dipole Radiation:

where θ is the angle between ap and ˆ .

Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.

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dip (r ) = µ0 ∇ ×m × r̂ µ0 3(m · r̂)r̂ − m

Jdip (r ) = −m r δ 3 (r − r d ), where r d = position of dipole

Poynting vector (ﬂow of energy): S = 1 E ×B

I (z, t) = 1 Ẽ0,I ei(k1 z−ωt) êy .

T (z, t) = 1 Ẽ0,T ei(k2 z−ωt) êy .

where θ is the angle between ap and ˆ .