225

CHAPTER: FIVE

The Role of Sucarita in the process of Nibbāna

5.1 Etymology of the Word Nibbāna

The term „Nibbāna‟ which occurs in the Pāli Conon and its commentaries

has been considered as difficult to interpret. Pāli commentators and

Buddhist and non-Buddhist scholars have given their definition of

Nibbāna to a variety of audiences who are curious to know what Nibbāna

is. However, their definitions and interpretations raise many divergent

conclusions. This is one reason why this study attempts to analyze a

number of interpretations of the scholars in order to make the concept of

Nibbāna and generate a more complementary definition of the term. Yet

this study may result in conclusions that are not always in harmony with

all Buddhist traditions. To know more about the fundamental teachings of

the Buddha and interpretations of Nibbāna, it is impossible to ignore the

structure of Buddhist literature and its significance, rather than dismissing

Buddhism as a concept of pessimism. The canonical texts contain

clarification of Buddhist views, when the concept of Nibbāna began and

how it is recognized for its significance. Without awareness of this, there

is no doubt that there may well be many questions about the doctrine of
 226

Nibbāna.

In the Abhidhammattha-saṃgaha, Nibbāna has been described as

one of the four paramattha-dhammas (ultimate realities). The word

paramattha is a combination of the two words: parama+attha. Parama

literally means ultimate, highest, final, attha means reality, and dhamma

means quality, nature of thing. Thus paramattha-dhammas are things of

nature that exist with their own intrinsic nature (sabhāva). These things

are the final, irreducible components of existence. According to the

Abhidhammattha-saṃgaha, paramattha-dhammas consist of four

components: citta (consciousness), cetasika (mental factors),

rūpa(matter), and Nibbāna (Nibban Burmese). Of the four, the first three

realities are conditioned and the fourth reality is unconditioned. This

means that Nibbhāna does not include the conditioned existence, since it

is the state of final deliverance form the suffering of existences. 1 In the

abhidhammattha-saṃgaha, four types of paramattha-dhamma are

recorded.

“Iti cittaṃ cetasikaṃ, rupaṃ Nibbāna-miccapi

Paramatthaṃ pakāsenti, catudhāva tathāgatā.”2

1
Ac-Ab, 52-27
2
Baddanta Anurudda thera, abbhidhammatthasangaha pali (Rongoon, Burma;
Deparment of Religious Affairs, 1993), 114.
 227

Thus as fourfold the Tathāgatas (Buddhas) reveal the ultimate

Reality: consciousness, mental factors, matter, and Nibbāna.

According to Buddhist texts, Nibbāna has only one essence of only

one intrinsic nature. This means tadetaṃ sabhāvato ekavidhampi-there is

only one characteristic of Nibbāna. What is the essential quality of

Nibbāna? This is: santi-lakkhanaṃ Nibbānaṃ, which means, “Nibbāna is

absolute peace or unconditional peace.”3

However, there are essentially two types of Nibbāna in the

Itivuttaka Pāli, Khuddaka-nikāya. The statement reads: Dvemā

bhikkhave Nibbānadhātuyo. Katamā dve? Saupādisesā ca Nibbānadhātu

anupādisesā ca Nibbānadhātu (Bhikkhus, there are these two Nibbāna-

elements (Nibbāna-dhātu). What are the two? They are (1) sa-upādisesa

Nibbāna dhātu (Nibbāna-element) with residue left and (2) Anupādisesa

Nibbāna-dhātu(the Nibbāna-element with no residue left).4 This means

that sa-upādisesa Nibbāna is a kind of experience of psychological

liberation. It is the release from suffering due to defilement in the

person‟s lifetime. Anupādisesa Nibbāna is another kind of experience of

biological liberation. It is release from all sufferings that are linked to the

five aggregates (corporeality, feeling, perception, mental-formation, and

3
Ac- Ab,260
4
Aahin janakābhivaṃsa Sayadaw, Abhidammattha-sangha-bhasa-tikā (Rangoon,
Burma, Deparment of Religious Affairs, 1979) 545
 228

consciousness) after entering the state of Nibbāna.

The word Nibbāna occasionally occurs in the Pāli Conon, but its

Pāli meanings are varied. According to PTS Dictionary, the word

Nirvāba with its root words, „nir+vā‟ was already in use in the Vedic

period. The meaning is “to blow” or “to put out” or “to extinguish.

“However, the application to the extinguishing of fire, that is, worldly

“fires” of greed, hatred, and delusion is the prevailing Buddhist

conception of the term. The word “Nibbhanti” appears in the Ratana

Sutta, Kh-N; Nibbanti dhirā yathāyaṃ padipo (the wise go out, as if the

lamp burns out). It means “to be extinguished” or “to be blown out.” In

this context, Nibbāna signifies the extinguishing of the worldly”fires” of

greed, hatred, and delusion.5

Etymologically, the word Nibbāna is a combination of the two

words: Ni+vāna in Pāli language. Ni here means “negation of”, or

“departure from”(nikkhantattā), and vāna means “craving”. In

Abhidhammattha vibhāvinī ṭīkā, the statement reads: saṃsibbanato

vānasankhātāya taṇhāya nikkhantattā (departure from the entanglement of

vāna or taṇhā (craving)6 this means “the absence of taṇhā(craving).” The

5
Itivuttaka Pāli, Khuddaka-Nikāya (Rangoon, Burma: Department of Religious
Affairs, 1972), 221
6
Khuddakapātha Pāli, Khuddaka-Nikāya (Rangoon, Burma: Department of Religious
Affairs, 1972) 221
 229

combination of the two words “ni+vāna” means” departure from

craving.” According to Pāli grammatical form, before the word vāna

another word va is grammatically combined with it. And the word vāna

becomes a combination word, va+vāna=vvāna. Then the word vvāna

becomes bbāna grammatically. Thus it is understood that the word

ni+bbāna becomes the formal Pāli word Nibbāna. Ti means departure

from craving.7

However, in the doctrine of the “four Noble Truths,” the Buddha

stated that nirodha-saccā (the Truth of the Cessation of Sufferings) is the

Third Noble Truth, which is considered to have the same meaning as

Nibbāna, recorded in the Mahāstipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Di-N. the statement

reads as follows:

“Katamanca bhikkhave dukkhanirdhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ. Yo tassāyeva

taṇhāya asesavirāga-nirodho cāgo paṭinissaggo mutti anālayo…etthesā

taṇhā pahīyamānā pahīyati.ettha nirujjhamānā nirujjhati. Idani vuccati

bhikkhave dukkhanirodhaṃ ariyasaccaṃ”

What, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering? It is

the complete fading-away and extinction of this craving, its forsaking and

abandonment, liberation from it, detachment from it… and there this

7
Baddanta Sumingalasāmi-thera, Abhidhammatthavibhavinī-tikā (Rangoon, Burma:
Deparment of regious Affairs, 1990), 216
 230

craving comes to an end, there its cessation comes about. And that,

monks, is called the Noble truth of the Cessation of suffering.8 In this

textual context, according to the commentary of the Mahāvagga Pāli, the

word nirodha is synonymous with the word Nibbāna. In the state of

Nibbāna, taṇhā (craving) has completely ceased. Thus, the word Nibbāna

is understood to have the same meaning with Nirodha in this case. The

Pāli statement reads as follows: asesavirāganirodho-ti-ādīni sabhāni

Nibbānavevacanāneva (the words, asesavirāga and nirodha etc are

synonymous with the word Nibbāna)9 therefore, it is said that the word

nirodha has the same meaning sa Nibbāna in the context of Nirodha-

saccā.

No matter what names or synonyms are employed, the essence of

Nibbāna is only one, that is, santi-lakkhana ( absolute peace). Yet the

word Nibbāna can have many names: for example, asesavirāga (complete

cessation of craving), asesanirddha (extinction of craving), cāga

(forsaking), paṭinissagga (abandonment), mutti (liberation), anālay

(detachment), rāgakkhaya (extinction of lust), dosakkhaya (extinction of

hatred), mohakkhaya (extinction of delusion), taṇhakkhaya (extinction of

desire), anuppāda (non-becoming), appavatta (non-continuance), animtta

(signless), appaṇihit (desireless), anāyūhana (non-action), appaṭisandhi

8
Ab-B-T,544
9
Ma-P, Di-N V0l.111,247,249
 231

(unborn), anupapatti (non-rebirth), agate (non-existence), ajāta

(unbecome) ajara (no-aging), abyādhi (non-sickness) amata (deathless),

aoka (non-sorrow) aparideva (non-lamentation) anupāyāsa (non-despair),

asaṃkiliṭṭha (taintlessness or purification) etc. the citation comes from the

commentary of Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta.10

As a matter of fact, the synonyms of Nibbāna are more than the

above names. The aforementioned statement has not yet counted some

common and useful synonyms of Nibbāna. For instance, here are some of

the words: Suññata (void), abhūta (nothingness), santi (peace), and khema

(safe, tranquil, or full of peace) in the Pāli literature. It would be

interesting to study synonyms for the word, Nibbāna. In fact, both the

Pāli and Sanskrit languages are, like English, rich in synonyms. Just as

in English there is the thesaurus, which gives many synonyms and

antonyms, so the Pāli and Sanskrit languages have similar kinds of

works, known as lexicons. There is a book in Pāli language, named

Abhidhānappadīpikā that shows different words that have the same

meaning. The greater part of the book is a collection of synonyms and the

book contains 1,203 verses, excluding the colophon. Synonyms for

Nibbāba are given in the book. There are altogether 46 different names

10
Di-N-NT,347-348
 232

for the word Nibbāna.11

In Buddhist literature, every now and then, the word asaṃkhat has

been also used to describe the meaning of Nibbāna. Asaṃkhata is also

synonymous with the word Nibbāna. Etymologically, the word

asaṃkhata is a combination of the two words: a+sankhata in Pāli

language. A here means “negation of” and sankhata means “conditioned”.

This means: paccayehi abhisankhatattā sankhataṃ; (Things, such as the

five aggregates, are conditioned due to certain circumstances). The

circumstances include kamma (action), citta (mind), utu (temperature or

weather), and āhāra (food). In this regard, asankhata here means “non-

conditioned” or “unconditioned.”12

The word asankhata is present in the Mahāpari Nibbāna Sutta. The

statements show how the word asankhata (unconditioned) and Nibbāna

(absolute peace) are related to one another from the point of view of the

etymological context. The statement reads as follows:

“Parububbute bhagabati saha parinibbānā sakko devānamindo

imaṃ gāthaṃ abhāsi; aniccā vata sankhārā, uppādavayadhammino,

uppajjitvā nirujjhanti, tesaṃ vūpasamo sukho.13

11
Bhaddanta Buddhagosa Thera, Mahāvā-atthakathā (Rangoon, Burma, Department
of Religious Affairs, 1992).390
12
DI. N-A Vol.11, 390
13
Abhidhanappadipika (Rangoon, Burma: Department of Religious Affairs, 1990),
3-4
 233

At the blessed lord Buddha,s final passing, Sakka, ruler of the

devas, uttered this verse: impermanent are compounded things, prone to

rise and fall, having risen, they‟ re destroyed, their passing truest bliss.14

The phrase, „tesaṃ vūpasamo sukho‟ (their passing truest bliss),

seems to be unclear in this context. Therefore, the commentator,

Buddhaghosa, clarified the meaning of asnkhata in the commentary of

Mahāvagga, that is, Mahāvagga-aṭṭhakathā.

“Tesaṃ vūpasamo-ti tesaṃ sankhārā naṃ vūpasamo, asankha-

taṃ Nibbānameva sukhaṃ-ti attho‟. 15

“tesaṃ vūpasamo” (their passing truest bliss) means since all

sankhāras ( compounded things) have ceased, the state of Nibbāna that is

the unconditional state ( asankhata) that is considered to be the truest bliss

(santi-sukha)16 in this context, the word Nibbāna and the word asnkhata (

the unconditioned) have the samw meaning, just the words are different.

With regard to the meaning of Nibbāna it is understood that if something

is subject to be conditioned, then whatever is born (jāta), become (bhūta),

and compounded (sankhata) is subject to decay; no one can wish that it

cannot be, that it does not decay. However, Nibbāna is not subject to the

conditional things, that is, decay, birth or becoming. The statement

14
Ab-B-t, 481.
15
. Ma-P, Di-N 129-130
16
Di-NNT,271
 234

delivered by the Buddha reads: yaṃ taṃ jātaṃ bhūtaṃ sankhataṃ

[alokadhammaṃ, taṃ vata māpalujjī-ti. Netaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati ( Whatever

is born, become, compounded is subject to decay, it cannot be that it

does not decay.17 It is clear that Nibbāna has many canonical contexts to

define its meaning.

5.2 Nibbāna and Early Buddhist Concept

In historical context, there is no doubt that early Indian religious

traditions were influenced by the conception of Moksha. At that time, the

concept of Maksha was considered to be the highest goal of life for the

Indian traditions. Yet within Indian traditions, the different schools differ

with regard to the nature of Mukti, the means for its realization, and

Moksha, the experience of release, because of their different

metaphysical positions and attitudes. In Jainism, Moksha literally means

release. This means that it is the liberation of the soul from evil and from

further transmigrations.18

In general, liberation from suffering or sins are a conception of

religions. In this context, Buddhism proclaims its goal, which is to attain

Nibbāna or liberation (mutti or vimutti). Since the Buddha began to give

17
Ma-p, Di-N, 129-130
18
Jaina Ramjee Singh, “Moksa in Indian Philosophy: A perspective in Jaina
Philosophy and Religoion. 2002.
 235

the very first talk to his audience, he emphasized the significance of

Dukkha-nirodha-saccā (Truth of cessation of suffering). In this regard,

the word dukkha-nirodha can be also interpreted as liberation. Buddhists

attempt to seek the way of liberation in order to obtain absolute peace,

that is, freedom from death and rebirth. Thus Buddhists have a religious

dream that is to attain the psychological and biological liberation.

Regarding the interpretation of Nibbāna, there was a concept of early

Buddhism that provided its Nibbānic view with the two chief disciples

statements. The two chief disciples: venerable sāriputta and venerable

Moggallāna interpreted Nibbāna as a deathless state. One, while looking

at a show, the two men named Upatissa and kolita, who later became

Ven. Sāriputta and Ven. Moggallāna respectively, deeply realized the

insubstantiality of things in life. Consequently, they decided to renounce

household life and search for the way of liberation.19 However, before

they renounced all things, they promised one another to inform each

other, if one had attained the state of deathlessness. In this context,

Buddhists are able to understand what the meaning of Nibbāna is.

“Tena kho pana samayena sāriputtamoggallānā sañcaye

paribbājike Brahmacariyaṃ caranti. Tehi katikā katā hoti yo pathamaṃ

19
Bhaddanta Buddhaghosa-thera, Dhammapada-atṭhakathā, (Rangoon, Burma:
Burma Pitaka Association, 1986), 52-73.
 236

amataṃ adhigacchati, so itarassa āroceti-ti”.20

While venerable Sāriputta and Venerable Moggallāna were

residing under the guidance of the ascetic teacher named Sañcaya, they

made a promise to one another saying thus, “if one has attained first the

state of the deathless, then the one ought to inform the latter.

Though early Buddhists could understand what the significance of

Nibbāna or liberation meant to them based on canonical context, the

concept of liberation from birth and death could raise a philosophical

question for modern Bddhists. Their statement about the idea of liberation

is a religious concept, but it contains a critical issue. How does one link

the two things: enlightenment (arahatta-magga-phala-ñāṇa), which

practically links to the word Nibbāna, and liberation? A man who has

enlightened intuition can see the world with all its tragic circumstances as

the basic reality. Such a person wishes to get free of this suffering world;

such a person wishes to free the mind with the power of wisdom. Wisdom

or enlightenment can remove craving, which links the tragic world to one

self. Moreover, wisdom can see that if there is a man who has enlightened

intuition in this life, the man no longer needs to pass through a series of

lives, including that of gods (deva), spirits (petas), human beings

20
Mahavagga Pāli, vinay Pitaka, Khuddhaka-Nikāya ( Rangoon, Burma: Department
of Religious Affairs, 1972), 50
 237

(manussa), animals (tiricchānas) and other lower being. Realixing the life

process of a being, Buddhists postulate that the role of enlightenment is

an essential Buddhist concept for liberation.

What is the concept of state of enlightenment? In this case, the

state of enlightenment can be understood as the realization of truths of a

state of mind, which is liberation Ted from defilements. There is no

longer a tendency to cling to anything through the power of

enlightenment. Here is one relevant statement, which is addressed by the

Buddha to his disciples regarding the subject of enlightenment. The

statement reads:

“Vimuttasmiṃ “vinutta” miti ñāṇaṃ hoti, “khīṇtā jāti, vusitaṃ

brahmacariyaṃ, kataṃ karanīyaṃ, nāparaṃ itthatthāyā” ti pajātīti.

Idamavoca bhagava, attamanā pañcavaggiyā Bhikkhū bhagavato

bhāsitaṃ abhinanduṃ imasmiṃ ca pana veyyākaraṇasmiṃ bhaññamāne

pañcavaggiyānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ anupādāya āsavehi cittāni

vimucciṃsuti”21

When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: “It‟s liberated.”

He understands: “Destroyed is birth, the holy life has been lived, what

had to be done has been done, there is no more for this state of being.”

21
Khandhayagga-Pāli, Sanytta-Nikāya ( Rangoon, Burma: Department of Religious
Affairs, 1991), 56.
 238

That is what the Blessed one said. Elated, these bhikkhus (monks)

delighted in the Blessed One‟s statement. And while this discourse was

being spoken, the minds of the bhikkhus of the group of five were

liberated from the taints by no clinging.22

The above statement is considered to be a psychological viewpoint

of Nibbāna rather than a philosophical viewpoint. If the statements are

assumed as a psychological realization, then the essence of Nibbāna must

be characterized as nāma (mental entity). Could Buddhist scholars

recognize the state of Nibbāna as nāma? Yes, it is so recognized. Yet

Nibbāna is also described as a sequence of purifications. To know the

sequence of purifications is to understand the content of enlightenment

based on the chain of Dependent Origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) or path

of purification. These two aspects will be discussed later in this work.

Usually Buddhist literature attempts to describe the state of Nibbāna as a

sequence of purification as if contains no greed (lobha), no hatred (dosa)

and no delusion (moha) which are considered to be the fundamental roots

of the defilements. In the sīlakkhandhavagga-abhinava-tīkā,Di-N, the

defilements, such as greed (lobha), hatred(dosa), and delusion (moha), are

likened to prisons, because they cause those who cannot overcome the

defilements to get a lot of suffering. The canonical statement reads:

22
Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Descourses of the Buddha, 903
 239

anstthajananato visa-sankāsatāya kileso visaṃ ( defilements are likened to

poisons due to causing world lings (puthujjana) to get a great deal of

suffering).23 In reality, the poisons of defilements can harm oneself as

well as others. Not only that, but also the poisons create deadly

conditions for those who imbibe or touch them. Therefore, Buddhist

practitioners believe that if one is able to remove the defilements from

oneself, one can attain Nibbāna( absolute peace). Moreover, overcoming

the defilements through meditation is obtaining the “purification of

mind.” The way of approaching the sequence of purification relates more

or less to the psychological aspects of the mind. However, the early

Buddhist concept was that the state of enlightenment or the attainment of

Nibbāna was after all liberation from all sufferings due to eradication of

defilements (the unwholesome mental factors).

The Buddha spoke the following utterance for the very first time,

right after the moment of his attainment of enlightenment or Nibbāna.

The statement is affirmed to be the very first personal expression of the

Buddha. According to Sīlakkhandhavagga-aṭṭhakathā, there are three

groups of the Buddha‟s words: paṭhama-Buddhavacana (the first

utterance of the Buddha), majjhima-Buddhavacana ( the utterance of the

Buddha between all the teachings except the first and the last utterance)

23
Baddhanta Nanabhivamsa, Silakkhandhavagga-abhinava-tīkā , (Rangoon, Burma
Deparment of Religious Affairs, 1963), 74
 240

and pacchima Buddhavacana ( the last utterance of the Buddha). The

citation is: Sabbameva hidaṃ paṭhama-Buddhavacanaṃ majjhimaṃ

pacchima-Buddhavacanan-titippabhedaṃ hoti ( the Buddha‟s teachings

are divided into three groups: the very first speech, middle speech, and

the last speech).24 Of the three groups of the Buddha‟s utterance, the first

utterance of the Buddha is as follws:

“Anekajātisaṃsāraṃ, sandhāvissaṃ anibbisaṃ Gahakāraṃ

gavesanto, dukkhā jāti punappunaṃ. Gahakāraka diṭṭhosi, puna

gehaṃ na kāhasi. Sabbā te phāsukā bhaggā, gahakūṭaṃ

visaṇkhataṃ Visankhāragataṃ cittaṃ, tanhānaṃ

khayamajjhagā.”25

Seeking but not finding the House Builder, I hurried through the

round of many births:

Painful is birth ever and again.

O House Builder, you have been seen;

You shall not build the house again.

Your rafters have been broken up,

Your ridgepole is demolished too.

24
Bhaddanta Buddhaghosa-thera, Silakkhandhavagga (Sumangalavilaini) –atthakathā
(Rangoon, Burma Department of Religious Affairs, 1973), 16
25
Dhammapada-Pāli, Khukka Nikaya, (Rangoon, Burma Department of Religious
Affair, 1972),36
 241

My mind has now attained the unformed Nibbāna

And reached the end of every sort of craving.26

Here the statement contains some philosophical issues. The

Buddha uttered these words to himself. It is understood that no one can

remove craving from another. Only through the power of enlightenment

is craving removed. Craving exists in saṃsāra. If it is true that Nibbāna

does not exist in saṃsara, then how can one explain the relationship

between craving and Nibbāna. As a matter of fact, the power of

enlightenment sets the two things apart. Craving is linked to saṃsāra and

non-craving to Nibbāna where no rebirth exists. Thus it is understood that

where there is Nibbāna, there is no rebirth at all.

In the context of the three utterances of the Buddha, when the

Buddha was about to enter the final Nibbāna, called mahā-pariNibbāna,

the Buddha precisely addressed the significance of the Dhamma to his

disciple. These words of the Buddha are affirmed as the last utterance of

the Buddha: idaṃ pacchima-Buddhavacanaṃ, (this is the last sentence

that the Buddha spoke).

The statement is recorded in the mahā-pariNibbāna Sutta, Attha

kho bagavā bhikkhū āmantesi “ Handa dāni bhikkhave āmantayāmi vo.

26
Ñanali Thera‟s translation: Udānavatthu, Dhammapada Pāli, verses 153, Kh-N Vol.
1,36 Vi-p vol,11, 128
 242

Vayadhammā saṃkhārā, appamādena sampādethā” ti. Ayaṃ tathāgatassa

pacchima vācā27

Then the lord said to the monks: “ Now, monks, I declare to you:

all conditioned things are of a nature to decay-strive on untiringly” these

were the Tathāgata‟last words,28 moreover, early Buddhists postulated

that the Buddha is the most extraordinary example of the experience of

Nibbāna. He himself attained enlightenment and understood the essence

of Nibbāna through menditation. According to Buddhist texts, he attained

enlightenment by himself without any external help, striveing on

untiringly. He knew that it was not so easy for listeners of his teaching to

understand what Nibbāna really means. Therefore, at first the Buddha‟s

mind was inclined to inaction rather than to teaching the Dhamma,

because he knew that it was difficult to teach the Dhamma to these beings

who have much dust in their eyes, but he eventually preached to them out

of compassion. The following is the Buddha‟s reflection recorded in

Mahāpadāna Sutta.

“Adhigato kho myāyaṃ dhammo gambhīro duddaso duranubodho

santo Paṇīto atakkāvacaro nipuṇo paṇḍitavedanīyo, ālayarāmā kho

panāyaṃ Pajā ālayatā ālayasammuditā ālayarāmā kho pana pajāya

ālayatāya ālayasammuditāya duddasaṃ idaṃ ṭhānaṃ duddasaṃ yadidaṃ

27
Di-N, Vol. 11, 128.
28
Di-N-NT,170
 243

sabbasaṃrasamatho sabbūpadhipaṭinissaggo taṇhakkhayo virāgo

nirodho Nibbānaṃ ahañcava kho pana dhammaṃ deseyyaṃ, pare ca me

na ājāneyyuṃ, so mamassa kilamatho, sā mamassa vihesā-ti.”29

I have attained to this Dhamma which is profound, hard to see,

hard to grasp, peaceful, excellent, beyond reasoning (atakkāvacaro),

subtle, to be apprehended by the wise. But this generation delights in

clinging, rejoices in it and revels in it. But for those who so delight,

rejoice and revel in clinging this matter is hard to see, namely the

conditioned nature of things, or dependent origination. Equally hard to

see would be the calming of all the mental formations, the abandonment

of all the substrates of rebirth, the waning of craving, dispassion,

cessation and Nibbāna. And if I were to teach Dhamma to others and they

did not understand me, that would be a weariness and a trouble to me30

As we can see from this canonical context, this is one reason why

early Buddhists probably kept silent without generating and

argumentative problems regarding interpretations of Nibbāna. It is also

understood that the clear explanations of the Buddha, as well as ven.

Sāriptta, enlightened followers in a way in which Nibbāna was sirectly

seen as the final liberation. The concept of early Buddhist liberation may

be similar to other religious concepts of salvation or release in outer

29
Di-N Voll 11,31
30
Ibid, 213
 244

appearance, in the termas of language, but the concept of Nibbāna,

liberation in this sense, is defferent from the other religious followers,

interpretations. Canonical Interpretations of Nibbāna .Having known that

Nibbāna is liberation from all sufferings, one would emphasize the state

of liberation as the state of deathlessness. Since this theory is prominent

among the early Buddhists, they deny the concept of soul theory and its

state of eternity. They refuse to speak of any eternal beings including a

supreme Soul (Brahma) and the concept of a mighty god. The doctrines

of early Buddhism do not mention anything about the condition of

everlasting living beings. Instead of acceping the view of eternity, they

reject the concept of an eternal living entiy. The emphasis of their view is

that after an enlightened being (arahanta) enters the final state of

Nibbāna, his or her aggregates leave no substance. Because of this kind

of understanding, they may fell that it is not so important for them to

discuss the state of the enlightened beings after death. Yet their view

cannot escape from philosophical inquiry. The doctrines should explain

something about these matters, even if it may not be beneficial for

someone who has entered into the state of Nibbāna. Thus, some Buddhist

schllars attempt to interpret Nibbāna as void form the word Suññata in

Pāli, or as extinction from the word khaya, or as nothingness (abhāba),

and emptiness (tuccha).

 245

In reality, the state of Nibbāna has its own significance. However,

thinking of it with a secular mind that is naturally inclined toward sensual

pleasure is far away from the real essence of Nibbāna. And also it is

impossible for one who does not experience the state of Nibbānic

happiness to understand where the enlightened beings will be after

entering into the state of Nibbāna.

However, Buddhists believe that Arahants can know about their

property of self-realization. According to canonical text, the Arahants

know the supramundane object and the qualities of their realization

through their enlightened supramundane wisdom. Their experience is

likened to an analytical experiment in Buddhist logic. The following is

the Pāli passage addressed by the Buddha:

“Yato ca kho me bhikkhave imesu catūsu ariyasaccesu evaṃ

tiparivattaṃ dvādasākāraṃ ñāṇadassanaṃ suvisuddhaṃ ahosi, athāhaṃ

bhikkhave sadevake loke samārake sabrahmake sassamaṇabrāhmaṇyā

pajāya sedevamnussāya anuttaraṃ sammāsambodhiṃ abhisambuddhohi

paccaññāsiṃ, ñāṇañca pana me dassanaṃ udapādi, akuppā me vimmutti,

ayammantimā jāti, natthi dāni punabbhavo-ti.” 31

When my knowledge and vision of these Four noble truths as they

really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was thoroughly purified

31
Sa-N Vol.111,370-371
 246

in this way, then I claimed to have awakened to the unsurpassed perfect

enlightenment in this world with its devas, Māra, and Brahmā, in this

generation with its ascetics and Brahmins, its devas and humans. The

knowledge and vision arose in me: “Unshakable” is the liberation of my

mind. This is my last birth. Now there is no more renewed existence.32

As has been stated since the Buddha attained enlightenment, he

proclaimed, “This is my last birth.” This means that he was no longer

under the bondage of death after his death. In this regard, the Buddha

emphasized only liberation of mind through perfect enlightenment. Yet

there is a question that might remain in a listener‟s mind about his

teachings. People are keen to know whether or not the Buddha addressed

biological liberation and how that is related to the significance of

Nibbāna. The Buddha, indeed, addressed his disciple about this issue at

different times and in different locations.

The Buddha realized that a human possesses carita (personal

nature). This means that carita (vāthanā in Burmese) is the character of a

person, which is linked to his or her natural attitudes and conduct. “the

temperaments of people differ from the diversity of their past kammas.

The commentators satate that temperament is detetmined by the

32
Sa-N-NT Vol.11, 1846
 247

kamma productive of the rebirth-linking consciousness.”33 According to

the Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purificaton), there are briefly six types

of temperament (carita): rāgacarita (greedy temperament), dosacarita

(hating temperament), mohacarita (deluded temperament), saddhārcarita

(faithful temperament), and buddhicarit (intelligent temperament), and

vitakkacarita (speculative temperament). However Some will have

fourteen, taking these six single ones together with the four made up of

the three double combinations and one triple combination with the greed

triad and likewise with the faith triad. But if this classification is

admitted, there are many more kinds of temperament possible by

combining greed, etc, with faith, etc; therefore, the kinds of temperaments

should be understood briefly as only six.34

Based on their temperament, each individual will have personal

interest in worldly aspects as well as spiritual aspects of life. For instance,

in worldly conditions, one might like green, while the other prefers red to

other colors. In spiritual practice, some may appreciate the practice of

tranquility (aamatha) meditation (kammaṭṭhāna in Pāli , kammaṭṭhan in

Burmese), such as living-kindness meditation or the practice of

compassion, while some might prefer the practice of insight (vipassanā)

meditation to other meditatios. Realizing this situation, the Buddha used

33
Ac-Ab,330-331.
34
Vi-S, 101.
 248

his skillfulness in the Dhamma by addressing his teachings form different

perspectives for the sake of personal temperament. The Buddha

sometimes emphasized in his teachings not only the psychological

liberation, but also the biological liberation. Therefore, Nibbāna can be

understood as liberation that involves psychological and biological

liberation. There is a statement of the Buddha recorded in the Suttanipāta

Pāli.

“Akiñcanaṃ anādānaṃ, etaṃ dīpaṃ anāparaṃ Nibbānami-ti naṃ

brūmi, jarāmaccuparikkhajaṃ”.35

No fear is in the island, no clinging with greed is in the Island,

nothing is in refuge, but the island is Nibbāna. The island is somewhere;

that is free from aging and death.

In this context, Nibbāna is somewhere like a safe island, which is

free from death and all that is related to suffering. As has been

mentioned, the audiences are varied intellectually and psychologically so

that some may not understand the interpretation of Nibbāna as a

mentaphorical definition, although others may find it easy to understand

such metaphorical explanations. Regarding the interpretation of Nibbāna,

the Buddha‟s chief disciple, ven.sāriputta attempts to interpret what

35
Suttanipāta Pāli, Khuddhakanikāya (Rangoon, Burma: Department of Religious
Affairs. 1990).444
 249

Nibbāna means for the benefit of students. His statement is clear to some

and easy to understand for some Buddhist practitioners, since his

definition is very much besed on the psychological interpretation. His

interpretation of Nibbāna seems ideal to the wandering ascetic named

Jambukhādaka who asked him about Nibbāna. The statement is the

following recorded in Nibbāna-pañhā Sutta.

“Nibbānaṃ Nibbāna” nti āvuso sāriputta vuccati. Katamaṃ nu kho

āvuso Nibbānanti. Yo kho āvoso rāgakkhayo dosakkhayo mohakkhayo

īdaṃ vuccati “Nibbānan”ti”.36

Friend Sāriputta, it is said, “Nibbāna, Nibbāna.” What now is

Nibbāna? (Friend Jambukhādaka), the destruction of lust, the destruction

of hatred, the destruction of delusion: this is called Nibbāna.37

In this statement, Ven.Sāriputta‟s definition of Nibbāna is that

which is free from the defilements of lust, hatred and delusion. If one

harbors lust, hatred, and delusion, then one might create some problems

that generate more suffering. For him, if there were no defilements, there

would no longer be suffering. In reality, without attaining enlightenment,

it is impossible to destroy the power of lust, hatred, and delusion. Thus,

Ven. Sāriputta emphasized his statement that Nibbāna is the destruction

36
Sagāthāvagga Samyutta Pāli, Samytta-Nikāya ( Rangoon, Burma: Department of
Religious Affairs, 1991),447
37
Sa-N-NT Vol 11, N, 1294.
 250

of lust, hate and delusion. And then, he provided the way for the

realization of this Nibbāna with the Noble Eightfold Path; that is,

Sammā-Diṭṭhi (Right View), Sammā-sankappa (Right Aim), Sammā-

Vācā (Right Speech), Sammā-kammanta (Right Action), Sammā-Ājiva

(Right Livelihood), Sammā-Vāyama (Right Effort), Sammā-Sati (Right

Mindfulness), and Sammā-Samādhi (Right Concentraion).38

In addition, no matter how many definitions of Nibbāna occur in

canonical texts, there is only one characteristic that holds together the two

divisions of the canonical definitions fundamentally. Nibbāna is, after all,

a state of liberation. That liberation contains two divisions. One is

psychological liberation that is related to mind, while the other is

biological liberation that is related to the five aggregates, more precisely

to existence. Having realized this condition, Ven. Sāriputta drew out a

line of reasoning about Nibbāna, that is, a kind of conclusion of his

discourse. That is recorded in Paṭisambhidāmagga. The statement reads:

Uppādo sankhārā, anuppado Nibbānanti santipade ñāṇaṃ pavattaṃ

sankhārā, appavattaṃ Nibhānanti santipade ñāṇaṃ (Arising into existence

is sankhāra. The absence of becoming is Nibbāna. The process of

38
Ibid, 1293
 251

phenomena is sankhāra and the non-progress of phenomena is

Nibbbāna).39

In most cases, the technical term for the word sankhāra is translated

as “mental formation” in Buddhist texts, but here it means the opposite of

Nibbāna. According to Paṭisambhidāmagga, Nibbāna means “the absence

of becoming” or “the absence of existence.” In this context, it may be

understood that sometimes the meaning of Nibbāna may refer to

biological liberation.

5.3 Commentarial Interpretations of Nibbāna

As has been mentioned with canonical interpretations of Nibbāna,

the meaning of Nibbāna is understood with reference to what it means to

the audience. Pāli commentators believe that the canonical interpretations

are clear enough to understand what Nibbāna is. All Buddha‟s teachings

are very much based on theoretical application for their practical

foundation. However, it is pointed out that it is definitely not sufficient to

realize the true essence of Nibbāna unless one has a practical approach.

In fact, one is supposed to learn theory first, then one must apply the

theories to the practice for the sake of mental development. In this way,

39
Patisambhidāmagga Pāli, Khukkaka-Nikāya (Rangoon, Burma: Department of
Religious Affairs 1991) 58
 252

one can understand the significance of Nibbāna.

Pāli commentators made an important statement about realizing

the nature of Nibbāna. One must have a proper approach in practice in

order to understand the canonical interpretation of Nibbāna. They

strongly affirm in their statements that without the practice of meditation,

it is impossible to realize the true nature of Nibbāna or the experience of

enlightenment. To confirm their position, the commentator, Anuruddhā-

thera attempted to state his view with logical and practical sense in the

Abhidhmmattha-sangaha. The statement is as follows:

“Nibbānaṃ pana lokuttarasankhātaṃ catumggañāṇena

sacchikātabbaṃ Magga-phalānaṃ-ārammaṇbhūtaṃ vānasankhātāya

taṇhāya nikkhantattā Nibbāna-nti pavuccati.”40

Nibbāna is termed supramundane, and is to be realized by the

knowledge of the four paths.41 It becomes an object to the paths and

fruits, and is called Nibbāna because it is a departure from craving, which

is and entanglement.42

Based on the aforementioned statement, one can realize the nature

40
Bhaddanta Anuroddha thera, Abhidhammattha-sangaha-pāli (Rangoon, Burma:
Deparment of Religious Affairs, 1993).113
41
Bhaddanta Nyanatilaka-thera Buddhist Dictionay: manual of Buddhist Terms and
ctrines (Kandy, Srilanka: Buddhist Pulication Society,1988)
42
Ac-Ab 258
 253

of Nibbāna through lokuttara-citta (supramundane consciousness). One

can attain Nibbāna through loutttara-magga (Noble Path or the

transcendental state of the path). Who can ralize nature of Nibbāna?

According to Theravāda Buddhism, only enlightened being can truly

realize Nibbāna. In this canonical context, it is understood that the

property of Nibbāna belongs to only enlightened beings.

Buddhaghosa was the well-known commentator who lived in the

fifth century A.D. his most prominent work is the Visuddhimagga (The

Path of Purification) and Pāli canonical commentaries. He was able to

summarize the Ti-piṭkas (Three Baskets) by combining ancient

commentaries and making anew commentary, as and epitiome. Since

there is so much confusion in Buddhist doctrines concerning the concept

of Nibbāna, he attempted to readjust the aforementioned interpretation.

First, he analyzed the meaning of Nibbāna throught practice and then

clarified what Nibbāna meant to him. The most significant point of his

work is clear and concise. He had the ability to make a clear outline for

all teachings of the Buddha. The outline is: in order to attain Nibbāna or

enlightenment, one must fulfill the three training, sīla (morality or virtue),

samādhi (concentration) and pañña (wisdom). This is the essential

requirement for everyone who really wants to attain insight wisdom or

enlightenment. However, he did not ignore the necessary prerequisite

 254

requirements, such as pāramī (perfections) and saddhā (faith in the

Dhamma practice), and adhiṭṭhāna (resolution in the Dhamma practice).

His affirmation is as follows:

“Apica Nibbānaṃ natthī-ti na vattabbaṃ kasmā? Paṭipttiyā

vañjhabhāvāpajjanato. Asati hi nibbāne sammādiṭṭhipurejavāya sīlādi-

khan dhattayasangahāya sammāpaṭpattiyā vañjhabhāvo āpajjati na

cāyaṃ vañjhā Nibbānapāpanato-ti.” 43

Again, it should not be said that Nibbāna does not exist. Why not?

Because it then follows that the way would be futile. For if Nibbāna were

non-existence, then it would follow that the right way, which includes the

three aggregates beginning with virtue and headed by right

understanding, would be futile. And it is not futile because it does reach

Nibbāna.44

In the visuddhimagga, Buddhagosa precisely analyzed the

interpretation of Nibbāna and remarked that some people misunderstand

the concept of Nibbāna sa a hare‟shorn (sasa-visāna) which does not

really exist. He strongly rejected the concept of the non-existence of

Nibbāna, because it is apprehend able by the way of virtue (sīla),

43
Bhaddanta Buddhaghosa-thera, Visuddhimagga-atthakathā vol.11 (Rangoon,
Burma: Department of Rrligious Affairs, 1993)
44
The Path of purification: Visuddhimagga (1956; refrint, Kandy, Sri lanka Buddhist
Publication society, 1991)
 255

concentration (sammādi) and wisdom (paññā). He attempts to readjust

some former interpretations in order to get a better understanding. For

instance, he deals with the Ven.Sāriputta‟s interpretation of Nibbāna,

which stated that Nibbāna means rāga-kkhaya (extinction of craving or

destruction of lust). The statement reads as follws:

“yo kho āvuso rāgakkhayo” ti ādivacanato “khayo Nibbānan” ti ce.

Na, arahattassāpi khayamattāpajjanato. Tampi hi “yo kho āvuso

rāgakkhayo” to ādinā nayena niddiṭṭhaṃ.45

But is not Nibbāna destruction, because of the passage beginning “

that, friend, which is the destruction of greed…(of hate….of delusion…is

Nibbāna)” ? that is not so, because it would follow that Arahantship also

was mere destruction. For that too is described in the (same) way

beginning” that, friend, which is the destruction of greed…of hate… of

delusion…is arahantship”46

Regarding the issue of destruction, he refers back to the original

word rāgakkhaya, which means destruction. Buddhaghos argues that

khaya (destruction) does not refer toNibbbāna, but the aggregates of the

Arahants in Pāli, (yahantā-puggo in Burmese), that is, enlightened

beings. Enlightened beings destroy all defilements that have the kammic

45
Vi-M Vol. 11,139-140
46
Vi-M, 515
 256

power to generate new existences. He attempts to elucidate a clear

statement, providing the words of the Buddha as support. “Because it is

the word of the Omniscient One, Nibbāna is not non-existent as regards

individual essence in the ultimate sense; for this is said: „Bhikkhus

(monks), there is an unborn, an un become, an unmade, an unformed‟.”47

The Conclusion of his interpretation is: “Only this (that is,

Nibbāna) is permanent (precisely because it is uncreated); and it is

immaterial because it transcends the individual essence of matter. The

Buddha‟goal is one and has no plurality.”48 However, in this context of

the interpretation of Nibbāna, the presumably comtemporary

commentator Arahant Upatissa briefly State of attainment of the Original

is the state of Nirvāna. But Nirvāna is not something external and

altogether different from the wheel of Birth and Death, not is the reality

of the Buddha nature external to and altogether different from the

phenomenal world. Once one gains Sudden Enlightenment, the latter is at

once the former… The Enlightenment of Mahāyāna Buddhism is not to

be sought outside the Wheel of Birth and Death. Within it one is

enlightened by the affairs of birth and death.49

It is clear that both Buddhist traditions accord ignorance and

47
Ibid, 517
48
Ibid,516
49
N.R.M. Ehara, Soma Thera, and Kheminda Thera, trans. The Path of Freedom:
Vimuttimagga (1961; reprint, kandy, sri lanka: Buddhist publication Society, 995)
 257

important role as a hindrance to Nibbāna. Theravādin Buddhists often say

that the power of ignorance can hinder the way to the attainment of

Nibbāna. In this context, Mahāyāna Buddhists say the same thing as well.

“this is the meaning of common saying of Chinese Buddhism: „ when

ignorant, one is a common man; when enlightened, one is a sage.”50

Among the non-Theravāda Buddhist schools, the two most famous

ones are the Madhyamida (madhyamika) School and Yogācāra School.

The philosopher, Nāgarjuna established the Madhyamika School, also

known as the “Middle way.” He lived in the second century A.D.

Nāgarjuna emphasized doctrinal systems of philosophy and the method

he introduced used logic to understand Buddhism based on an

Abhidharma perspective (Abhidhamma, in Pāli). Unlike the method of

deconstruction in philosophy, his work used logic to reduce common

sense ideas with Abhidhamma philosophical analysis.

The yogācāra School, also known as “the mind Only School,

“cofounded by Asanga who lived in the fourth century A.D., emphasized

meditative practice to present the Buddha‟s Middle way by advocating

the practice of meditation to explore the essence of ultimate reality.

Unlike Nāgarjuna, Asanga‟s statement was that one‟s perceptions and

50
Fung Yu-Lan. A short History of Chinese Philosophy (New York: the free press,
1976)
 258

conceptions do not exist naturally and inherently, but they are “relative

phenomena” with cause and conditions.51

Nāgarjuna did not attempt to emphasize Nibbāna‟s characteristics

of freedom and non-rebirth, but his statement is to awaken one to ultimate

truth, that is, Nibbāna. He believed that the ultimate truth should be

explained by language as worldly truth is essential for understanding

ultimate truth.

Commented on Nibbāna in his own way in the Vimutti-magga (

The Path of Freedom). His emphasis is on “the utter fading away and

cessation of the very craving, leaving it, giving it up, the being delivered

from, and the doing away with it. Thus should be known the Noble Truth

of the Cessation of ill,”52 for him, the state of not coming to birth, not

perishing in nature, and realizing the Third Noble Truth, i.e., the cessation

of suffering or the ending of ill, is called Nibbāna. To sum up the

statement, the interpretation of Nibbāna by the commentator is clear and

concise. One can know the interpretation of Nibbāna from different

perspectives. These perspective tell us that Nibbāna is nothing but

freedom from kamma-vipāka (the resultants of past and present kamma)

and the bondage of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death or existences)

51
Asanga, Abhidhammasamuccaya: The Compendiun of the Higher Teaching
(Philosophy) Translated by Sara Boin-webb from the French translation of Walpola
Rahula (1971; reprint, Fremong, Clifomia:Ashin Humanities Press, 2001)
 259

generated by taṇhā (craving) or lobha (attachment) and ignorance (avijjā).

Thus the significance of liberation can be understood in many ways.

5.4.1 The way to Nibbāna (Road Map to Nibbāna)

The Buddha addressing the monks said:

“There is a Middle Path for the abandoning of craving and hatred,

giving vision, giving knowledge, which leads to peace, to direct

knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna, And what is that Middle Path?

It is just this Noble Eightfold Path.” The Noble Eightfold Path, otherwise

named as the Middle Path (Majjhima patipadā), consists of eight factors.

It is to be noted that although it is called path, it is not to be taken as a

gradual path giving a series of steps. The factors of the Path are inter-

related and to be practiced simultaneously. Those factors are mutually

inclusive and mutually supportive. The Path is, of course, described in

terms of three aggregates consisting of morality (sīla), concentration

(Samādhi) and wisdom (paññā), but does not mean that those three

aggregates are included in the Noble Eightfold Path. It is to be noted that

the Noble Eightfold Path is included by the three aggregates of morality,

concentration and wisdom. The question of the Noble Eightfold Path‟s

position in relation to three aggregates has been asked by Visakha from

 260

nun Dhammadinnā “Lady, are the three aggregates included in the Noble

Eightfold Path or is the Noble Eightfold path included in the three

aggregates?”

The Bhikkhuni replied:

“The three aggregates are not included by the Noble Eightfold,

friend Visakha, but the Noble Eightfold Path is included by the three

aggregates.”53

As to how it is included in the three aggregates of practice is

shown below.

The Noble Eightfold Path and Three Aggregates

1. Right Understanding (sammā diṭṭhi)

2. Right Thought (sammā sankappa)

3. Right Speech (sammā vācā)

4. Right Action (sammā kammanta)

5. Right Livelihood (sammā Ājīva)

6. Right Effort (sammā vāyama)

7. Right Mindfulness (sammā sati)

8. Right Concentration (sammā samādhi)

53
MN, I. pp.301-302
 261

The three factors, Right Speech, Right Action and Right

Livelihood are included in the aggregate of morality. The last three, Right

Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration are included in the

aggregate of concentration. The first two factors, Right Understanding

and Right Thought, are in the aggregate of wisdom.

Right Understanding is sometimes translated into English as

Right View. It is explained as the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths:

Suffering, Cause of Suffering, Cessation of Suffering and Noble

Eightfold Path. The entire Sammāditthi-sutta of the Majjima-nikaya is

devoted to the explanation of Right Understanding. The sutta was

delivered by Thera Sariputta to a group of monks who wanted to have

through understanding of the subject. Primarily three are two, external

and internal, factors conducive to Right Understanding. They are

1. Hearing from others (paratoghosa) and

2. Thoughtful reflection (yonisomanasikāra).

The hearing from others may include knowing from other sources

of information as well. When one comes to know the dhamma by any

source of information, he is asked to reflect thoughtfully what he came to

know. The exercise of thoughtful reflection leads one to understanding.

The information of dhamma one receives is the food for thought

 262

which one has to subject to careful scrutiny and analysis. It is the

intellectual grasp of what one has come to know through any means of

knowledge. It amounts to the understanding of the real nature of the

phenomenal existence. It is stated that when one understands that body,

sensation, perception, mental formations and consciousness are

impermanent, he is led to Right Understanding. Then he is convinced of

the efficacy of moral causation dealing with actions of moral significance

and their results (kammassakatañana) together with the knowledge of

correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths (saccānulomika-ñāna).

The knowledge of this stage is called „knowing accordingly‟ (anubodha),

because the understanding at this stage is still mundane Right

Understanding (lokiya-sammāditthi) and not yet free from defilements.

The penetrative knowledge of Right Understanding appears only

when one realizes one or the other of the four stages of sanctification:

Streamwinning, Once-returning, Non-returning and Arahanthood.23

The54 knowledge of Right Understanding at those stages is called

supramundane or transcendental Right Understanding

(lokuttarasammāditthi). The mundane Right Understanding comes under

54
Sanskrit arhat 'the consummate one', 'The Worthy One'. One of the titles applied
exclusively to the Buddha and the perfected disciples. As the books reveal, the first
application of the term to the Buddha was by himself. That was when the Buddha was
journeying from Gaya to Varanasi to deliver his first sermon to five ascetics. On the
way, not far from Gaya, the Buddha was met by Upaka, an ascetic,
 263

the purview of Noble Ones (ariyapuggala). This stage of understanding is

at the highest level and unshakable.

Right Thought is defined as having mainly three constituents:

renunciation or giving up of sensual enjoyment (nekkhammasankappa);

developing thoughts of loving kindness and goodwill without any kind of

anger and hatred (avyāda-sankappa); and practising amity and concord,

abstaining from violence (avihiṃsa-saṃkappa).

The thoughts must be free from lust and craving which hanker after

pleasures of the senses. Buddhism eschews any kind of violence. Hence

is the development of loving kindness and non-violence towards all living

beings. This shows that in addition to the practice of some of the other

factor the Path, Right Thought becomes meaningful in the context of

society.

Right Speech is the practice of correct speech, which amounts to

avoiding lying (musavāda) and adhering to truth; to abstaining from

talebearing or back-biting (pisuṇavācā) which paves the path for

dissension and disunity. Promoting social harmony, one must abstain

from using harsh language while cultivating courteous and gentle words

in communication; and should avoid irresponsible, vain talk such as

gossiping and speak only what is meaningful and conducive to one‟s and

others‟ welfare.
 264

Right Action deals with abstinence of three kinds of bodily

misconduct: taking life, theft and misappropriation, and sexual

misconduct. The mundane Right Action produces wholesome worldly

results whereas the practice of transcendental Right Action, avoiding

those misbehaviors completely with pure mind intent upon the Path, is

contributory to deliverance. Right Action guarantees the fundamental

human rights of right to live, right to possess and right to maintain sexual

relations within the confines of legally permitted boundary. Women

under the protection of father, mother, brother, sister or relatives, married

women, women under the ban of the king, engaged women and women

who are the temporary wives of others are mentioned as the women to be

avoided in sexual intercourse.

Right Livelihood is to reject wrong kinds of livelihood and live by

right means of livelihood. Wrong livelihood means gaining a living by

earning wealth by devising ways and means detrimental to sentient

beings. In this connection, usually five kinds of trade are mentioned in the

text. They are: trading in arms (satthavanijjā), human beings

(sattavanijjā), flesh (maṃsavanijjā), intoxicating drinks (majjavanijjā)

and poisons (visavanijjā).

Right Effort is the Four Great Efforts (cattarosammappadhānā). It

enjoins the putting forth effort consciously in four ways: to prevent the
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arising of unwholesome thoughts that have not yet arisen; to abandon

unwholesome thoughts that have already arisen; to develop wholesome

thoughts that have not yet arisen; and to maintain wholesome thoughts

that have already arisen by one who practices the Path of Emancipation.

Right Mindfulness deals with the four kinds of contemplation:

contemplation of the body (kāyanupassanā), of sensation

(vedanānupassanā), of mind (cittānupassanā) and of mind-objects

(dhammānupassanā). It is said in the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta “the disciple

dwells in contemplation of the body, of sensation, of mind and

mindobjects, ardent, clearly conscious and attentive, putting away,

worldly greed and grief.” This refers to the setting up of mindfulness in

four ways. The practice as given in the discourse leads to purity, to the

overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, to the end of pain and grief, to the

entering upon the correct path and the realization of Nibbāna.

Right Concentration is the attainment of meditative absorptions

(jhāna). There are five hindrances that obstruct the path of deliverance.

Through meditative absorptions one can overcome the five hindrances:

desire for sensual pleasure (kāmacchanda), illwill (vyāpada), sloth and

torpor (thina-middha), restlessness and worry (uddhacca-kukkucca) and

skeptical doubt (vicikicchā). When one attains the first meditative

absorption, these hindrances are destroyed by the psychic factors of the

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meditative absorption (jhānanga). Thus desire for sensual pleasure is

destroyed by one-pointeddness of the mind (ekaggatā), illwill by joy

(pīti), sloth and torpor by initial application (vitakka), restlessness and

worry by happiness (sukha) and skeptical doubt by sustained application

(vicāra). In the Angguttaranikaya the nature of five hindrances is

illustrated with an alluring simile.

Desire for sensual pleasure is like colored water; ill will is

compared to boiling water; sloth and torpor to water covered with moss

and weeds; restlessness and worry to water tossed and turbulent due to

wind; and skeptical doubt to muddy water.55 Just as in any one of these

instances one cannot see one‟s reflection, the mind overwhelmed by the

hindrances will not penetrate things as they really are.

5.4.2 The Middle Path in Relation To Social Welfare

Buddhist ethics has been sadly misunderstood by many to the

extent of saying that it is only a set of abstentions without any positive

cultivation of ethical practice. Here we propose to examine this

misconception in relation to the Middle Path taught in Buddhism and how

it is relevant to weal and welfare of society.

55
AN, V p.193
 267

Basically, the three factors of the path; Right Thought, Right

Speech and Right Action, which come under the aggregate of morality as

explained earlier have a direct influence on society. As one can clearly

see, social ethics in Buddhism is practicable only in relation to society

together. In other words, ethical and moral behavior prescribed in these

factors becomes meaningful only in the context of society. Also to a

considerable extent, social concern is implicit even in the other two

aggregates, concentration and wisdom, of the path of Buddhist practice.

Let us take Right Thought, the second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path.

When taken as whole, it is giving up the pursuit of sensual enjoyment,

developing thoughts of loving kindness and goodwill without an iota of

resentment, anger or ill will while practicing amity and concord free from

violence and cruelty which are instrumental in harming others.56

Right Thought is a factor to be developed and put into practice in

relation to society for the good and happiness of oneself and society.

Therefore the social implication of this factor is quite clear from the fact

that renunciation of personal enjoyment, giving up of thoughts of ill will

and abstinence from violence have to be practiced while one lives in

society. Hence when he develops and practices the right kind of thoughts

free from evil thoughts harmful to other beings, it is needless to say that

56
DN, II. p.312
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society is benefited by his moral conduct. Positively, develops love,

goodwill and amity, his attitude towards fellow human beings falls into

proper focus and he contributes in his personal capacity to the course of

welfare of society.

Now, let us take the third factor, Right Speech. As described in

many a discourse, he who practices Right Speech gives up false speech

and refrains from false speech; he speaks the truth (saccavādī), is reliable

(saccasandho), firm (theto) and as he is trustworthy (paccayika) he does

not deceive people.

He gives up back-biting and abstains from back-biting. If he has

heard anything here, he will not tell it elsewhere in order to cause

dissension among the people or if he had heard something there, he will

not tell it to the people hSere in order to cause dissension among the

people. Thus he becomes either a conciliator of enemies (bhinnānaṃ vā

sandhātā) or a supporter of the friendly (sahitānaṃ vā anuppadātā).

He rejoices in unity (samaggārāmo), delights in unity

(samaggarato), finds happiness in unity (samagganand´) and speaks

words that promote unity (samaggakarana´ vaccaṃ bhāsitāhoti) among

men.

He gives up harsh speech and refrains from harsh speech. He will

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speak words that are gentle (nela), pleasant to hear (kāmasukha), kind

(pemaniya), heart-stirring (hadayangama), polite (pori), agreeable to

many people (bahujanakanta), pleasing to many people (bahujanmanāpa).

He gives up gossiping and refrains from gossiping. He speaks at the

proper time (kālavādī), he speaks the truth (bhutavīdī), he speaks what is

useful (atthavādī), he speaks what is righteous (dhammavādī), he speaks

what is conducive to restrain (vinayvādī), he speaks words that are worth

remembering (nidhanavatiṃvacaṃ), well-groun he (sapadedaṃ),

purposeful (pariyantavatiṃ) and profitable (atthasamhitaṃ). Here what is

noticeable is, both the negative and positive aspects of Right Speech are

described in relation to society, ensuring both one‟s own welfare as well

as the welfare of society. As described earlier, the practice of the other

two factors of the path, Right Action and Right Livelihood, too, are

beneficial in two ways. The practitioner becomes morally good and

instrumental in bringing about social well being.57

5.5.1The importance of Sucarita for achieving Nibbāna

According to Nettippakaraṇa Pāli , body action and verbal action

belong to moral (Sīla) group58 . “Tīni sucaritāni kāya sucaritaṃ

57
Essentials of Buddhism, Ven Pategam Gnannarama, Taiwan, 2000. p-81
58
NT, P.69.
 270

vacīsucaritaṃ mono sucaritaṃ Idaṃ padaṭṭānaṃ tattha yaṃ kāyikañca

vācasikañca sucaritaṃ ayaṃ Sīlakkhando”

Morality (sīla) means “good behaviour” or “keeping bodily actions

and verbal actions properly” or “good performance”. The physical and

verbal actions of a person who observes the moral precepts are not in

disarray. Morality serves as the foundation for the development of all

meritorious deeds.59

Thus on account of its ability to keep the physical and verbal

actions gentle, mild and improper order, and its ability to serve as the

foundation for the development of all meritorious deeds, this kind of

conduct is known as „sīla‟ (morality).

Kin sīlanti cetanā sīlan, cetasika sīlan, Saṃvaro sīlan, avitikkamo

sīlanti 60 - Volition is sīla, mental factor (cetasika) is sīla, restraint is sīla,

and non-transgression is sīla.

5.5.2 Volition as Sīla

The volition present in one who abstains from killing, stealing, etc.,

or in one who fulfils the duties of a teacher, a pupil, a parent, a son, etc.,

59
Sūci,p.36 (Subhūti, Thero, Abhidhānappadīpikāsūci, chaṭṭasamgāyanā Edition,
Department of Religious affairs, Yangon Myanmar 1958)
60
Pa. p . 43 (Paṭisambhidhāmagga Pāli, Chaṭṭhasamgāyanā Edition, Department of
Religious affairs, Yangon, Myanmar, 2003.)
 271

is called sīla (morality). In other words, the seven volitions that

accompany the first seven of the ten courses of wholesome actions

(kusalakammapatha) represent sīla.

5.5.3 Mental Factor as Sīla

The three virati cetasikas, namely, sammāvācā, sammākammanta

and sammā-ājīva, are taken as cetasika sīla. Sammāvācā is the abstinence

from lying, slandering, harsh speech and vain talk. Sammākam- manta is

the abstinence from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Sammā-ājīva

is the abstinence from three bodily evil actions and four evil speeches

pertaining to earning one‟s livelihood rightly.

The three cetasikas (alobha, adosa, paññā) which represent the last

courses of wholesome actions, namely, non covetousness, good-will and

right view (anabhijjhā, abyāpāda and sammādiṭṭhi) are also taken as

cetasika sīla in accordance with the statement of the Buddha:

“Abandoning covetousness, he dwells with mind free from

covetousness.” 61

In Samyutta Nikāya, the Buddha made this statement as follow;

61
D. 1, P. 71 (Dīghanikāya, Sīlakkhandhavagga Pāli, Chaṭṭhasamgāyanā Edition,
Department of Religious affairs, Yangon, Myanmar, 2003.)
 272

“ Ko cādi kusalānan dhammānan sīlañca suvisuddhanti “62

“What is the beginning of profitable things?

Sīla that is especially well purified.”

This statement shows that morality is the beginning of all

profitable things. Again in Mahāvagga Samyatta, Bāhiya Sutta, the

Buddha instructed a monk: “Bāhiya, you first cleanse the beginning of

profitable things. What is the beginning of profitable things? It is well

purified morality together with the view. Bāhiya, when you have

established pure morality and the right view, you stand on sīla, depend on

sīla, and develop the four foundations of mindfulness.”63 So we should

establish pure morality first before we go on developing concentration

and wisdom. Lay persons should carefully and willingly observe the five

moral precepts of Pañca sīla to avoid all the ten unwholesome actions

known as “akusala-kammapatha” to cultivate ten wholesome actions

called “kusala kammapatha “ and to purify the mind from gross, violent

defilements (vītikkama kilesā). Then they should develop adhisīla, i.e.,

the higher morality that leads to Nibbāna when they undertake the noble

Eightfold Practice, i.e., the noble Path consisting of the noble Threefold

training. They should observe the eight or nine moral precepts of

Uposatha sīla and abide by Catupārisuddhi sīla when they practice in a

62
Ps. A. II, 180 (Paṭisambhidhæmagga Aṭṭhakathā, Chaṭṭhasamgāyanā Edition,
Department of Religious affairs, Yangon, Myanmar, 2003.)
63
S. III, P. 142 (Saṃyuttanikaya Vol. III, Mahāvagga Saṃyutta Pāli)
 273

suitable Meditation Centre. The Uposatha sīla will serve as

Patimokkhasaṁvara sīla for lay persons. For monks, they must maintain

the four kinds of sīla that make up Catupārisuddhi sīla to be pure in all

respects. The training of morality is the first stage of attaining the bliss of

Nibbāna. It consists of developing the three constitutes of the Noble

Eightfold Path that constitute the training of morality (sīlasikkhā);

(1) The right speech (Sammāvācā),

(2) The right action (Sammākammanta),

(3) The right livelihood (Samā ājīva).

(1) The first factor of the morality group of the Noble Eightfold

Path is Right Speech (sammāvācā). It means abstaining from false

speech, abstaining from slanderous speech, abstaining from harsh speech,

64
abstaining from frivolous speech, “False speech” means telling lies.

“Slanderous speech” means saying one thing to one person and another to

another person so that they become divided. “Harsh speech” means harsh

or abusive language and “Frivolous speech” means talk that is not

profitable or that is nonsense. Abstaining from these four unwholesome

ways of speaking is called Right Speech. (2) The second factor of the

morality group of the Noble Eightfold Path is Right Action

(sammākammanta). It is abstaining from killing beings, abstaining from

64
D. II, p. 250
 274

taking what is not given by the owner, abstaining from sexual

misconduct.65

Right Action means, therefore, abstaining from the three wrong

physical actions. (3) The third factor of the morality group of the Noble

Eightfold Path is Right Livelihood (sammā ājīva). It is to avoid a wrong

way of living which involves wrong speech and wrong action and to get

one‟s livelihood by a right way of living which involves right speech and

right action.66 As the Buddha preached in Ovāda Pātimokkha, the

essence of the Noble Eightfold Path is “to avoid all evil, to do good and

to purify the mind.” What are the evil things that should be avoided?

Basically, the evil things can be summarized as ten immoral actions call “

akusala kammapatha”, “meaning immoral course of action”, or

“duccarita”, meaning “evil conduct”.

5.5.4 The Benefits of the Training of Morality (Sīla sikkhā)

Sīla bears many benefits beginning with the clarity of the mind and

non remorse. Sīla has the clarity, serenity and peace of mind as its

benefits; it has the potency of clarifying and refreshing the mind.

According to Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta, there are five kinds of benefits as

65
M. II, p. 88 (Majjhimanikāya Majjhimapaṇṇāsa Pāli, Chaṭṭhasamgāyanā Edition,
Department of Religious affairs, Yangon, Myanmar, )
66
D. II. A, p.393
 275

follows,

(1) A virtuous person acquires much wealth owing to non

negligence and diligence.

(2) His good fame spreads far and wide.

(3) He could enter an assembly of princes or brahmans or

householders or ascetics without fear or hesitation.

(4) He dies unconfused or undiluted, that is, he dies with a clear

mind taking a wholesome object. (5) After death, he will reappear in a

happy destiny, in a heavenly world.67

According to Mulapṇṇāsa Akankhayya Sutta, there are ten kinds of

benefits as follows,

(1) To enjoy the respect and adoration of co-residents,

(2) To acquire the four requisites or wealth in abundance,

(3) To let donors enjoy great benefits,

(4) To let relative ghosts enjoy great benefits,

(5) To have the ability to endure and resist idleness and sense

pleasures,

(6) To overcome dread and dreadful objects,

(7) To attain rūpāvacara jhānas and arūpāvacara jhānas,

(8) To escape rebirth in woeful abodes,

67
D. II, p. 72
 276

(9) To become a noble person (ariyā), and

(10) To attain supernormal powers.68

Indeed a virtuous person with pure morality will get whatever he

desires, because his mind is pure and noble. In Khuddaka Nikāya,

Paṭisaṃbhidāmagga Pāli, Venerable Sāriputtā also preached the great

consequences of pure morality as follows:

“Evarūpāni sīlāni cittassa avippaṭisārāya saṃvattanti, pāmojjāya

saṃvattanti, pītiyā saṃvattanti, passaddhiyā saṃvattanti,somanassāya

saṃvattanti, āsevanāya saṃvattanti, bhāvanāya saṃvattanti, bahulīkam-

māya saṃvattanti, alaṃkārāya saṃvattanti, parikkhārāya saṃvattanti,

parivārāya saṁvattanti, pāripþriyæ saṃvattanti, ekantanibbidāya

virāgāya nirodhāya upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya

saṁvattanto, ti.” 69

The meaning is that “Such virtues lead to non-remorse in the mind,

to gladdening, to happiness, to tranquility, to joy, to repetition, to

development, to cultivation, to embellishment, to the requisite [for

concentration], to the equipment [of concentration], to fulfillment, to

complete dispassion, to fading away, to cessation, to peace, to direct

knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.”

68
M. I, Pp. 39, 40, 41
69
Ps. P. 44 (Paṭisambhidhāmagga Pāli, Chaṭṭhasamgāyanā Edition, Department of
Religious affairs, Yangon, Myanmar, 2003.)
 277

5.5.5 Morality as the Foundation of Meditation

Sīla has the characteristic of composing (sīlana) in the sense of

keeping bodily and verbal actions well and also in the sense of upholding

wholesome states such as concentration and wisdom. In undertaking

moral training we indirectly control our mind not to transgress moral

precepts by keeping our bodily and verbal actions well. By doing so, we

also suppress gross, violent defilements (vītikkama kilesas) not to arise in

the mind. So we are purifying our mind from aggressive defilements to

reach the state of „sīlavisuddhi‟, i.e., moral purity. A person who clearly

sees the disadvantages and dangers of impure morality and the benefits of

pure morality will cultivate pure morality. When he attains pure morality,

he no longer wishes for human luxuries or celestial luxuries. His mind

seeks no other thing than happiness of Nibbāna. So the state of pure

morality called „Sīlavisuddhi‟ is conducive to concentration and wisdom.

After taming and culturing the mind to be free from gross, violent

defilements, it is proper to proceed to the next step for taming the mind

further by undertaking mental training called „Tranquility Meditation‟

(Samatha bhāvanā) in order to purify the mind from moderate

defilements (pariyuṭṭhāna kilesas) which have arisen in the mind and kept

agitating the mind. The Buddha had pointed out that well purified

morality is the beginning of all profitable things. He also advised the

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monk Bāhiya to cleanse first the beginning of profitable things which

consist of well purified morality together with the right view. “Bāhiya,

when you have established pure morality and right view, you stand on

sīla, rely on sīla, and develop the four foundations of mindfulness.”70

Also according to the seven stages of purifying the mind, one must

first cultivate moral purity (sīla visuddhi) and then mental purity (citta

visuddhi) which is the mind free from all defilements. To cultivate mental

purity, one must undertake tranquility meditation. When morality is fully

developed, concentration is of great fruit and benefit (sīlaṃ paribhāvito

samādhi mahanisaṃsā)71.

Thus moral purity is truly the foundation of meditation. When an

upright ordinary person can maintain the fourfold Pārisuddhi sīla

perfectly pure without even the stain of a wrong thought, that pure

morality known as „sīlavisuddhi‟ becomes the proximate cause for

Arhantship itself. So we should ardently and perfectly develop pure

morality to lay down the strong foundation of tranquility and insight

meditation. In Visuddhimagga, the story concerning with the purity of

morality and the importance of sīla is stated as follow.

“The Elder Sangharakkhita the Great (Mahā Sangharakkhita),

70
Mahāvagga Samyutta, Bāhiya Sutta
71
D. II, p. 68
 279

aged over sixty, was lying, it seems, on his deathbed. The Order of

Bhikkhus questioned him about attainment of the supramundane state.

The Elder said „I have no supramundane state‟. Then the young bhikkhu

who was attending on him said „Venerable sir, people have come thinking

that you have reached Nibbāna. It will be a disappointment for many if

you die as an ordinary man‟. „Friend, thinking to see the Blessed One

Metteyya, I did not try for insight. So help me to sit up and give me the

chance.‟ He helped the elder to sit up and went out. As he went out the

Elder reached Arahantship and he gave a sign by snapping his fingers.

The Order assembled and said to him „Venerable sir, you have done a

difficult thing in achieving the supramundane state in the hour of death‟.

„That was not difficult, friends. But rather I will tell you what is

difficult. Friends, I see no action done without mindfulness and

unknowingly since the time I had ordained as a samaṇa, „His nephew,

Cūla Sangharakkhita thera, also reached Arahantship in the same way at

the age of fifty years.”72 Therefore, morality (sila) is good dhamma not

only until old age but also until death and one who with morality can also

get many benefits in this very life and finally can attain Nibbāna

(Arahatta phala) which is free from all defilements.

72
Vis. I, p. 45 (Visuddhimagga Aṭṭhakathā by Bhaddantācariya Buddhaghosa,
Chaṭṭhasamgāyanā Edition, Department of Religious affairs, Yangon, Myanmar,
1996.)