EarthquakeHazard level: High

In the area you have selected (Philippines) earthquake hazard is classified as high
according to the information that is currently available. This means that there is more
than a 20% chance of potentially-damaging earthquake shaking in your project area in
the next 50 years. Based on this information, the impact of earthquake must be
considered in all phases of the project, in particular during design and
construction. Project planning decisions, project design, and construction
methods should take into account the level of earthquake hazard. Further detailed
information should be obtained to adequately account for the level of hazard.

Recommendations
EARTHQUAKE HISTORY AND HAZARD: Get information about major
earthquakes and secondary hazards (fires, landslides, liquefaction, tsunami in coastal
areas) that have affected the project area in the past and the effects these caused.
Community memory and historical accounts of earthquakes can provide useful
information to supplement scientific studies. Contact the governmental organisations
(e.g. Ministry of Environment and Geological Survey/ Ministry of Earth Sciences)
responsible for earthquake risk management in the project country to obtain more
detailed information on the potential earthquake hazard.
..Understanding the earthquake history of any place is important to acknowledge the
possibility that an earthquake can affect the region again and also to consider the
extent of possible damage. While the latter is a function of the vulnerability of the
built environment, the former informs us of the prevalent hazard, especially in regions
with a history of earthquakes.
In many countries, earthquake history can be obtained from written historical records.
It may seem unlikely that a large earthquake would take place hundreds of kilometers
away from a tectonic plate boundary in areas with low levels of strain on the crust
from tectonic motion. But such earthquakes have happened in the past, and
understanding the earthquake history of a place is important before determining a
location for a project and initiating the design of the structures.
Community memory and historical accounts of earthquakes can provide useful
information to supplement scientific studies. Recording of earthquakes using scientific
instruments began only around 1900. In many areas, centuries may pass between
major earthquakes, meaning that instrumental records provide an incomplete picture
of the hazard. Scientists who study earthquakes use other tools: they investigate faults
 where earthquakes occur, measure the slow movement of tectonic plates, and search
for geologic traces left by ancient earthquakes.
Most countries that fall within earthquake hazard zones have maps that show how
strong scientists expect earthquake shaking to be throughout the country. The building
code or regulations for earthquake resistant design typically contain these maps, or
they may be available from the government agency responsible for earth science or
emergency management. Building code hazard maps provide sufficient information to
properly design ordinary buildings and other typical structures. For critical facilities
such as major dams, power plants, or major hospitals, a more detailed analysis should
be done to determine the expected level of earthquake shaking at that particular site.
Engineers need this additional information to design the facility properly.
Earthquakes can cause secondary hazards that include fires, landslides, liquefaction
(see definition below), floods (can be triggered by failing dams and embankments,
glacial lake outbursts, or by landslide-blocked rivers) and tsunami in coastal areas.
Obtain information on these hazards from the government agency responsible for
emergency management. Maps may exist that describe the extent of tsunami
inundation, liquefaction, or land-sliding. Historical records may also contain accounts
of secondary hazard events triggered by past earthquakes. Learning about potential
tsunami hazard is essential in coastal areas with high earthquake risk.
Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, saturated sediments at or near the
ground surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking, and flow like
a thick fluid. This can result in major damage during earthquakes. (More details at
http://www.usgs.gov/faq/categories/9829/3301). Liquefaction occurs up to a certain
depth of the soil and hence if we are able to pre-determine the potential and the
possible depth of liquefaction, building foundations can be designed to go below the
liquefiable depth and can remain unaffected in earthquake shaking. Knowing the
height of the water table in the soil helps us determine its liquefaction potential, the
viability of sub-soil floors and housing of critical utilities in such areas.
Earthquakes triggered or induced by human activity are not included in these hazard
levels. Instances of 'induced seismicity' and its causes are recorded at
http://inducedearthquakes.org/ .

 LOCAL BUILDING REGULATIONS: Find out if the local building regulations

provide for earthquake protection. To do this, engage the local engineering
community, especially those serving with the local government or consult external
experts. If regulations do include earthquake protection, comply with the regulations
with respect to planning, design and construction, including typology of construction,
and materials of appropriate quality suitable for use in areas of low seismic hazard. If
they do not, consider adopting and complying with standards from other low
earthquake hazard areas.

.. Building standards, often called building codes, provide the first line of defense
against potential earthquake damage and help to ensure safety in buildings designed
and constructed in conformance with the codes. It is important to find out if the local
building regulations provide for earthquake protection in the project location. If they
do, then comply with the regulating provisions with respect to planning, design and
construction, including typology of construction and quality materials for use in areas
of seismic hazard.
Reviewing local building regulations is essential for setting the standards for planning,
design and construction. Similarly, it is necessary to determine to what extent these
regulations take into consideration the earthquake hazard in the region, and whether
they provide sufficient protection. To do this, engage the local engineering
community, especially those serving with the local government, in discussions.
However, in regions where it is felt that local engineers’ capacities are low, consider
consulting with external experts who understand the building standards needed in high
earthquake hazard zones.
Similarly, it is necessary to understand when these standards were last revised, and
how often revisions occur. Earthquake information and engineering developments are
rapid, and standards that have not been revised for more than five years may not meet
requirements for project design. In such cases, more stringent design standards may
have to be followed.
Many provisions in the building standards, if implemented, are intended to ensure that
structures can adequately resist seismic forces during earthquakes. Building standards
in some parts of the world are based on the required performance of a particular
building in a future earthquake event. The performance levels could range from a
building designed to prevent collapse in earthquakes, to a slightly improved ‘life
safety’ (typically used for ordinary buildings), to ‘immediate occupancy’ where a
building is designed to be usable minutes after an earthquake. It should be understood
however, that the costs will increase substantially for higher performance levels.
Hence, if such standards are in use in the project area, it is essential to understand and
consider the performance required for each building in the project, and to set the
building-performance goal needed for each. ‘Design Considerations’ provides further
detail.
According to the building standards in some countries, the design will be influenced
by how important the building is. Importance depends on the functional use of the
building, the hazardous consequences of its failure, its post-earthquake functional
 needs, historical value, occupancy and/or economic importance. An Importance
Factor (say 1.5) is multiplied in the calculations to provide additional earthquake
resistance to buildings of greater significance. This however, is still an indirect
approach. More direct and better approaches are also available for important facilities
(see Design Considerations).
If the local building codes do not reflect the seismicity of the area, consider adopting
and complying with building standards from other regions sharing similar geological
conditions and earthquake hazards. In many countries, seismic hazard is not
considered in building standards either because these are rare events or because the
earthquake history is incomplete. However, it should be remembered that rare events
can happen within the lifespan of the building and result in large losses.
More Information: The Importance of Building Codes in Earthquake-Prone
Communities: http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1410554614185-
e0da148255b25cd17a5510a80b0d9f48/Building%20Code%20Fact%20Sheet%20Revi
sed%20August%202014.pdf

 INTERACTING HAZARDS: Determine whether the project site is likely to be

affected by ground failure or other site hazards during an earthquake. Soil
investigations should be conducted by a geotechnical engineer to determine physical
properties of the soil including its liquefaction potential, the stability of natural slopes
and other considerations for design. Select a project location with minimal site
hazards if possible. Ensure that the proposed project is not built on or near active
earthquake faults.

.. Understanding the geology of the project site is one of the first steps in the design
process. One needs to determine whether the project site is likely to be affected by
ground failure or other site hazards during an earthquake. Maps showing landslide
hazard, liquefaction potential (defined below), shaking amplification due to soft soil,
and active fault zones may be available. Sometimes these maps are part of a seismic
microzonation study report, or they might be available from the government earth
science agency.
The foundation is the lowest part of a building which interacts with the soil and
transmits the load of the structure to the soil below. Before a foundation type is
decided, it is necessary to understand the characteristics of the soil at the site of
construction. This is done by soil investigations which should be conducted by a
geotechnical engineer who will test the soil at the site and will prepare a report that
indicates physical properties of the soil, its bearing capacity, chemical composition, its
 liquefaction (see below) potential, the stability of natural slopes and other
considerations for design. The soil properties can vary from place to place and from
layer to layer, even within the proposed project. It is thus very important for projects
to undertake these tests, as buildings based on unfavorable soils can experience
excessive ground motion or be subjected to the effects of liquefaction and ground
failure. The results of the soil studies and their analysis will be used by structural
designers to design the foundations and structural elements required for earthquake
resistance of the buildings.
Site Hazards: Make sure to select sites with minimal site hazards if possible. Ensure
that the proposed project is not built on or in close proximity to active earthquake
faults. The project site should not be exposed to falling rocks and landslides from
nearby mountains. The presence of large rocks that may have fallen from nearby
mountains several years back is a good indication that there is a rockfall hazard.
Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, saturated sediments at or near the
ground surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking, and flow like
a thick fluid. This can result in major damage during earthquakes. (More details at
http://www.usgs.gov/faq/categories/9829/3301). Liquefaction occurs up to a certain
depth of the soil and hence if we are able to pre-determine the potential and the
possible depth of liquefaction, building foundations can be designed to go below the
liquefiable depth and can remain unaffected in earthquake shaking. Knowing the
height of the water table in the soil helps us determine its liquefaction potential, the
viability of sub-soil floors and housing of critical utilities in such areas.

 TECHNICAL EXPERTISE: Engage qualified and experienced local (or

international) technical professionals: structural and geotechnical earthquake
engineers, and geologists specializing in hazards. Ensure that design and
implementation of all project activities, including infrastructure construction and
improvements, provide for earthquake protection and comply with local and/or
international building standards.

.. In most earthquakes, building collapses cause the majority of deaths and injuries.
Building standards help to ensure safety of constructions. It is important for the
technical personnel involved in building projects in earthquake-prone areas to
understand all provisions in the building standards, and also why these are necessary
to design and build earthquake resistant structures. They must understand the demands
induced during earthquake shaking in the various building components and design
measures to counter them so that loss of life and damage to property can be limited.
Sound technical advice is essential to ensure project structures can resist multiple
hazards. For project structures to have adequate earthquake resistance, the technical
 personnel involved must also have relevant experience and expertise in
conceptualizing, designing and constructing earthquake resistant structures. Designing
and building large structures is always a challenge, and that challenge is even greater
when they are built in earthquake-prone areas. Earthquake engineering requires
additional technical skills than ordinary structural engineering. All projects in areas of
high earthquake hazard should engage the services of technical personnel with
knowledge and experience in constructing earthquake resistant structures. It is also
important that the team contain geologists who specialize in applying geology to
engineering projects, commonly called engineering geologists, in order to better
understand current geological processes, the earthquake potential and threat of
secondary geologic hazards.
It will be useful to contact local or international experts that have prior experience
working in the project area to understand how they sought to reduce earthquake risk in
past projects. These experts may be in private consulting practice, in the government,
or in universities.
Read More: ● http://science.howstuffworks.com/engineering/structural/earthquake-
resistant-buildings.htm ●
http://www.exploratorium.edu/faultline/damage/building.html

 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: Set design standards for each building based on the
criticality of the functions it shall serve and the building standards applicable in the
area. Determine the performance requirements of each structure in the project and
design accordingly. For the most vital buildings or infrastructure in the project, higher
design standards may be necessary.

.. While designing a project in an area of high or medium earthquake hazard, it is

important to set standards for the design of each structure which match the importance
of the structure’s function (e.g. the emergency department building within a hospital
complex, or a bridge on a major highway). When calculating performance
requirements, consider how collapse, serious damage, or functional losses of project-
associated infrastructure could affect the local population and environment. Also, it is
obligatory to follow the building standards applicable in the area and all basic cost
estimates will consider design to these standards. It is also important to ensure that
there is good quality control and strict adherence to prescribed standards of
construction materials and construction processes during the construction. Regular
testing of construction materials, periodic training of workmen, and on-site evaluation
of the technical work are important elements of good quality control. Good materials
and quality construction have benefits beyond earthquake safety, because they reduce
maintenance costs.
 Several modern international building codes have now adopted Performance Based
Seismic Design (PBSD – also called Performance Based Engineering) standards for
construction of buildings in earthquake prone regions. Traditionally, all building
standards had the design philosophy based on preventing any damage in low-intensity
earthquakes, limiting the damage to repairable levels in medium-intensity
earthquakes, and preventing the overall or partial collapse of buildings in high-
intensity earthquakes. However, several large earthquakes showed that the amount of
damage, the economic loss due to downtime, and repair cost of structures were
unacceptably high, even though these structures complied with available seismic
codes based on traditional design philosophy.
Performance-Based Seismic Design (PBSD) is a methodology which helps in
designing buildings according to performance levels classified as a) operational, b)
immediate occupancy c) life-safety, and d) collapse prevention, in relation to local
hazard levels for events that are categorized as frequent, occasional, rare, and very
rare. At the beginning of the design process, the owner and the designer should
consult to select a combination of performance and hazard levels and design criteria
for each structure based on its function and importance. This method of design can be
followed for the most critical structures within the project, even if the local building
standards do not cater to performance based engineering.
Read More: ● ATC 58 ‘Seismic Performance Assessment of Buildings’ (technical) ●
http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/WCEE2012_5606.pdf ●
http://peer.berkeley.edu/course_modules/eqrd/227info03/Lect2PBEbasics03.pdf ●
http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/EQTips/EQTip08.pdf ●
http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/EQTips/EQTip09.pdf

 UTILITIES AND ACCESS: Earthquakes could interrupt the availability and function
of off-site utility services such as electricity, water supply, communications,
sanitation, as well as access to transportation. Determine potential impacts and
provide sufficient on-site back-up and seismic protection of critical utilities. Consider
the effects of an earthquake on access to buildings, especially critical buildings (e.g.
hospitals) that must be operational immediately following an earthquake.

.. Utilities such as power supply, water supply, and sanitation are critical for the
continuous functioning of any building in the project. In a strong earthquake, off-site
utilities can be disrupted and may remain so for a few days. It is important to ensure
that adequate on-site backup is available, and that each critical utility system has been
built earthquake resistant. When designing projects in earthquake-prone areas, it is
imperative to ensure that the utility systems resist damage due to earthquake shaking.
 Earthquake shaking can damage electrical equipment, generators and water pumps;
break pipelines; and disrupt utility services.
Utility services are interdependent, and damage to one can affect other services as
well. Examples include: a) If electrical power is lost, water cannot be pumped; and b)
if the access route to the facility is damaged, fuel for the generator cannot be
delivered, which will in turn affect the ability to pump water. It is important to
understand the criticality of each facility and to address all possible vulnerabilities in
the design stage itself, so that the facility can limit disruption due to damage, to one or
more of the utility services.
Consider the effects of earthquake forces on the components that form the utility
services. Ensure that adequate steps are implemented to limit damage to these critical
services by taking steps such as anchoring, bracing and adding flexible connectors. It
is also important to estimate how long it would take to repair or reestablish damaged
lifeline utilities and to consider the extent to which emergency supplies can meet local
needs.
Consider the effects of an earthquake on the access to the buildings under the project,
especially if these are lifeline buildings which will be required to be accessed
immediately following an earthquake. Road access can be lost by building collapses
on to the road, damage to bridges, earthquake induced landslides.

 BUILDING CONTENTS AND FALLING HAZARDS MITIGATION: Consider the

disruption and damage that an earthquake may cause to buildings and interiors,
including windows, doors, furnishings, suspended ceilings and equipment. Design
building exteriors so that objects cannot fall on people, especially at exits. Mitigate
these hazards during construction to prevent injuries and blockage of exits during
earthquakes, and to safeguard essential contents such as medical equipment, sensitive
data, or cultural artifacts.

.. Interior and exterior finishes, equipment, utility systems (sometimes called “non-
structural components” by engineers) and contents can represent 80–90% of the
capital investment at risk in commercial, office and residential buildings during an
earthquake (Perry et al, 2009). Reconnaissance following earthquakes in a number of
countries indicates significant economic losses are the result of damage to
architectural elements (such as windows, suspended ceilings and doors), equipment,
contents, and building utility systems. Damage to these items in earthquakes can cause
deaths, injuries, the building losing ability to function, and economic losses. Any of
these non-structural components or contents placed close to exits may block exits and
impede evacuations following earthquakes. Thus, constructions in earthquake prone
regions require adequate steps to limit damage to these elements in the design stages.
 The design standards will depend on the functions of the building structure and the
nature of the equipment and utilities within the building.
In most countries, non-structural components and the majority of the building contents
are not covered by building standard provisions and remain vulnerable to earthquake
damage. Mitigation solutions for most of these components are available in various
manuals published across the world (a few examples below) and can be incorporated
in the construction and maintenance phases so that losses due to them are limited.
Read More: ● FEMA-74 ‘Reducing the Risks of Non-structural Earthquake
Damage—A Practical Guide’ ● Perry, C., Phipps, M., and Hortacsu, A. (2009).
‘Reducing the Risks of Nonstructural Earthquake Damage,’ Proceedings, Improving
the Seismic Performance of Existing Buildings and Other Structures, p 674-685.
http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/41084(364)62 ● For schools:
http://www.caloes.ca.gov/PlanningPreparednessSite/Documents/Nonstructural_EQ_H
azards_For_Schools_July2011.pdf http://www.geohaz.in/upload/files/Non-
Structural_Risk_Book.pdf ● For health facilities: FEMA 577 ‘Design Guide for
Improving Hospital Safety in Earthquakes, Floods, and High Winds: Providing
Protection to People and Buildings’ Reducing Earthquake Risk in Hospitals from
Equipment, Contents, Architectural Elements and Building Utility Systems:
http://www.geohaz.in/upload/files/hospitalsafetymanual.pdf

 EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT: Incorporate emergency contingencies in the

buildings’ planning and construction, such as well-located emergency exits, fire
extinguishers and clear signs to facilitate safe evacuation in the event of crisis. Critical
facilities (such as hospitals or emergency operations centers), or projects that provide
backup for critical facilities should remain functional after an earthquake. A clear
emergency management plan should be drafted and practiced to prepare staff of those
buildings for crisis mitigation.

.. In addition to all the other recommendations, the design of each building in the
project must incorporate emergency evacuation considerations in the planning stage.
This includes considering space requirements and information regarding the functions
of the building and the needs of its users (for example, critically ill patients’ beds may
have to be wheeled out of a Hospital Intensive Care Unit) and their ability to evacuate
in an emergency. Incorporate emergency considerations in the buildings’ planning and
construction, such as clear circulation areas, well located emergency exits, and clear
signage to facilitate safe evacuation in the event of an emergency. For projects where
buildings will have to remain functional following an earthquake (such as hospitals or
emergency operations centers), in addition to having the entire building - including
structure, finishes and equipment - protected from earthquake damage and providing
 back-up for critical utilities, a clear emergency management plan should be drafted
and practiced to prepare the staff for crisis mitigation.
Other recommendations for High earthquake prone regions include a. Understanding
the earthquake history of the region b. The adequacy of local building regulations c.
Understanding the site and soil conditions at the project area d. Ensuring adequately
experienced and qualified technical personnel are involved in the design and
construction e. Setting standards for design of project buildings depending on the
importance of the building’s functions f. Ensuring that utility supplies such as
electricity, water supply etc are built earthquake resistant g. Reducing the risk due to
damage to architectural elements and building contents in an earthquake and h.
Purchasing adequate earthquake insurance to cover potential losses on the project.

 INSURANCE: Consider purchasing earthquake insurance to cover potential losses to

the project. While insurance does not prevent injuries or deaths, or save communities,
it can reduce financial losses and enable a project or facility to recover from the
effects of an earthquake and regain its function more quickly.

.. Consider purchasing earthquake insurance to cover potential losses on the project.

Earthquake insurance may be available from the government or from private insurers.
Insurance can help provide funds after an earthquake, to help in reconstruction and
replacement of damaged buildings, contents or other project components. This can
ultimately enable the project to recover from the effects of the earthquake and regain
its function more quickly. However, it is important to note that insurance only
provides coverage for financial losses, but cannot prevent damage, business
interruption, injuries or deaths.
More information:
• Insurance against Losses from Natural Disasters in Developing Countries :
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Reinhard_Mechler/publication/265286458_Insur
ance_against_Losses_from_Natural_Disasters_in_De-
veloping_Countries/links/54ac53150cf21c477139d8c3.pdf • Earthquake Insurance in Japan:
http://www.giroj.or.jp/english/pdf/earthquake/Chapter2.pdf • Insurance-related instruments for
disaster risk reduction -
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2011/en/bgdocs/Suarez&_Linnerooth-
Bayer_2011.pdf