Miroslav Antic - Plavi Cuperak

"Narrative and Critical History of America ...
"
NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL

HISTORY OF AMERICA
EDITED By JUSTIN WINSOR
VOL. I. — PART 11.
BOSTON AND NEW YORK

HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
CHAPTER IV.
THE INCA CIVILIZATIQN IN PERU.
BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, C. B.
THE civilization of the Incas of Peru is the most important, because

it is the highest, phase in the development of progress among the
American races. It represents the combined efforts, during long periods,
of several peoples who eventually became welded into one nation. The
especial interest attaching to the study of this civilization consists in the
fact that it was self-developed, and that, so far as can be ascertained, it
received no aid and no impulse from foreign contact.
It is necessary, however, to bear in mind that the empire of the Incas,

in its final development, was formed of several nations which had, during
long periods, worked out their destinies apart from each other ; and that
one, at least, appears to have been entirely distinct from the Incas in race
and language.^ These facts must be carefully borne in mind in pursuing
inquiries relating to the history of Inca civilization. It is also essential
that the nature and value of the evidence on which conclusions must be
based should be understood and carefully weighed. This evidence is of
several kinds. Besides the testimony of Spanish writers who witnessed the
conquest of Peru, or who lived a generation afterwards, there is the evidence
derived from a study of the characteristics of descendants of the Inca peo-
ple, of their languages and literature, and of their architectural and other
remains. These various kinds of evidence must be compared, their respec-
tive values must be considered, and thus alone, in our time, can the nearest
approximation to the truth be reached. '"
The testimony of writers in the sixteenth century, who had the advantage
of being able to see the workings of Inca institutions, to examine the out-
come of their civilization in all its branches, and to converse with the Incas
themselves respecting the history and the traditions of their people, is the
most important evidence. Much of this testimony has been preserved, but
unfortunately a great deal is lost. The sack of Cadiz by the Earl of Essex,
in 1 595, was the occasion of the loss of Bias Valera's priceless work.' Other
valuable writings have been left in manuscript, and have been mislaid
1 [Mr. Markham made a special study of this views of Marcojr in Ti-avelt in Soulk Amtriea, tr.
point in t\iCi yourna! ef Ike Koy. Geog.Sei. (1871), by Rich, London, 1875. — ED.)
xli. p. z8i, collating its authorities. Cf. the . * Except those portions which Garoilaiso de
la Vega has embodied in his CammtnlarUi.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
210 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
throi^h neglect and carelessness. Authors are mentioned, or even quoted,

whose books have disappeared. The contemplation of the fallen Inca
empire excited the curiosity and interest of a great number of intelligent
""
IQ tS
t--
l~ «^
OUITE
t DnANOUV^CflEBADI.DELECUATEUR, "
^ DUPEHOUETDElABOllVIt
irT^ ri«lip^r(£Zentai„
5, V. DC LIVRESACBE.
Ir-rly — -"•
.^w-
T"TJ-:-W'
^^^^
i
s ■ 7? ,.,
,--^
'^^rT^.
'^
fci^S
fe U ^
^^m
^si
^^n'
•0
i 70
MAP IN BRASSEUR'S POPUL VtlH.
vGoosIe
EARLY SPANISH MAP OF PERU*
• [From the Paris (i774) eiliti™ of Zarate. The
of Pen
artogiaphy under Ihe S]
explorations is traced in a note in VoL II, p. 509; but the best map for the student is ■ map of the empire of
the Incas, showing all except the provincH of Quito and Chili, with the routes of the BueceiSive Inca con-
querors marked on it, given in the Journal of tkt Raj, Geog. Sec. (1871), vol. xlii. p. 513, compiled by Mr.
Trelawnj Saunder? to illustrate Mr. Markham's paper of the previoas year, on the empire of flis Incai. The
map was republished by the Hakluyt Society in iSSa. The map of Wiener in bis PiroH tt BtlMe is also B
good one. Cf. Squier's map in ills Piru. — Ed.]
i by Google
men among the Spanish conquerors. Many wrote narratives of what they
saw and heard. A few studied the language and traditions of the 'people
with close attention. And these authors were not confined to the clerical
and legal professions ; they included several of the soldier-conquerors them-
selves.'
The nature of the country and climate was a potent agent in forming the
character of the people, and in enabling them to make advances in civiliza-
tion. In the dense forests of the Amazonian valleys, in the boundless
prairies and savannas, we only meet with wandering tribes of hunters and
fishers. It is on the lofty plateaux of the Andes, where extensive tracts of
land are adapted for tillage, or in the comparatively temperate valleys of
the western coast, that we find nations advanced in civilization.^
The region comprised in the empire of the Incas during its greatest
extension is bounded on the east by the forest-covered Amazonian plains,
on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and its length along the line of the Cor-
dilleras was upwards of 1,500 miles, from 2° N. to 20° S. This vast tract
comprises every temperature and every variety of physical feature. The in-
habitants of the plains and valleys of the Andes enjoyed a temperate and
generally bracing cUmate, and their energies were called forth by the physi-
cal diflSculties which had to be overcome through their skill and hardihood.
Such a region was suited for the gradual development of a vigorous race,
capable of reaching to a high state of culture. The different valleys and
plateaux are separated by lofty mountain chains or by profound gorges, so
that the inhabitants would, in the earliest period of their history, make their
own slow progress in comparative isolation, and would have little intercom-
munication. When at last they were brought together as one people, and
thus combined their efforts in forming one system, it is likely that such a
union would have a tendency to be of long duration, owing to the great
difficulties which must have been overcome in its creation. On the other
hand, if, in course of time, disintegration once began, it might last long, and
great efforts would be required to build up another united empire. The
evidence seems to point to the recurrence of these processes more than
once, in the course of ages, and to their commencement in a very remote
antiquity.
One strong piece of evidence pointing to the great length of time during
which the Inca nations had been a settled and partially civilized race, is to
, be found in the plants that had been brought under cultivation, and in the
animals that had been domesticated. Maize is unknown in a wild state,^
• It is, of coarse, necessary to consider the " [For special study, see Paz Soldan's Gtogra-
WMght to be attached to the statements of differ- f{a del Pith ; Menendei' Manual de Geografia
ent authors; but the most convenient method del Peru; and Wiener's L'Empire de! Incas,
of placing the subject before the reader will be ch. i. — Ed.]
to deal in the present chapter with general con- • " Jusqu'i present on n'a pas retrouve le mais,
clnnons, and to discuss the comparative merits d'une maniire certaine, a ViXaX sauvage" (De
of the authorities in the Critical Essay on the Q3.TAaW.^'sCiographieManiqiicraiiBiinie.^.i)i\).

(ouTces of information.
vGoosIe
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU.
213
and many centuries must have elapsed before the Peruvians could have pro-
duced' numerous cultivated varieties, and have brought the plant to such a
high state of perfection. The peculiar edible roots, called oca and aracacha,
also exist only as cultivated plants. There is no wild variety of the ckiri-
moya, and the Peruvian spe-
cies of the cotton plant is
known only under cultiva-
tion.' The potato is found
wild in Chile, and probably in
Peru, as a very insignificant
tuber. But the Peruvians,
after cultivating it for centu-
ries, increased its size and
produced a great number of
edible varieties.'^ Another
proof of the great antiquity of
Peruvian civilization is to be
found in the llama and al- llamas.*
paca, which are domesticated
animals, with individuals varying in color : the one a beast of burden yield-
ing coarse wool, and the other bearing a thick fleece of the softest silken
fibres. Their prototypes are the wild huanaco and vicufia, of uniform
color, and untameable. Many centuries must have elapsed before the wild
creatures of the Andean solitudes, with the habits of chamois, could have
been converted into the Peruvian sheep which cannot exist apart from men.^
These considerations point to so vast a period during which the existing
race had dwelt in the Peruvian Andes, that any speculation respecting its
origin would necessarily be futile in the present state of our knowledge.*
The weight of tradition indicates the south as the quarter whence the
people came whose descendants built the edifices at Tiahuanacu.
o£
De Candolle, p. 983.
There is a wild variety
Empts have been made
the s
crease its size under cultivs

years, without any result. This seems to sfiow
that a great length of time must have elapsed
before the ancient Peruvians- could have brought
the cultivation o£ the potato to such a htgh state
of perfection as they undoubtedly did.
' Some years ago a priest named Cabrera, the

cura of a village called Macusani, in the province
of Caravaya, succeeded in breeding a cross be-
tween the wild vicufia and the tame alpaca. He
had a flock of these beautiful animals, which
yielded long, silken, white wool; but they re-
quired extreme care, and died out when the sus-
taining hand of Cabrera was no longer available.
There is also a cross between a llama and an
alpaca, called guariso, as large as the llama, but
with much more wool. The guanaco and llama
have also been known to form a cross ; but there
is no instance of a cross between the two wild
varieties, — the guanaco and vicuEia. The ex-
tremely artiticial life of the alpaca, which renders
that curious and valuable animal so absolutely
dependent on the ministrations of its human
master, and the complete domestication of the
llama, certajnly indicate the lapse of many cen-
turies before such a change could have been
effected.
* (Cf. remarks of Daniel Wilson in his Prehit-

taric Afan, i. 243. — Ed.]
• [One of the cuts which did service in the Antwerp edition of Cieia de Leon. Cf. Bollaert on the llan
a, huanaco, and vicufia species in the Sforting Rniievi, Feb., 1863; the cut* in Squier, pp. 246, a;
Van Tschudi, in the Zei(jc*ri)*^> £(*H,i/i)ji*, 1885. — Ed.]
Hosted -by
Google
214
MARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
The most ancient remains of a primitive people in the Peruvian Andes

consist of rude cromlechs, or burial-places, which are met with in various
localities. Don Modesto Basadre has described some by the roadside, in
the descent from Umabamba to Charasani, in Bolivia. These cromlechs are
formed of four great slabs of slate, each slab being about five feet high, four
or five in width, and more than an inch thick. The four slabs are perfectly
shaped and worked so as to fit into each other at the corners. A fifth slab
is placed over them, and over the whole a pyramid of clay and rough stones
DETAILS AT TIAHUANACU.*
is piled. These cromlechs are the early memorials of a race which was suc-
ceeded by the people who constructed the cyclopean edifices of the Andean
plateaux.
For there is reason to believe that a powerful empire had existed in Peru
centuries before the rise of the Inca dynasty. Cyclopean ruins, quite for-
eign to the genius of Inca architecture, point to this conclusion. The wide
area over which they are found is an indication that the government which
caused them to be built ruled over an extensive empire, while their cyclo-
pean character is a proof that their projectors had an almost unlimited sup-
ply of labor. Religious myths and dynastic traditions throw some doubtful
light on that remote past, which has left its silent memorials in the huge
stones of Tiahuanacu, Sacsahuaman, and Ollantay, and in the altar of Con-
cacha.
er of some aperture, of si
no handles neatly UDdercut. B, ^

nasonry uith carving. D, E, Twc
coraer-piece to some stone conduit, carefullj otnamented with projecting lines. F, G, H, I, Ott
tax masonrr 1]^ about.
y Google
■ '"5^
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 21 S
The most interesting ruins in Peru are those of the palace or temple near
the viHage of Tiahuanacu,' on the southern side of Lake Titicaca. lUey
CARVINGS AT 1
BAS-RELIEFS AT TIAHUANACU.t
1 The name is of later date. One story is speed was compared with that of the "Ajdwow."
that, when an Inca was encamped there, a mes- The Inca said, "TTo" (flit or re«t), "01 kit*'
senger reached him with unusual celerity, whose tmce."
■ Key : — A, fortion of the oroamenl which runs along the base of the rows of Ggurei on the raoiiolithl#
doorway. B, Prostrate idol lying on its face neat the niins ; about 9 feet long.
f Kev : — a, a winged human figure with the crowned head of a condor, from the central row on the mnn*
lithic doorway. B, A winged human figure with human head crowned, from the upptt row on the monolithic
[Ther,
e wellêxecuted cuts of these sculptures in Ruge's Gtschiihli dts ZtUalltri dir Bntdtckmigtm.
. Cf. Squier's Pim, p. aga. — Ed-J
yG^sIe
REVERSE OF THE DOORWAY AT TIAHUANACU. )
vGoosIe
217
are 12,930 feet above the level of the sea, and 130 above that of the lake,
which is about twelve miles off. They consist of a quadrangular space, en-
tered by the famous monolithic doorway, and surrounded by large stones
standing on end ; and of a hill or mound encircled by remains of a wall,
consisting of enormous blocks of stone. The whole covers an area about
400 yards long by 350 broad. There is a lesser temple, about a quarter of
IMAGE AT TIAHUANACU.*
a mile distant, containing stones 36 feet long by 7, and 26 by 16, with

recesses in them which have been compared to seats of judgment. The
weight of the two great stones has been estimated at from 140 to 200 tons
each, and the distance of the quarries whence they could have been'brought
is from 15 to 40 miles.
The monolithic portal is one block of hard trachytic rock, now deeply
lief shown in the pic
his is an enlarged drawing of the bas-rel

s in the article on the ruins of Tiahuana.
In Ch. Wiener's L'Empirt des /neat, pi. ii
Kt'sPeru, p. i9i. — Ed.]
■n in the picture of the broken doorway (p. iig), Cf.

the Scvui d'ArchUecture dti TriruaMx fuHta, nt
D'Orlngny's Atlas to his L' Homme Amiricain; and
y Google
sunk in the ground. Its height above ground is 7 ft, 2 in., width 13 (t. 5 in.,
thickness l ft. 6 in., and the opening is 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. g in. The outer
side is ornamented by accurately cut niches and rectangular mouldings. The
whole of the inner side, from a line level with the upper lintel of the door-
way to the top, is a mass of sculpture, which speaks to us, in difficult riddles,
alas ! of the customs and art-culture, of the beliefs and traditions, of an
ancient and lost civilization.
In the centre there is a figure carved in high relief, in an obiong com-

partment, 2 ft. 2 in. long by i ft. 6 in.' Squier describes this figure as
^^
J^0^
°^r^^M
lam
i^w
^^^^^ ^MSKSL.'^ ^■'" -^ y.
?* T,
Will Mrr 1 ■■
Bj^^^ --^H
V *■-
■A^J^^M
^"'^B
Wi
^^1
'S
ty:''''M
ms^'j
■'S' .■ Jb
^ra
. :^'C
^^^
BROKEN MONOLITH DOORWAY AT TIAHUANACU."
angularly but boldly cut. The head is surrounded by rays, each terminat-
ing in a circle or the head of an animal. The breast is adorned with two
serpents united by a square band. Another band, divided into ornamented
compartments, passes round the neck, and the ends are brought down to
the girdle, from which hang six human heads. Human heads also hang
from the elbows, and the hands clasp sceptres which terminate in the heads
of condors. The legs are cut off near the girdle, and below there are a
series of frieze-like ornaments, each ending with a condor's head. On
either side of this central sculpture there are three tiers of figures, 16 in
iiirement is 32 inches by 21
• [An enlarged drawing ot the image

lented in Ruge's GtsiA. dti ZeUaUcrs
11,419. Cf. Squier'aPo-M, p. 288.~E[
s Pirvu It Balrvir,
yGoDgle

219
each tier, or 48 in all, each in a kneeling posture,- and facing towards the
large central figure. Each figure is in a square, the sides of which measure
eight inches. All are winged, and hold sceptres ending in condors' heads ;
but while those in the upper and lower tiers have crowned human heads, those
in the central tier have the heads of condors. There is a profusion of orna-
UANACU RESTORED."
ment on all these figures, consisting of heads of birds and fishes. An orna-
mental frieze runs along the base of the lowest tier of figures, consisting of
an elaborate pattern of angular lines ending in condors' heads, with larger
human heads surrounded by rays, in the intervals o£ the pattern. Cieza de
Leon and Alcobasa^ mention that, besides this sculpture over the doorway,
there were richly carved statues at Tiahuanacu, which have since been de-
stroyed, and many cylindrical pillars with capitals. The head of one statue,
with a peculiar head-dress, which is 3 ft. 6 in. long, still lies by the roadside.
The masonry of the ruins is admirably worked, according to the testi-

mony of all visitors^ Squier says : " The stone itself is a dark and exceed.
ingly hard trachyte. It is faced with a precision that no skill can excel.
Its lines are perfectly drawn, 3nd its right angles turned with an accuracy
that the most careful geometer could not surpass. I do not believe there
exists a better piece of stone-cutting, the material considered, on this or
the other continent."
It is desirable to describe these ruina, and especially the sculpture over
' Quoted by Garcilasso de la Vega, PCe. I. lib. III. cap. i.

• After a drawing given in Tht TimfU ofthi Andii bj Richaid lawuds (London, 1884).
yGoDsIe
NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
the monolithic doorway, with some minuteness, because, with the probable
exception of the cromlechs, they are the most ancient, and, without any
exception, the most interesting that have been met with in Peru. There is
nothing elsewhere that at all resembles the sculpture on the monolithic
doorway at Tiahuanacu.^ The central figure, with rows of kneeling wor-
shippers on either side, all covered with symbolic designs, represents, it
may be conjectured, either the sovereign and his vassals, or, more probably,
the Deity, with representatives of all the nations bowing down before him.
The sculpture and the most ancient traditions should throw light upon each
other.
Further north there are other examples of prehistoric cyclopean remains.

Such is the great wall, with its "stone of 13 corners," in the Calle del Tri-
unfo at Cuzco. Such is the famous fortress of Cuzco, on the Sacsahuaman
&sh-^'s~^
r'S(iSc'
RUINS OF SACSAHUAMAN*
Hill, Such, too, are portions of the ruins at Ollantay-tampu. Still farther
north there are cyclopean ruins at Concacha, at Huiflaque, and at Huaraz.
Tiahuanacu is interesting because it is possible that the elaborate charac-

ter of its symbolic sculpture may throw glimmerings of light on remote
> Basadre mentions a carved stone brought nacu. A copy of it is in possession of Seiior
from the department of Ancachs, in Peru, which Raimondi.
had some resemblances to the stones at Tiahua-
• [Afteracutin Ruge's Gischichli dii Zeilalters der Enfdeikungen. Marltham has elsewhere described
these ruins, — Cleta de Lton, 159, 324; ad part, 160; Ifi)yalCiimtiv!ntariesoftheIncai,'n.,vr\Vli a plan, repro-
duced in Vol, II. p. ;3i, and another plan of Cuzco, showing the portion of the fortress in its relatidn; to the
dty. There are plana and views in Squier'a Peru, ch. 23. — Ed.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 221
history ; but Sacsahuaman, the fortress overlooking the city of Cuzco, is,
without comparison, the grandest monument of an ancient civilization in
the New World. Like the Pyramids and the Coliseum, it is imperishable.
It consists of a fortiiied work 6oo yards in length, built of gigantic stones,
in three lines, forming walls supporting terraces and parapets arranged in
salient and retiring angles. This work defends the only assailable side of a
position which is impregnable, owing to the steepness of the ascent in all
other directions. The outer wall averages a height of 26 feet. Then there
is a terrace 16 yards across, whence the second wall rises to 18 feet. The
second terrace is six yards across, and the third wall averages a height of
12 feet. The total height of the fortiiication is 56 feet. The stones are of
blue limestone, of enormous size and irregular in shape, but fitted into each
other with rare precision. One of the stones is 27 feet high by 14, and
stones 15 feet high by 12 are common throughout the work.
At.Ollantay-tampu the ruins are of various styles, but the later works
are raised on ancient cyclopean foundations.^ There are six porphyry slabs
12 feet high by 6 or 7; stone beams 15 and 20 feet long; stairs and
recesses hewn out of the solid rock. Here, as at Tiahuanacu, there were,
according to Cieza de Leon,^ men and animals carved on the stones, but
they have disappeared. The same style of architecture, though only in
fragments, is met with further north.
East of the river Apurimac, and not far from the town of Abancay, there
are three groups of ancient monuments in a deep valley surrounded by
lofty spurs of the Andes. There is a great cyclopean wall, a series of seats
or thrones of various forms hewn out of the solid stone, and a huge block
carved on five sides, called the Rumi-kuasi. The northern face of this
monolith is cut into the form of a staircase ; on the east there are two enor-
mous seats separated by thick partitions, and on the south there is a sort of
lookout place, with a seat. Collecting channels traverse the block, and join
trenches or grooves leading to two deep excavations on the western side.
On this western side there is also a series of steps/apparently for the fall
of a cascade of water connected with the sacrificial rites. Molina gives a
curious account of the water sacrifices of the Incas.^ The Rumi-kuasi seems
to have been the centre of a great sanctuary, and to have been used as an
altar. Its surface is carved with animals amidst a labyrinth of cavities and
partition ridges. Its length is 20 feet by 14 broad, and 12 feet high. Here
we have, no doubt, a sacrificial altar of the ancient people, on which the
blood of animals and libations of ckicka flowed in torrents.*
Spanish writers received statements from the Indians that one or other
of these cyclopean ruins was built by some particular Inca. Garcilasso de
la Vega even names the architects of the Cuzco fortress. But it is clear
from the evidence of the most careful investigators, such as Cieza de Leon,
1 [C£. plans and views in Squier's Piru, ch. * The name of the place where these remdns
24. — Eo.] are situated is Concacha, from the Quichua word
^ Cap. 94- " CutKachay" — the act of holding down a vic-
* See page 238. tim (or sacrifice ; literally, " to take by the neck."
Hosted by VjOOQIC
that there was no real knowledge of their origin, and that memory of the
builders was either quite lost, or preserved in vague, uncertain traditions.
The most ancient myth points to the region of Lake Titicaca as the
scene of the creative operations of a Deity, or miracle-working Lord.' This
Deity is said to have created the sun, moon, and stars, or to have caused
them to rise out of Lake Titicaca. He also created men of stone at Tiahua-
nacu, or of clay ; making them pass under the earth, and appear again out
of caves, tree-trunks, rocks, or fountains in the different provinces which
were to be peopled by their descendants. But this seems to be a later attempt
to reconcile the ancient Titicaca myth with the local worship of natural ob-
jects as ancestors or founders of their race, among the numerous subjugated
trit)es ; as well as to account for the colossal statues of unknown origin at
Tiahuanacu. There -are variations of ttie story, but there is general -con-
currence in the main points : that the Deity created the heavenly bodies and
the human race, and that the ancient people, or their rulers, were called
Pirua. Tradition also seems to point to regions south of the lake as the
quarter whence the first settlers came who worked out the earliest civiliza-
tion.^ We may, in accordance with all the indications that are left to us,
connect the great god Ilia Ticsi with the central figure of the Tiahuanacu
sculpture, and the kneeling worshippers with the rulers of all the nations arid
tribes which had been subjugated by the Hatun-runa^ — the great men
who had Pirua for their king, and who originally came from the distant
south. The Piruas governed a vast empire, erected imperishable cyclo-
pean edifices, and developed a complicated civilization, which is dimly indi-
cated to us by the numerous symbolical sculptures on the monolith. They
* The names of this god were Con-Illa-Tiei- Some authors gave the meaning o£ Utracocha
Viracocha, and he was the Paehayachachk, or lo be "foam of the sea:" from Uira {Huira),
Teacher of the World. ■ Pib-*o is "time," or "grease," or "foam," and Cocha, "ocean,"
"place;" also "the universe." " Yachachk" a "sea," "lalte." Garcilasso de ]a Vega pointed
teacher, from "Yachachini" " I teach," Can is out the error. In compound words of a nomi-
aaid to signify the creating Deity {Bitanzsi, Gar- native and genitive, the genitive is invariably
tia). According to Gomara, Con was a creative placed first in Quichua; so that the meaning
deity who came from the north, afterwards ex- would be "a sea of grease," not "grease of tlie
pelled by Pachacamac, and a modern authority sea." Hence he concludes that Uiracocha is not
(Lopez, p. 235) suggests that Con reptesented a compound word, but simply a name, the deri-
the "cult of the setting sun," because Cunti vation of which he does not attempt to explain,
means the west. Tici means a founder or foun- Bias Valera says that it means " the will and
dation, and Jlla is light, from lUaHi, '■ 1 shine ; " power of God ; " not that this is the signification
" The Origin of Light " {Mbattsinos. Anmy- of the word, but that such were the godlike attri.
mousyesuit. Lopez suggests "^(1," an evil omen, butes of the being who was known by it. Acosta
— the Moon God) ; or, according to one author- aays that to Ticsi Uiracoika they assigned the
ity, " Light Eternal " { Tki anonymous Jesuit), chief power and command Over all things. The
Vira is a corruption of Pirua, which is sajd by anonymous Jesuit tells us that Ilia Ticsi was the
some authorities to be the name of the first set- original name, and that Uiracocha was added
tier, or the founder of a dynasty ; and by others later.
to mean a "depository," a "place of abode;" Of these names. ///a TJVo* appears to have been
hence a "dweller," or "abider." Coeha means the most ancient,

"ocean," "abyss," "profundity," "space." Ui- ' Cieia de Leon and Salcamayhua.
racocka, "the Dueller in Space." So that the * Montesinos calls the ancient people, who
■whole would signify " God : the Creator of were peaceful and industrious, Hatu-runa, or
Light;" "the Dweller in Space: the Teacher "Great men." See also Malienza (MH. Brit
oithe World." Mus.].
Hosted by VjOOQIC
also, in a long course of years, brought wild plants under cultivation, and
domesticated the animals of the lofty Andean plateau. But it is remarkable
that the shores of Lake Titicaca, which are almost treeless, and where corn
will not ripen, should have been chosen as the centre of this most ancient
civilization. Yet the ruins of Tiahuanacu conclusively establish the fact
that the capital of the Piruas was on the loftiest site ever selected for the
seat of a great empire.
The Amautas, or learned men of the later Inca period, preserved the
names of sovereigns of the Pirua dynasty, commencing with Firua Manco,
and continuing for sixty-five generations. Lopez conjectures that there
was a change of dynasty after the eighteenth Firua king, because hitherto
Montesinos, who has recorded the list, had always called each successor son
and heir, but after the eighteenth only heir. Hence he thinks that a new-
dynasty of Amautas, or kings of the learned caste, succeeded the Piruas.
The only deeds recorded of this long line of kings are their success in
repelling invasions and their alterations of the calendar. At length there
appears to have been a general disruption of the empire: Cuzco was nearly
deserted, rebel leaders rose up in all directions, the various tribes became
independent, and the chief who claimed to be the representative of the old
dynasties was reduced to a small territory to the south of Cuzco, in the
valley of the Vilcamayu, and was called " King of Tampu Tocco." This
state of disintegration is said to have continued for twenty-eight genera-
tions, at the end of which time a new empire began to be consolidated un-
der the Incas, which inherited the civilization and traditions of the ancient
dynasties, and succeeded to their power and dominion.
It was long believed that the lists of kings of the earlier dynasties rested
solely on the authority of Montesinos, and they consequently received little
credit. But recent research has brought to light the work of another writer,
who studied before Montesinos, and who incidentally refers to two of the
sovereigns in his lists.' This furnishes independent evidence that the
catalogues of early kings had been preserved orally or by means of quipus,
and that they were in existence when the Spaniards conquered Peru ; thus
giving weight to the testimony of Montesinos.
The second myth of the Peruvians refers to the origin of the Incas, who
derived their descent from the kings of Tampu Tocco, and had their original
home at Paccari-tampu, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, south of Cuzco. It
is, therefore, an ancestral myth. It is related that four brothers, with their
four sisters, issued forth from apertures {Tocco) in a cave at Paccari-tampu,
a name which means " the abode of dawn." The brothers were called Ayar
Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Uchu, and Ayar Sauca, names to which the
Incas, in the time of Garcilasso de la Vega, gave a fanciful meaning,' One
' The anonymous jfesui/, p. 178. A work re- * CacAi ("salt") was the Ir
ferred to by Oliva as having been written by rational life, L'ciu ("pepper") was Ihe delight
Bias Valera also mentions some of the early the people derived from this teaching, and Sauca
kings by name. (See Saldamando, /-/u/(im dr/ ("joy") means the happiness afterwards expe-
J'eru, p. 22,) rienced.
vG^DsIe
of the brothers showed extraordinary prowess in hurling a stone from a

sling. The others became jealous, and, persuading Ayar Auca, the expert
slingsman, to return into the cave, they blocked the entrance with rocks.
Ayar Uchu was converted into a stone idol, on the summit of a hill near
Cuzco, called Huanacauri. Manco then advanced to Cuzco with his young-
est brother, and found that the place was occupied by a chief named Alca-
viza and his people. Here Manco estabUshed the seat of his government,
and the Alcaviza tribe appears to have submitted to him, and to have lived
side by side with the Incas for some generations. The Huanacauri hill
was considered the most sacred place in Peru ; while th.e Tampu-tocco, or
cave at Paccari-tampu, was, through the piety of descendants, faced with a
masonry wall, having three windows lined with plates of gold.
There is a third myth which seems to connect the ancient tradition of

Titicaca with the ancestra! myth of the Incas. It is said that long after
the creation by the Deity, a great and beneficent being appeared at Tiahua-
nacu, who divided the world among four kings : Manco Ccapac, CoUa, To-
cay 1 or Tocapo,^ and Pinahua.^ The names Tuapaca,* Arnauan,* Tonapa,*
and Tarapaca^ occur in connection with this being, while some authorities
tell us that hi^ name was unknown. Betanzos says that he went from Titi- .
caca to Cuzco, where he set up a chief named Alcaviza, and that he ad-
vanced through the country until he disappeared over the sea at Puerto
Viejo. It is also related that the people of Canas attacked him, but were
converted by a miracle, and that they built a great temple, with an image,
at Cacha, in honor of this being, or of his god Ilia Ticsi Uiracocha. This
temple now forms a ruin which in its structure and arrangement is unique
in Peru, and therefore deserves special attention.
The ruins of the temple of Cacha are in the valley of the Vilca-mayu,
south of Cuzco. They were described by Garcilasso de la Vega, and have
been visited and carefully examined by Squier. The main temple was 330
feet long by 87 broad, with wrought-stone walls and a steep pitched roof.
A high wall extended longitudinally through the centre of the structure,
consisting of a wrought-stone foundation, 8 feet high and 5^ feet thick on
the level of the ground, supporting an adobe superstructure, the whole being
40 feet high. This wall was pierced by 1 2 lofty doorways, 14 feet high.
But midway there are sockets for the reception of beams, showing the
existence of a second story, as described by Garcilasso. Between the trans-
verse and outer walls there were two series of pillars, 1 2 on each side, built
like the transverse wall, with 8 feet of wrought stone, and completed to a
height of 22 feet with adobes. These pillars appear to have supported the.
second floor, where, according to Garcilasso, there was a shrine containing
the statue of Uiracocha. At right angles to the temple, Squier discovered
the remains of a series of supplemental edifices surrounding courts, and
built upon a terrace 260 yards long.
' G. dc la Vega. » Piruaf * Salcamayhua
^ Molina, p. 7.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
The peculiarities of the temple of Cacha consist in the use of rows of

columns to support a second floor, and in the great height of the walls. In
these respects it is unique, and if similar edifices ever existed, they appear
to have been destroyed previous to the rise of the Inca empire. The Cacha
temple belongs neither to the cyclopean period of the Piruas nor to the
Inca style of architecture. Connected with the strange myth of the wan-
dering prophet of Viracocha, it stands by itself, as one of those unsolved
problems which await future investigation. The statue in the shrine on
the upper story is described by Cieza de Leon, who saw it.
Both the Titica*;a and the Cacha myths have, in later times, been con-
nected and more or less amalgamated with the ancestral myth of the Incas.
Thus Garcilasso de la Vega makes Manco Ccapac come direct from Titi-
caca; while Molina refers to him as one of the beings created there, who
went down through the earth and came up at Paccari-tarapu. Salcamayhua
makes the being Tonapa, of the Cacha myth, arrive at Apu Tampu, or Pac-
cari-tampu, and leave a sacred sceptre there, called tupac yauri, for Manco
Ccapac. These are later interpolations, made with the object of connecting
the family myth of the Incas with more ancient traditions. The wise men
of the Inca system, through the care of Spanish writers of the time of the
conquest, have handed down these three traditions and the catalogue of
kings. The Titicaca myth tells us of the Deity worshipped by the builders
of Tiahuanacu, and the story of the creation. The Cacha myth has refer-
ence to some great reformer of very ancient times. The Paccari-tampu
myth records 'the origin of the Inca dynasty. Although they are overlaid
with fables and miraculous occurrences, the main facts touching the orig-
inal home of Manco Ccapac and his march to Cuzco are probably historical.
The catalogue of kings given by Montesinos, allowing an average of twenty

years for each, would place the commencement of the Pirua dynasty in
about 470 B. c. ; in the days when the Greeks, under Cimon, were defeat-
ing the Persians, and nearly a century after the death of Sakya Muni in
India. This early empire flourished for about 1.200 years, and the disrup-
tion took place in 830 a. d., in the days of King Egbert. The disintegra-
tion continued for 500 years, and the rise of the Incas under Manco was
probably coeval with the days of St. Louis and Henry III of England.* By
that time the country had been broken up into separate tribes for 500
years, and the work of reunion, so splendidly achieved by the Incas, was
most arduous. At the same time, the ancient civilization of the Piruas was
partially inherited by the various peoples whose ancestors composed their
empire ; so that the Inca civilization was a revival rather than a creation.
The various tribes and nations of the Andes, separated from each other
by uninhabited wildernesses and lofty mountain chains, were clearly of the
same origin, speaking dialects of the same language. Since the fall of the
1 BIm Valera allows a period of 600 years for its rise to be contemporary with Henry II of
the eiistence of the Inca dynasty, which throws England. But twelve generations, allowing
its origin back lo the days of Alfred the Great, twenty-five years for each, would only occupy
Garcilasso allows 400 yens, which would make 300 years.

VOL. 1.^— IS
Hosted t)y VjOOQ IC
Pinias they had led an independent existence. Some had formed powerful
confederations, others were isolated Jn their valleys. But it was only
through much hard fighting and by consummate statesmanship that the
one small Inca lineage established, in a period of less than three centuries,
imperial dominion over the rest. It will be well, in this place, to take a
brief sm-vey of the different nations which were to form the empire of the
Incas, and of their territories.
The central Andean region, which was the home of the imperiai race of
Incas, extends from the water-parting between the sources of the Ucayali
and the basin of Lake Titicaca to the river Apurimac, It includes wild
mountain fastnesses, wide expanses of upland, grassy slopes, lofty valleys
such as that in which the city of Cuzco is built, and fertile ravines, with
the most lovely scenery. The inhabitants composed four tribes : that of the
Incas in the valley of the Vilcamayu, of the Quichuas in the secluded ra-
vines of the Apurimac tributaries, and those of the Canas and Cauchis in the
mountains bordering on the Titicaca basin. These people average a height
of S ft. 4 in., and are strongly built. The nose is invariably aquiline, the
mouth rather large ; the eyes black or deep brown, bright, and generally
deep set, with long fine lashes. The hair is abundant and long, fine, and of
a deep black-brown. The men have no beards. The skin is very smooth
and soft, and of a light coppery-brown color, the neck thick, and the shoul-
ders broad, with great depth of chest. The legs are well formed, feet and
hands very small. The Incas have the build and physique of mountaineers.
To the south of this cradle of the Inca race extended the' region of the
CoUas ^ and allied tribes, including the whole basin of Lake Titicaca, which
is 12,000 feet above the ievel of the sea. The Collas dwelt in stone huts,
tended their flocks of llamas, and raised crops of ocas, quinoas, and pota-
toes. They were divided into several tribes, and were engaged in constant
feuds, their arms being slings and ayllos, or bolas. The Collas are remark-
able for great length of body compared with the thigh and leg, and they
are the only people whose thighs are shorter than their legs. Their build
fits them for excellence in mountain climbing and pedestrian ism, and for
the exercise of extraordinary endurance.^ The homes of the Collas were
around the seat of ancient civilization at Tiahuanacu.
A remarkable race, apart from the Incas and Collas, of darker complexion
and more savage habits, dwelt and still dwell among the vast beds of reeds
in the southwestern angle of Lake Titicaca. They are called Urus, and
are probably descendants of an aboriginal people who occupied the Titicaca
basin before the arrival of the Hatun-runas from the south. The Urus
spoke a distinct language, called Puquina, specimens of which have been
1 Erroneously called Aymaras by the Span- an Indian messenger, named Alejo Vilca, from
iirds. The name, which really belongs to a Puno to Taoia, a distance of 84 leagues, who did
branch of the Quichua tribe, was first misap- it in 6: hours, his only sustenance being a little
plied to the Colla language by the Jesuits at dried maize and coca, — over four miles an houi
Juli, and afterwards to the whole Colla race. for 252 miles.
3 Don Modesto Basadre tells us that he sent
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 22/
preserved by Bishop Or^.* The ancestors of the Urus may have been tiie
cromlech builders, driven into the fastnesses of the lake when their country
was occupied by the more powerful invaders, who erected the imperishable
monuments at Tiahuanacu. These Urus are now lake-dwellers. Their
homes consist of large canoes, made of the tough reeds which cover the shal-
low parts of the lake, anc^ they live on fish, and on quinua and potatoes,
which they obtain by barter.
North of Cuzco there were several allied tribes, resembling the Incas in
physique and language, in a similar stage of civilization, and their rivals in
power. Beyond the Apurimac, and inhabiting the valleys of the Andes
thence to the Mantaro, was the important nation of the Chancas ; and still
further north and west, in the valley of the Xauxa, was the Huanca nation.
Agricultural people and shepherds, forming ayllus, or tribes of the Chancas
and Huancas, occupied the ravines of the maritime cordillera, and extended
their settlements into several valleys of the seacoast, between the Rimac
and Nasca. These coast people of Inca race, known as Chinchas, held
their own against an entirely different nation, of distinct origin and lan-
guage, who occupied the northern coast valleys from the Rimac to Payta,
and also the great valley of Huarca (the modern Caflete), where they had
Chincha enemies both to the north and south of them. These people were
called Yuncas by their Inca conquerors. Their own name was Chimu, and
the language spoken by them was called MocMca. But this question relat-
ing to the early inhabitants of the coast valleys of Peru, their origin and
civilization, is the most difficult in ancient Peruvian history, and will require
separate consideration.^
North of the Huanca nation, along the basin of the Marafion, there were
tribes which were known to the Incas by their head-dresses. These were
the Conchucus, Huamachucus, and Huacrachucus.^ Still further north, in
the region of the equator, was the powerful nation of Quitus.
All these nations of the Peruvian Andes appear to have once formed part
of the mighty prehistoric empire of the Pirhuas, and to have retained much
of the civilization of their ancestors during the subsequent centuries of
separate existence and isolation. This probably accounts for the ease with
which the Incas established their system of religion and government
throughout their new empire, after the conquests were completed. The
subjugated nations spoke dialects of the same language, and inherited many
of the usages and ideas of their conquerors. For the same reason they were
pretty equally matched as foes, and the Incas secured the mastery only by
dint of desperate fighting and great political sagacity. But finally they did
establish their superiority, and founded a second great empire in Peru.
The history of the rise and progress of Inca power, as recorded by native
' Fray I.udovico Geronimo de Ore, a tiitive cum IrandationibU! in linguas pravinciarum Pe-
of Guamanga, in Peru, was the author of RiUtalt ruanorum, published at Naples in 1607.
sen Manuale ac hranm formam adminislrandi ' Cf. Note I, following this chapter.
sacramenla juxla ardintm S. Eccliiiit Romitna, ' Chucu means a head-dress ; Huaman, a fal-
con ; Huacra, a horn.
y Google
228
historians 11
INCA MANCO CCAPAC.»
1 their qutpus and retailed to us by Spanish writers, is, on the

whole coherent and intelligible.
Many blunders were inevitable in
con\ eying the information from the
mouths of natives to the Spanish in-
quirers, who understood the language
imperfectly, and whose objects often
were to reach foregone conclusions.
But certain broad historical fatts are
brought out by a comparison of the
different authorities, the succession
of the last ten sovereigns is deter-
mined by a nearly complete consen-
sus of evidence, and we can now re-
late the general features of the rise
of Inca ascendency in Peru with a
certain amount of confidence.
The Inca people were divided into small ayllus, or lineages, when Manco
Ccapac advanced down the
valley of the Vilcamayu, from
Paccari-tampu, and forced the
ayllu of Alcaviza and the ayllu
of Antasayac 'to submit to
his sway. He formed the nu
cleus of his power at Ciizco,
the land of these conquered
ayllus, and from this point his
descendants slowly extended
their dominion. The chiefs of
the surrounding ayllus, called

Sinchi (literally, " strong ' ),
either submitted willingly to
the Incas, orwere subjugated
Sinchi Rocca, the son, and
Lloque Yupanqui, the grand-

son, of Manco, filled up a
swamp on the site of the present cathedral of Cuzco, planned out the
• [After a
drawn from
INCA YUPANQUI. t
of the success
but they are r

Hittirica (Ml
I7!i-I75". »"
See ^j«, Vol.
of Atahualpa.
du firm (Pa
t [After 1 .
mt in Marcoy'a SoalA America, i. 210 (also in Taur du Monde, 1863, p. 261), pnrporting to be
copy of the taffeta roH containing the pedigree of the Incas, which, in eridence of their claims,
i«r descendants to the Spanish king in 1603. This genealogical record contained the likenesses
ive Incas and Ihrir wives, and the original is said to have disappeared, Mr. Markham supposes
ive been the original of the portraits given in Herrera (see cut on p. 367 of the preaent volume) ;
lot the same, if Marcoy's cuts are trustworthy. A set of likenesses appeared in Ulloa's Relacion
idrid, 1 74S), iv. 604 ; and these were the originals of the series copied in the Gentlman'i Mag.,
,d thence are copied those in Ranking, These do not correspond with those given by Marcoy.
A portrait of Manco Inca, killed 1546, is pven in A. de Beauchamp-s Hitlnrt de la ConjuUi

ris, iSoS). — Ed.]
lutfn Marcoy, i. 214, — Ed,]
Hosted by VjOOQIC

239
city,^ and their reigns were mainly occupied in consolidating the small
kingdom founded by their predecessor. Mayta Ccapac, the fourth Inca, was
also occupied in consolidating his power round Cuzco| but his son, Ccapac
Yupanqui, subdued the Quichuas to the westward, and extended his sway as
far as the pass of Vilcafiota, overlooking the Collao, or basin of Lake Titi-
caca. Inca Rocca, the next sovereign, made few conquests, devoting his
attention to the foundation of schools, the organization of festivals and ad-
ministrative government, and to the construction of public works. His son,
named Yahuar-huaccac, appears to have been unfortunate. One authority
says that he was surprised and killed, and all agree that his reign was dis-
■ astrous. For seven generations the power and the admirable internal polity
of the Incarial government had been gradually organized and consolidated
within a limited area. The suc-
ceeding sovereigns were great
conquerors, and their empire was
rapidly extended to the vast area
which it had reached when the
Spaniards first appeared on the
scene.
The son of Yahuar-huaccac as-

sumed the name of the Deity,
and called himself Uira-cocha.^
Intervening in a war between the
two principal chiefs of the Collas,
named Cari and Zapafia, Uira- cuzco*
cocha defeated them in detail,
and annexed the whole basin of Lake Titicaca to his dominions. He also
conquered the lovely valley of Yucay, on the lower course of the Vilcamayu,
whither he retired to end his days. The eldest son of Uira-cocha, named
Urco, was incompetent or unworthy, and was either obliged to abdicate" in
favor of his brother Yupanqui, the favorite hero of Inca history, or was
slain.* It was a moment when the rising empire needed the services of her
ablest sons. She was about to engage in a death-struggle with a neighbor
1 [Ramusio's plan of Cuzco is given in Vol. ^ It is related by Betanios that one day (his
II. p. 554. with references (p. 556) to other plans Inci appeared Wore liis people with a very joy-
and descriptions ; to which may be added an ful countenance. When they asked him the
archie ological examination by Wiener, in the cause of his joy, he replied that Uira-cocha Pa-
Bull. de la Soc. de Glog. Je Paris, Oct., 1879, and chayachachjc had spoken to him in a dream that
in his Pirstt H Bolivic, with an enlarged plan of night. Then all the people rose up and saluted
the town, showing the regions of different archi- him as Viracocha Inca, which is as much as to
lecture; accounts in Marcoy's Voyage h traviri say, — " King and God." From that time he was
eAmh-ique du Sud (Paris. 1869 ; or Eng. transl. so called. Garcilasso gives a different version
i. 174), and in Nadaillac's L'AmSriqui prlhistB- of the same tradition, in which he confuses Vira-
rique, and by Squier in his Ptru. and in his Ft- cocha with his son.
marques sur la Giographit du Pirou, p. 20. — ' Cieza de Leon, ii. 138-44,
iPd,] < Salcamayhua, gi.
• lOnt,
n the Antwerp editions oC Ciei
IS viewg ii
Hosted by VjOOQIC
as powerful and as civilized as herself. The kingdom of the Chancas, com-

mencing on the banks of the Apurimac, extended far to the east and north,
including many of the richest valleys of the Andes, Their warlike king,
Uscavilca, had already subdued the Quichuas, who dwelt in the upper val-
leys of the Apurimac tributaries to the southward, and was advancing on
Cuzco, when Yupanqui pushed aside the imbecile Urco, and seized the helm.
WARRIORS OF THE INCA PERIOD.
The fate of the Incas was hanging on a thread. The story is one of thrill-
ing interest as told in the pages of Betanzos, but all authorities dwell more
or less on this famous Chanca war. The decisive battle was fought outside
the Huaca-puncu, the sacred gate of Cuzco, The result was long doubtful.
Suddenly, as the shades of evening were closing over the Yahuar-pampa, —
" the field of blood," — a fresh army fell upon the right flank of the Chanca
host, and the Incas won a great victory. So unexpected was this onslaught
that the very stones on the mountain sides were believed to have been
turned into men. It was the armed array of the insurgent Quichuas who
had come by forced marches to the help of their old masters. The mem-
ory of this great struggle was fresh in men's minds when the Spaniards
arrived, and as the new conquerors passed over the battlefield, on their way
to Cuzco, they saw the stuffed skins of the vanquished Chancas set up as
memorials by the roadside.
The subjugation of the Chancas, with their allies the Huancas, led to a
vast extension of the Inca empire, which now reached to the shores of the
Pacific ; and the last years of Yupanqui were passed in the conquest of the
alien coast nation, ruled over by a sovereign known as the Chimu. Thus
the reign of the Inca Yupanqui marks a great epoch. He beat down all
rivals, and converted the Cuzco kingdom into a vast empire. He received
the name of Pachacutec, or "he who changes the world," a name which,
according to Montesinos, had on eight previous occasions been conferred
upon sovereigns of the more ancient dynasties,
Tupac Inca Yupanqui, the son and successor of Pachacutec, completed
• [After a cut given by Ruge, and showing figures from an old Petuviin painting. — Ed,]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE INCA .CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 231
the subjugation of the coast valleys, extended his conquests beyond Quito
on the north and to Chile as far as the river Maule in the south, besides
penetrating far into the eastern forests,
Huayna Ccapac, the son of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, completed and consoli-
dated the conquests of his father. He traversed the valleys of the coast,
penetrated to the southern limit of Chile, and fought a memorable battle
on the banks of the " lake of blood " (Yahuar-cocha), near the northern
frontier of Quito. After a long reign,' the last years of which were passed
in Quito, Huayna Ccapac died in November, 1525. His eldest legitimate
son, named Huascar, succeeded him at Cuzco. But Atahualpa, his father's
favorite, was at Quito with the most experienced generals. Haughty mes-
sages passed between the brothers, which were followed by war, Huascar's
armies were defeated in detail, and eventually the generals of Atahualpa
took the legitimate Inca prisoner, entered Cuzco, and massacred the family
and adherents of Huascar.^ The successful aspirant to the throne was on
his way to Cuzco, in the wake of his generals, when he encountered Pizarro
and the Spanish invaders at Caxamarca. This war of succession would ndt,
it is probable, have led to any revolutionary change in the genera! policy of
the empire. Atahualpa would have established his power and continued to
rule, just as his ancestor Pachacutec did, after the dethronement o£ his
brother Urco.^
The succession of the Incas from Manco Ccapac to Atahualpa was evi-
dently well known to the Amautas, or learned men of the empire, and was
recorded in their qtiipus with precision, together with less certain materials
respecting the more ancient dynasties. Many blunders were committed by
the Spanish inquirers in putting down the historical information received
from the Amautas, but on the whole there is general concurrence among
them.* Practically the Spanish authorities agree, and it is clear that the
• Bias Valera says 42, Balboa 33. years, chacutec has already been eiplained, Tupac is
2 [The ruins of Atahualpa'a palace are figured a word signifying royal splendor, and Huayna
in Wiener's Pirou ft Bolivu, and in Cte. de Ga- means " youth," Huascar is " a chain," in ailu-
briac's Promgimde i trovers VAmh-iqui du Sud sion to a golden chain said io have been made
(Paris, 186S), p. 196, — Ed.] in his honor, and held by the dancers at the fes-
* The meanings of the names of these Incas tival of his birth. The meaning of Atahualpa
are significant. Manco and Rocca appear to be has been much disputed. Hualpa certainly
' proper names without any clear etymology. The means any large game fowl. Hualpani is to
rest refer to mental attributes, or else to some create, Atau is "chance," or "the fortune of
personal peculiarity. Sinchi means "strong." war." Garcilasso, who is always opposed to der-
Lloque is " left-handed." Yupanqui is the sec- ivations, maintains that Atahualpa was a proper
ond person of the future tense of a verb, and namewithout specialmeaning,and that Hualpa,
signifies " you will count-" Garcilasso interprets as a word for a fowl, is derived from it, because
it as one who will count as wise, virtuous, and (he boys in the streets, when imitating cock-
powerful. Ccapac is rich ; that is, rich in all crowing, used the word Atahualpa, But Hu-
virtues and attributes of a prince. Mayta is an alpa formed part of the name of many scions
adverb, " where ; " and Salcamayhua says thai of the Inca family long before the time of Ata-
the constant cry and prayer of this Inca was, hualpa.
"Where art thou, O God?" because he was * Alt authorities agree that Manco Ccapac
constantly seeking his Creator. Yahuac-huaccac was the first Inca, although Monlesinos places
means "weeping blood," probably in allusion him far back at the head of the Pirhua dynasty,
to some malady from which he suffered. Pa- and all agree respecting the second, Sinchi
vGaosIe
native annalists possessed a single record, while the apparent discrepancies

are due to blunders of the Spanish transcribers. The twelve Incas from
Manco Ccapac to Huascar may be received as historical personages whose
deeds were had in memory at the time of the Spanish invasion, and were
narrated to those among the conquerors who sought for information from
the Amautas.
1240 — Manco Ccapac.

1260 — Sinchi Rocca.
12S0 — Lloque Yupanqui.
1300 — Mayta Ccapac,
1320 — Ccapac Yupanqui,
1340 — Inca Rocca, ■
1 360 — Yahuar-huaccac.
1380 — Uira-cocha
1400 — Pachacutec Yupanqui.
1440 — Tupac Yupanqui.
1480 — Huayna Ccapac.
1523 — Inti Cusi Hualpa, orHu;
The religion of the Incas consisted in the worship of the supreme being
of the earlier dynasties, the Ilia Ticsi Uira-cocha of the Pirhuas. This sim-
ple faith was overlaid by a vast mass of superstition, represented by the
cult of ancestors and the cult of natural objects. To this was superadded
the belief in the ideals or souls of all animated things, which ruled and
guided them, and to which men might pray for help. The exact nature of
this belief in ideals, as it presented itself to the people themselves, is not at
all clear. It prevailed among the uneducated. Probably it was the idea to
which dreams give rise, — the idea of a double nature, of a tangible and a
phantom being, the latter mysterious and powerful, and to be propitiated.
The belief in this double being was extended to all animated nature, for
even the crops had their spiritual doubles, which it was necessary to wor-
ship and propitiate.
But the religion of the Incas and of learned men, or Amautas, was a wor-
ship of the Supreme Cause of all things, the ancient God of the Titicaca
myth, combined with veneration for the sun ^ as the ancestor of the reign-
ing dynasty, for the other heavenly bodies, and for the malqui, or remains
of their forefathers. This feeling of veneration for the sun, closely con-
nected with the beneficent work of the venerated object as displayed in
Rocca. Lloque Yupanqui, with various spell- deposed Urco. Ciezade Leon and Betanzos give
ings, has the unanimous vote of all authorities Yupanqui as the name of Urco's brother; all '
except Acoata, who calls him " laguarhuarque." other authorities have Pachacutec. The discrep-
Bul Acosta's list is incomplete. Respecting ancy is explained by his names having been
Mayta Ccapac and Ccapac Yupanqui, all are Yupanqui Pachacutec. This also accounts for
agreed except Betanzos, who transposes them Garcilasso de la Vega and Santillan having
by an evident slip of memory. Touching Inca made Pachacutec and Yupanqui into fwo Incas,
Rocca all are agreed, though Montesinos has father and son. Betansos also interpolates a
Sinchi for Inca, and all agree as to Yahuar-hu- Yamque YupanquL All are agreed with regard
accac. It is true thai Cieza de Leon and Her- to Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Huayna Ccapac, Hu-
rera call him Inca Yupanqui, but this is explained ascar, and Atahualpa. [There is another compar-
by Salcamajhua when be gives the full name, — ison of the different lists in Wiener, L'Empiri
Yahuar-huaccac Inca Yupanqui. All agree as dis Incas, p. 53. — Ed.]
to Uira-cocha. As to hia successor, Betanzos, ' [See an early cut of this sun-worship in VoV
Cieza de Leon, Femandei, Herrera, Salcamay- II, p. 551. — Ed.]

hna, and Balboa mention the short reign of the
Hosted by VjOOQIC
the course of the seasons, led to the growth of an elaborate ritual and to
the celebration of periodical festivals.
The weight of evidence is decisively in the direction of a belief on the

part of the Incas that a Supreme Being existed, which the sun must obey,
as well as all other parts of the universe. This subordination of the sun to
the Creator of all things was inculcated by successive Incas. Molina says,
" They did not know the sun as their Creator, but as created by the Crea-
tor." Salcamayhua tells us how the Inca Mayta Ccapac taught that the sun
and moon were made for the service of men, and that the chief of the Col-
las, addressing the Inca Uira-cocha, exclaimed, " Thou, O powerful lord of
Cuzco, dost worship the teacher of the universe, while I, the chief of the
Collas, worship the Sun." The evidence on the subject of the religion of
the Incas, collected by the Viceroy Toledo, showed that they worshipped
the Creator of all things, though they also venerated the sun ; and Monte-
sinos mentions an edict of the Inca Pachacutec, promulgated with the object
of enforcing the worship of the Supreme God above all other deities. The
speech of Tupac Inca Yupanqui, showing that the sun was not God, but
was obeying laws ordained by God, is recorded by Acosta, Bias Valera, and
Balboa, and was evidently deeply impressed on the minds of their Inca in-
formers. This Inca compared the sun to a tethered beast, which always
makes the same round ; or to a dart, which goes where it is sent, and not
where it wishes. The prayers from the Inca ritual, given by Molina, are
addressed to the god Ticsi Uiracocha ; the Sun, Moon, and Thunder being
occasionally invoked in conjunction with the principal deity.
The worship of this creating God, the Dweller in Space, the Teacher and
Ruler of the Universe, was, then, the religion of the Incas which had been
inherited from their distant ancestry of the Cyclopean age. Around this
primitive cult had grown up a supplemental worship of creatures created by
the Deity, such as the heavenly bodies, and of objects supposed' to repre
sent the first ancestors of ayllus, or tribes, as well as of the prototypes of
things on whom man's welfare depended, such as flocks and animals of the
chase, fruit and corn. It has been asserted that the Deity, the Uira-cocha
himself, did not generally receive worship, and that there was only one tem-
ple in honor of God throughout the empire, at a place called Pachacamac,
on the coast. But this is clearly a mistake. The great temple at Cuzco,
with its gorgeous display of riches, was called the " Ccuri-cancha Pacha-
yachachicpa huasin," which means "the place of gold, the abode of the
Teacher of the Universe." An elliptical plate of gold was fixed on the wall
to represent the Deity, flanked on either side by metal representations of
his creatures, the Sun and Moon. The chief festival in the middle of the
year, called Ccapac Raymi, was instituted in honor of the supreme Creator,
and when, from time to time, his worship began to be neglected by the peo-
ple, who were apt to run after the numerous local deities, it was again and
again enforced by their more enlightened rulers. There were Ccuri-canchas
vGoosIe
for the service of God, at Vilca and in other centres of vice-regal rule, be-
sides the grand fane of Cuzco.^
Although the first and principal in-

vocations were addressed to the Crea-
tor prayers were also offered up to
the Sun and Moon, to the Thunder,
and to ancestors who were called
upon to intercede with the Deity.^
The latter worship formed a very dis-
tmctne feature in the religious ob-
servances of nearly all the Incarial
tribes The Paccarina, or forefather
of the ayilu, or lineage, was often
some natural object converted into a
huaca or deity. The Paccarina of
tht Inca family was the Sun, with his
sister and spouse, the Moon. A vast
hierarchy was set apart to conduct
the ceremonies connected with their
worship, and hundreds of virgins,
called Aclla-cttna, were secluded and
devoted to duties relating to the ob-
servances in the Sun temples. Wor-
ship was also oifcred to the actual
bodies of the ancestors, called malqui,
which were preserved with the greatest care, in caves called machay. On
solemn festivals each ayllu assembled with its malqui. The bodies of the
Incas were all preserved, clothed as when alive, and surrounded by their
special furniture and utensils. Three of these Inca mummies, with two
mummies of queens, were discovered by Polo de Ondegardo, then corregidor
of Cuzco, in I5S9, and were sent by him to Lima for interment. Those
who saw them 3 reported that they were so well preserved that they ap-
peared to be alive; that they were in a 'sitting posture; that the eyes were
1 At Pachacamac Ihere was a lempk to the evil spirit. lUo occurs in the drama of OlUntay.
coast deitv, called locally Pachacamac, and It may have been some local ioaâ, out no oevu
another to the sun; but none to the supreme as such, entered into the religious behef of the
Creator, one of whose epithets was Pachacamac. Incas. , ^ ^ ■, j
= Spîsh authors mention a being called Su- » Acosta, Polo de Ondegardo, Garcilasso de
fay, which they say was the devil. Sufay. as an la Vega.
• f After a cut in Marcoy, i. p. =34, «h«e it is said to be town from existing rnndns and printed and nianu-
lure of the convent of Santo Domingo, built in 1534, « at A, which con-
.u»of the wills of the older edifice. B is a clmster. C, an outer court. D,
■ireets leading to the great square of Cuzco. F, the garden where golden
J ,. , ti.^l,™ mr^Mi. (5. the chapel dedicated to the moon. H, chape!
" 'ightning. J, chapel dedicated
TEMPLE OF THE SUN.»
fountains for pnrification.
flowers wer* once placed ;
dedicated to Venus and the Milky Way. 1, chapel d
to the rainbow. K, cound! hall of the grand pontiff and priests of the sun. L, the s
and servants. See the view of the temple from Montanus in Vol, 11. p. 555, and a r
Pinu li Ballvu, p. 318. Other plans and views are in Squiefs Peru, pp. +30-44;-
Hostedby VjOOQIC
23S
made of gold, and that they were arrayed in the insignia of their rank.^ The
Paccarina, or founder of the family, and the malquis, or mummies of ances-
tors, thus formed the objects of a distinct belief and religion, based un-
doubtedly on the conviction that every human being has a spiritual as well
as a corporeal existence ; that the former is immortal, and that it is repre-
sented by the malqut. The appearance of the departed in dreams and
visions was not an unreasonable ground for this belief, which certainly was
ZODIAC OF GOLD FOUND AT CUZCO*
the most deeply rooted of all the religious ideas of the Peruvian people.
The paccarina, or ancestral deities, were innumerable. There was one or
more that received worship in every tribe, and was represented by a rock,
or some other natural object. Many were believed to be bracles. Some,
such as Catequilla, or Apu-catequilla? the oracle of the Conchucu tribe, have
' The mummies were those of Incas Uira-

coclia, Tupac Yupanqui, and Huayna Ccapac;
of Mama Runtu (wife of Uira-cocha) and
Mama Ocllo (wife of Tupac Yupanqui).
^ Mentioned by Calancha (471) and Arriaga

as an oracle at the village of Tauca, in Conchu-
COS. Erinlon has built up a myth whieh he cred-
* [After a drawing by Mr. Markham of the plate itself, made at LJma tn rgjj. Hr. Markham's drawing i
reproduced in Bollaert's Antiquarian Renarckts, p. 146. The disk is 5 3-10 inches in diameter. The ^gn
in the outer ting ate supposed to represent the months — Ed.]
s to the whole Peruvian people, on the strength

F a meaning applied to the word Caltqailla,
hich is erroneous. It is exactly the same gram-
lalical error that ihose etymologists fell into
ho thought that Uira-cocha signified "foam of
le sea." (Myths of tki New World, 154.)
y Google
been brought into undue prominence through being mentioned by Spanish

writers.
Religious ceremonials were closely connected with the daily life of the
' people, and especially with the course of the seasons and the succession of
months, as they affected the operations of agriculture. It was important to
fix the equinoxes and solstices, and astronomical knowledge was a part of
the priestly ofiRce, There were names for many of the stars ; their motions
were watched as well as those of the sun and moon ; and though a record of
the extent of the astronomical knowledge of the Incas has not been pre-
served, it is certain that they watched the time of the solstices and equi-
noxes with great care, and that they distinguished between the lunar and
solar years. Pillars were erected to determine the time of the solstices,
eight on the east ai>d eight on the west side of Cuzco, in double rows, four
and four, two low between two higher ones, twenty feet apart. They were
called Sucanca, from suca, a ridge or furrow, the alternate light and shade
between the pillars appearing like furrows. A stone column in the centre
of a level platform, called Inti-huatana, was used to ascertain the time of the
equinoxes. A line was drawn across the platform from east to west, and
watch was kept to observe when the shadow of the pillar was on this line
from sunrise to sunset, and there was no shadow at noon. The principal
Inti-huatana was in the square before the great temple at Cuzco ; but
there are several others in different parts of Peru, The most perfect of
these observatories is at Pissac, in the valley of Vilcamayu.' There is
another at Ollantay-tampu, a fourth near Abancay, and a fiftb at Sillustani
in the Collao.
There is reason to believe that the Incas used a zodiac with twelve signs,
corresponding with the months of their solar year. The gold plates which
they wore on their breasts were stamped with features representing the sun,
surrounded by a border of what are probably either zodiacal signs or signs
for the months. Whether the ecliptic, or kuatana, was thus divided or not,
it is certain that the sun's motion was observed with great care, and that
the calendar was thus fixed with some approach to accuracy.^ The year, or
Huata, was divided into twelve Quilla, or moon revolutions, and these were
made to correspond with the solar year by adding five days, which were
divided among the twelve months. A further correction was made every
fourth year. Solar observations were taken and recorded every month.
The year commenced on the 22d of June, with the winter solstice, and
there were four great festivals at the occurrence of the solstices and equi-
noxes, ^
' A very interesting account of it, with a. all the others, is the one adopted by the first
sketch, is given by Sqiiier, p, 524. Council of Lima, and given by Calancha. It is
' Huatana means a halter, from huatani, to as follows: —
seize ; hence the tying up or encircling of the I. Yntip Raymi (23 June-22 July), Festival of
sun. the Winter Solstice, or Raymi.
* Authorities difFer respecting the names o( 2. Chahuarquiz |zz July-z2 Aug.), Season of
the months, and probably some months had ploughing.
mote than one name. Bui the most accurate 3. Yapa^juiz {22 Aug.-22 Sept.), Season of
list, and that which is most in agreement with sowing.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE INGA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 237
The celebrations of the solar year and of the seasons, in their bearings
on agriculture, were identical with the chief religious observances. The

Raymi, or festival of the winter solstice, in.the first month, when the gran-
aries were filled after harvest, was established in special honor of the Sun.
Sacrifices o£ llamas and lambs, and of the first-fruits of the earth, were
offered up to the images of the Supreme Being, of the Sun, and of Thun-
der, which were placed in the open space in front of the great temple ; as
well as to the kuaca, or stone representing the brother of Manco Ccapac, on
the hill o£ Huanacauri. There was also a procession of the priests and peo-
ple as far as the pass of Vilcaflota, leading into the basin of Lake Titicaca,
sacrifices being offered up at various spots on the road. The sacrifices were
accompanied by prayers, and concluded with songs, called kuayllina, and
dancing. Then followed the ploughing month, when it is said that the Inca
himself opened the season by ploughing a furrow with a golden plough in
the field behind the Colcampata palace, on the height above Cuzco.
The question here arises whether human sacrifices were offered up, in the
Inca ritual. This has been stated by Molina, Cieza de Leon, Montesinos,
Balboa, Ondegardo, and Acosta, and indignantly denied by Garcilasso de la
Vega. Cieza de Leon admits that there were occasional human sacrifices,
but adds that their numbers and the frequency of such offerings have been
grossly exaggerated by the Spaniards. If the sacrifices had been offered
under the idea of atonement or expiation, it might well be expected that
human sacrifices would be included. Under such ideas, men offered up
what they valued most, just as Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son,
as Jephthah dedicated his daughter as a burnt -offering to Jehovah, and as
the king of Moab sacrificed his eldest son to Chemosh.^ But, except in the
Situa, when the idea was to efface sins by washing, the sacrifices of the Incas
were offerings of thanksgiving, not of expiation or atonement. The mis-
take of the five writers who supposed that the Incas offered human sacrifices
was due to their ignorance of the language.' The perpetration of human
4. Ccoya Raymi (z2 Sept.-Z2 Oct.), Festival of Betanios, Molina, Montesinos, Fernandez, and
the Spring Equinox. Situs. Ramos. Acosta also gives an incomplete list.
5. Uma Raymi (22 Oct.-2z Nov.), Season of ' Judges xii. 391 2 Kings iiL a?.
brewing. ' The sacrifices were called runa, yuyac, and
6. Ayamarca (22 Nov,-2S Dec), Commemo- huahua. The Spaniards thought that runa and
ration of the dead. yuyiu signilied men, and huahua childreti. This
was not the case when speaking of sacrificial
7. Ccafac Raymi (2Z Dec.-22 Jan.), Festival victims. Runa was applied to a male sacrifice,
of the Summer Solstice. Huaraca. huahua to the lambs, and yuyac signified an
8. Camay (22 Jan.-22 Feb.), Season of exer- adult or full-grown animal. The sacrificial ani-
cises. mals were also called after the names of those
9. Hatun-poccc^ (22 Feb.-22 March), Season who offered them, which was another cause of
of ripenit^. erroneous assumptions by Spanish writers.
There was a law strictly prohibiting human sac-
10. Pacha-fioccoy (22 March-22 April), Festival Hfices among the conquered tribes; and the
of Autumn Equinox. Masoc Nina. statement that servants were sacrificed a "
II. Ayrihua {22 April-22 May). Beginning of obsequies of their masters U disproved by the
harvest. iÂ, mentioned by the anonymous Jesuit, that
tz. Aymuray (zz May-22 June), Harvesting in none of the burial-places opened by the Span-
iioith- iaids in seaich of treasure were any humaa
The other aathoritiet for the Inca months are bones found, except those of the buried lord
himself.
vGoosIe
sacrifice was opposed to the religious ideas of the ancient Peruvians, and
formed no part of their ceremonial worship. Their ritual was almost exclu-
sively devoted to thanksgiving apd rejoicings over the beneficence of their
Deity. The notion of expiation formed no part of their creed, while the
destruction involved in such a system was opposed to their economic and
carefully regulated civil polity.^
The second great festival, called Sltua, was celebrated at the vernal equi-
nox. This was the commencement of the rainy season, when sickness pre-
vailed, and the object of the ceremony was to pray to the Creator to drive
diseases and evils from the land. In the centre of the great square of Cuzco
a body of four hundred warriors was assembled, fully armed for war. One
hundred faced towards the Chincha-suyu road, one hundred faced towards
Anti-suyu, one hundred towards Colla-suyu, and one hundred towards Cunti-
suyu, — the four great divisions of the empire. The Inca and the high-
priest, with their attendants, then came from the temple, and shouted, " Go
forth all evils ! " On the instant the warriors ran at great speed towards
the four quarters, shouting the same sentence as they went, until they each
came to another party, which took up the cry, and the last parties reached
the banks of great rivers, the Apurimac or Vilcamayu, where they bathed
and washed their arms. The rivers were supposed to carry the evils away to
the ocean. As the warriors ran through the streets of Cuzco, all the people
came to their doors, shaking their clothes, and shouting, " Let the evils be
gone ! " In the evening they all bathed ; then they lighted great torches of
straw, called pancurcu, and, marching in procession out of the city, they
threw them into the rivers, believing that thus nocturnal evils were banished.
At night, each family partook of a supper consisting of pudding made of
1 Ptescott (I. p. 98, note) accepted the state- onginal conquerors; Juan de Oliva; the Licen-
inent that human sacrifices were offered by the tiate Alvarez; Fray Marcos Jofre; (he Licen-
Incas, because six authorities, Sarmiento, Cieia tiate Falcon, \a\C\s Apologia pro Indis ; Melchior
de Leon, Montesinos, Balboa, Ondegardo, and Hernandez, in his dictionary, under the words
Acosta — outnumbered the single authority on harpay and haahua; the anonymous Jesuit in
the othetside,Garcilas9ode la Vega, who, more- his most valuable narrative; and Garcilasso de
over, was believed to be prejudiced owing to his la Vega. These eight authorities outweigh ihe
relationship to the Incas. Sarmiento and Cieza five quoted by Prescolt, both as regards number
de Leon are one and the same, so that the number and importance. So that the evidence against
of authorities for human sacrifices is reduced to human sacrifices is conclusive. The Quipus, as
five. Cieza de Leon. Montesinos, and Balboa the anonymous Jesuit tells us, also prove that
adopted the belief that human sacrifices were there was a law prohibiting human sacrifices,
offered up, through a misunderstanding of the The assertion that 200 children and 1,000 men
words jtcytK and kuahua. Acosta had little or were sacrificed at the coronation of Huayua Cca-
no acquaintance with the language, as is proved pac was made ; but these " kitahuas " were not
by the numerous linguistic biunders in his work, children of men, but young lambs, which are
Ondegardo wrote at a time when he scarcely called children; and the "yuyar" 3Jid"runa"
knew the language, and had no interpreters ; for were not men, but adult llamas. [Mr. Markham
it was in 1554, when he was judge at Cuzco, At has elsewhere collated the authorities on this
that time all the annalists and old men had fled point \Hoyal Cammentaries, i. 139), Cf. Bol-
into the forests, because of the insurrection of laert's Aniiq. Reseanha.f. 124; and Alphonse
Francisco Hernandez Giron. Castaing on " Les FStes, Offrandes et Sacrifices

The authorities who deny the practice are nu- dans I'Antiquite Peruvienne," in the Archives di
merous and important. These are Francisco de la Sociiti Amtricaint dt Frame, q. s., iii. 239, — ■
Chaves, one of the best and most able of the Ed.]
Hosted by.VjOOQlC
coarsely ground maize, called sancu, which was also smeared over their
faces and the lintels of their doorways, then washed off and thrown into the
rivers with the cry, " May we be free from sickness, and may no maladies
enter our houses ! " The kuacas and malquis were also bathed at the feast
of Situa. In the following days all the malquis were paraded, and there
were sacrifices, with feasting and dancing. A stone fountain, plated with
gold, stood in the great square of Cuzco, and the Inca, on this and other
solemn festivals, poured chicha into it from a golden vase, which was con-
ducted by subterranean pipes to the temple.
The third great festival at the summer solstice, called Huaracu, was the
occasion on which the youths of the empire were admitted to a rank equiv-
alent to knighthood, after passing through a severe ordeal. The Inca and
his court were assembled in front of the temple. Thither the youths were
conducted by their relations, with heads closely shorn, and attired in shirts
of fine yellow wool edged with black, and white mantles fastened round
their necks by wooUea cords with red tassels. They made their reverences
to the Inca, offered up prayers, and each presented a llama for sacrifice.'
Proceeding thence to the hill of Huanacauri, where the venerated huaca to
Ayar Uchu was erected, they there received huaras, or breeches made of
aloe fibres, from the priest. This completed their manly attire, and.they
returned home to prepare for the ordeal. A few days afterwards they were
assembled in the great square, received a spear, called yauri, and usutas or
sandals, and were severely whipped to prove their endurance. The young
candidates were then sent forth to pass the night in a desert about a league
from Cuzco. Next day they had to run a race. At the farther end of the
course young girls were stationed, called ûsta-calli-sapa? with jars of chi-
cha, who cried, "Come quickly, youths, for we are waiting! " but the course
was a long one, and many fell before they reached the goal. They also had
to rival each other in assaults and feats of arms. Finally their ears were
bored, and they received ear-pieces of gold and other marks of distinction
from the Inca. The last ceremony was that of bathing in the fountain
called Calli-puquio. About eight hundred youths annually passed through
this ordeal, and became adult warriors, at Cuzco, and similar ceremonies
were performed in all the provinces of the empire.
In the month following on the summer solstice, there was a curious reli-
gious ceremony known as the water sacrifice. The cinders and ashes of all
the numerous sacrifices throughout the year were preserved. Dams were
constructed across the rivers which flow through Cuzco, in order that the
water might rush down with great force when they were taken away.
Prayers and sacrifices were offered up, and then a little after sunset all the
ashes were thrown into the rivers and the dams were removed. Then the
burnt-sacrifices were hurried down with the stream, closely followed by
' The sacrificial llamas bore the names of the language, assumed that the youths themselves
youths who presented them. Hence the Span- wei;e the victims. (See aiife, p. 337.)
ish writers, with little or no knowledge of the ^ Nusta, princess ; colli, valorous ; sapa, alone,
unrivalled.
y Google
crowds of people on either bank, with blazing torches, as far as the bridge
at OUantay-tampu. There two bags of coca were offered up by being
hurled into the river, and thence the sacrifices were allowed to flow onwards
to the sea. This curious ceremony seems to have been intended not only
as a thank-offering to the Deity, but as an acknowledgment of his omnipres-
ence. As the offerings flowed with the stream, they knew not whither, yet
went to Him, so his pervading spirit was everywhere, alike in parts un-
known as in the visible world of the Incas.
A sacred fire was kept alive throughout the year by the virgins of the
sun, and the ceremony of its annua! renewal at the autumnal equinox was
the fourth great festival, called Mosoc-nina, or the "new fire." Fire was
produced by collecting the sun's rays on a burnished metal mirror, and the
ceremony was the occasion of prayers and sacrifices. The year ended with
the rejoicing of the harvest months, accompanied by songs, dances, and
other festivities.
Besides the periodical festivals, there were also religious observances

which entered into the life of each family. Every household had one or
more lares, called Conopa, representing maize, fruit, a llama, or other object
on which its welfare depended. The belief in divination and soothsaying,
the practice of fasting followed by confession, and worship of the family
tnalqui, ail gave employment to the priesthood.
The complicated religious ceremonies connected with the periodical fes-

tivals, the daily worship, and the requirements of private families gave rise
to the growth of a very numerous caste of priests and diviners. The pope
of this hierarchy, the chief pontiff, was called Uillac Utnu, words meaning
"The head which gives counsel," he who repeats to the people the utter-
ances of the Deity. He was the most learned and virtuous of the priestly
caste, always a member of the reigning family, and next in rank to the Inca.
The Villcas, equivalent to the bishops of a Christian hierarchy, were the
chief priests in the provinces, and during the greatest extension of the em-
pire they numbered ten. The ordinary ministers of religion were divided
into sacrificers, worsh pp d d w
■ Of the first class wer

sacrificing priests, and the in
the victims and provided t ff m
harpay or bloody sacrifices ry m as H m
sacrifices of flesh, oi _cocu_ m es
fruit, or coca Molina mentions a custom called flight of birds. The IJay A ha u H aiu
Ceapac-citcha or Cacha-kuaca, being the distribu- and Uira-piriiuc were soo h y £ an u
tion of sacrifices. An enormous tribute came to grades. The Socyac divined by m h ap h
Cuico annually for sacrificial purposes, and was Pacchatuc by the feet of a I g hairy p d h
thence distributed by the Inca, for the worship Uaychunca by odds and evens. The recluses
of every kuaea in the empire. The different sac- were not only Adta-atna, or virgins congregated
rifices were sent from Cuico in all directions for in temples under the charge of matrons called
delivery to the priests of the numerous Hua- Mama-cuna. There were also hermits who raed-
<ai. The ministering priests were called Huaeap Stated in solitary places, and appear to have been
Vitlac when they had charge of a special idol, under a rule, with an abbot called Tucricac, and
Huaeap Rimachi or Hualuc when they received younger men serving a novitiate called ffuamac.
% from a deity while in a state of ec- These HuancaquUli, or hermits, took vows of
Hosted by VjOOQIC
indeed inevitable that, with a complicated ritual and a gorgeous ceremonial

worship, a populous class of priests and their assistants, of numerous grades
and callings, should come into existence.^
But the intellectual movement and vigor of the Incas were not confined ■
to the priesthood. The Amautas or learned men, the poets and reciters of
history, the musical and dramatic composers, the Quipu-camayoc, or record-
ers and accountants, were not necessarily, nor indeed generally, of the
priestly caste. It is probable that the Amautas, or men of learning, formed
a separate caste devoted to the cultivation of literature and the extension
of the language. Our knowledge of their progress and of the character of
their traditions and poetic culture is very limited, owing to the destruction
of records and the loss of oral testimony. The language has been preserved,
and that will tell us much ; but only a few literary compositions have been
saved from the wreck of the Inca empire. Quichua was the name given to
the general language of the Incas by Friar Domingo de San Tomas, the
first Spaniard who studied it grammatically, possibly owing to his having
acquired it from people belonging to the Quichua tribe. The name con-
tinued to be used, and has been generally adopted,^ Garcilasso de la Vega
speaks of a separate court language of the f ncas, but the eleven words he
gives as belonging to it are ordinary Quichua words, and I concur with Her-
vas and William von Humboldt in the conclusion that this court 1
chastity iii/u), obedience (ffuRicui), poverty (us- von Humboldt. These languages form new
cacuy), and penance (villullery). words by a process of junction which b much
' [The general works on the Inca civilization more developed in them than in any o( the forms
necessarily touch these points of their religious of speech in the Old World. They also have
customs, and Mr. Markhatn's volume on the exclusive and inclusive plurals, and transitional
mus and Lavis of the Incas is a -ptime source of forms of the verb combined with pronominal
information. Hawk's translation of Rivero and suffixes which are peculiar to them. In these
Von Tschudi (p. 151) gives references; but spe. respects the Quichua is purely an American lan-
cial mention may be made of Miiller's GtsekickU guage, and in spite of the resemblances in the
der Amerikanisckett Urreligionen ; Castaing's sounds of some words, which have been dili-
Les Syslimt religieux dans I'AntiqutU pirmd- gently collected by Lopez (Lis Races Aryentut
enne, iathi Archives de la Soc. Ani4r. de France, (fa /'/roic, par Vicente F. Lopez. Paris, 1871} and
n. S., iii. 86, 145; Tylot's Primitive Culture; Ellis (Peruvia Scythica. by Robert Ellis, B. D..
Brinton's Myths cf the New World; and Albert London, 1875), no connection, either as regards
Rdville's Lectures on the origin and growth of grammar or vo<abulaty, has been satisfactorily
religion as illustrated by the native religions of established between the speech of the Incai
Mexico artd Pent. Delivered at Oxford and and any language of the Old World. Quichua
London, in April and May, 1SS4. Translated *f ia a noble language, with a mOst eitensive vo-
Philif H. Wieksteed (London, 1884. Hibhart cabulary, rich in forms of the plural mumber,
lectures). — Ed.] which argue a very clear conception of the idea
' The Quichua language was spoken over a of plurality ; rich in verbal conjugations j rich in
vast area of the Andean region of South America, the power of forming compoutid nouni i rich in
The dialects only differ slightly, and even the varied exprsMiona to denote abstract Ideas 1 rich
language of the Collas, called by the Spaniards in words for relationships which are wanting in
Aymara, is identical as regards the grammatical the Old World idioma i and rich, above all. In
sOTicture, while a clear majority of the words synonyms : so that it was an efficient vehicle
are (he same. The general language of Peru wherewith to clothe the thougbti and ideu of «
belongs to that American group of languages people advanced In dviliiation.

which has been called agglutinative by William
TOL. I.— 16
Hosted by VjOOQIC
of Garcilasso had no real existence.' It is not mentioned by any other

authority.
It was the custom for the Yaravecs or Bards to recite the deeds of former
Incas on public occasions, and these rhythmical narratives were orally pre-
served and handed down by the learned men. Cieza de Leon tells us that
" by this plan, from the mouths of one generation the succeeding one was
taught, and they could relate what took place five hundred years ago as if
only ten years had passed. This was the order that was taken to prevent
the great events of the empire from falling into oblivion." These historical
recitations and songs must have formed the most important part of Inca
literature. One specimen of imaginative poetry has been preserved by Bias
Valero, in which the thunder, followed by rain, is likened to a brother break-
ing his sister's pitcher ; just as in the Scandinavian mythology the legend
which is the original source of our nursery rhyme of Jack and Jill employs
the same imagery. Pastoral duties are embodied in some of the later Qui-
chuan dramatic literature, and numerous love songs and yaravies, or ele-
gies, have been handed down orally, or preserved in old manuscripts. The
dances were numerous and. complicated, and the Incas had many musical
instruments.^ Dramatic representations, both of a tragic and comic char-
acter, were performed before the Inca court. The statement of Garcilasso
de la Vega to this effect is supported by the independent evidence of Cieza
de Leon and of Salcamayhua, and is placed beyond a doubt by the sentence
of the judge, Areche, in 1781, who prohibited the celebration of these dra-
mas by the Indians. Esther Iteri also speaks of the "Quichua dramas
transmitted to this day (1790) by an unbroken tradition." But only one
such drama has been handed down to our own time. It is entitled Ollan-
tay, and records an historical event of the time of Yupanqui Pachacutec.
In its present form, as regards division into scenes and stage directions, it
shows later Spanish manipulation. The question of its antiquity has been
much discussed; but the final result is that Quichua scholars believe most
of its dialogues and speeches and all the songs to be remnants of the Inca
period.
The system of record by the use of qmpus, or knots, was primarily a

method of numeration and of keeping accounts. To cords of various col-
ors smaller lines were attached in the form of fringe, on which there were
knots in an almost infinite variety of combination. The Quipu-camayoc, or
accountant, coul(J by this means keep records under numerous heads, and
preserve the accounts of the empire. The quipus represented a far better
system of keeping accounts than the exchequer tallies which were used in
England for the same purpose as late as the early part of the present cen-
tury. But the question of the extent to which historical events could be
1 Garcilasso, Com. Stal., i, lib. i. cap. 24, and wooden flute, and the pimtu, of bone. They
lib. vii. cap. I. also had a stringed instrument called Hnya, for
' Among several kinds of flutes were the accompanying their songs, a drum, and trumpets
chayva, made ot cane, the fincuUu, a small of several kinds, one made from a sea-shell.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
recorded by this system of knots is a difficult one. We have the direct

assertions of Montesinos, Salcamayhua, the anonymous Jesuit, Bias Valera,
and others, that not only narratives, but songs, were preserved by means of
the quipus. Von Tschudi believed that by dint of the uninterrupted studies of
experts during several genera-
tions, the power of expression
became developed more and
more, and that eventually the
art of the Quipu ■ camayoc
reached a high state of perfec-
tion. It may reasonably be
assumed that with some help
from oral commentary, codes
of laws, historical events, and
even poems were preserved in
the quiptts. It was through
this substitute for writing that
Montesinos and the anony-
mous Jesuit received their lists
of ancient dynasties, and Bias
Valera distinctly says that the
poem he has preserved was
taken from quipus. Still it
must have been rather a sys-
tem of mnemonics than of com- .^.^^ quipus-
plete record. Molina tells us
that the events in the reigns of all the Incas, as well as early traditions,
were represented by paintings on boards, in a temple near Cuzco, called
Poquen cancha.
The diviners used certain incantations to cure the sick, but the healing
art among the Incas was really in the hands of learned men. Those Amau-
tas who devoted themselves to the study of medicine had, as Acosta bears
testimony, a knowledge of the properties of many plants. The febrifuge
virtues of the precious quinquina were, it is true, unknown, or only locally
known. But the Amattas sed plants with tonic properties for curing
• [Following a ketch n R and T hudi, as reproduced by Helps. It *owa a qnipu found In an
ancient cemete y n a Pa ha an fhe e are other cuts in Wiener's Pirou et Bolivie, p. 777 ; Tylor's
Early Hist Mank Hd 6 K ng b ughs Mexico, voL iv.; Silveatre's Unkitrial Falaografhy ; and
L6on de Rosny E n figu aSni Pa 870. Cf. Acosta, vi. cap. i, and other early authorities men-
tioned in Prescott (Kuk b ed. 1. 125) , Markham s Ciesa, 291 ; D. Wilson's Prthist<iru Man, ii. ch. iS; Faurik
Reft. Bureau of Elhniilegy (Washington), p. 79; Bollaert's description in Memsirs read before the An
Ihrofological Society of London, i, 18S, and iii. 351 ; A. Haitian's CuUurldndtr des alten America, \a. 7} ,
Brasseur de Bjirbourg's MS. Troano.i. 18; Stevens's i'ffH( CAi/j, 465 ; T. P. Thompson's "Knot Record*
of Peru" in Westminster RrvieTO, Hi. 118 ; but in the separate print called History of the Quifoi, or Peruvian
Knot-records, as given by Ihi early Spanish Historians, with a Deseriptien of a supposed Specimen, aswgned
to Al. Strong by Lecletc, No. 2413. The description in Freiier's Voyage to the South Sea (1717) it one of
Ihe earliest among Europeans. Leclerc, No. 2411, mentions a Letter a apologetiea (NapoU, 1750), pertaining
to Iha quipus, but seems uncertain as to its value. — Ed.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
fevers ; and they were provided with these and other drugs by an itinerant
caste, called Calahuayas or Charisanis, who went into the forests to pro.
cure them. The descendants of these itinerant doctors still wander over
South America, selling drugs.^ The discovery of a skull in a cemetery
at Yucay, which exhibits clear
evidence of a case of trepan-
ning before death, proves the
marvellous advances made by
the Incas in surgical science.
The sovereign was the centre

of all civilization and all knowl-
edge. All literary culture, all
the religious ceremonial which
had grown up with the extension
of the empire, had the Inca for
their centre, as well as all the
miHtary operations and all laws
connected with civil administra-
tion. Originally but the Sinchi,
or chief of a small ayllu, the
greatness of successive Incas
grew with the extension of their
power, until at last they were
looked upon almost as deities
INCA SKULL,. by tf*^^^ subjects. _ The greatest
lords entered their presence in
a stooping position and with a small burden on their backs. The im-
perial family rapidly increased. Each Inca left behind him numerous
younger sons, whose descendants formed an ayllu, so that the later sov-
ereigns were surrounded by a numerous following of their own kindred,
from among whom able public servants were selected. The sovereign was
1 Bias Valera wrote upon the subject of Inca meniaries of Garcilasso de la Vega. An inter-
drugs, and I have given a list of those usually esting account of the Calahuaya doctors is given
found in the bags of the itinerant Calahuaya by Don Modesto Easadre in his Siquetas Peru-
doctors, in a foot-note at page l86 in vol. i. of anas, p. 17 (Uma, 1884).
my translation of the first part of the Royal Com-
• [After the plate in the ConMb. h N. Am. Ethaohgj, vol. v, (Powell's survey, 1882), showing the tre-
phined skull broi^ht from Peru by Squier, in the Army Med. Museum, Washington. Squiet in his Per^,
p. 45J, gives another cut, with comments of Broca and others in the appendix, Cf. in the same volume a paper
on " Prehistoric Trephining and Cranial Amulets," by R. Fletcher, and a paper on " Trephining in the Neo-
mAzftAtA;' \Rf!rit Journal 0f Ike AnthrÛ^c^ InstiivU, Xov„ 1SS7. Cf. on PeruvUn skulls Rudolf
Virdiow, in the third volume of the NicrspoUs sf Ancon ; T. J. Hutchinson in the Journal of the Antkrofo-
Ugiial lnitiimti,-w.. yw iv. 21 Busk and Davis in /«rf. iii. 86, 94 ; Wilson's Prehistoric Man, a- ea. ia; C
C. Blake, in Traruaciions EthnoUg. Sue., n. 3., ii. There are two collections of Peruvian skulls in the Peabody
MnieumatCamhridge, Mass., — one presented by Squier, the other secured hy the Haasler Expedition. (Cf.
Riftrts VII. and IX. of the museam.) Wiener [VEmpiri di) Incas, p. Bi) cites a long list of writers on the
attifidal deforming of the skull. — Et>.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
24s
the " Sapallan Inca" the sole and sovereign lord, and with good reason he
was called Huaccka-cuyac, or friend of the poor.
Enormous wealth was sent to Cuzco as tribute from all parts of the em-
pire, for the service of the court and of the temples. The special insignia
of the sovereign were the Uautu, or crimson fringe round the forehead, the
wing feathers (black and white) of the alcamari, an Andean vulture, on' the
head, forming together the j««j'«/<j«ir(7r or sacred head-dress; the kuaman
champi, or mace, and the ccapac-yauri, or sceptre. His dress consisted of
shirts of cotton, tunics o£ dyed cotton in patterns, with borders of small gold
and silver plates or feathers, and mantles of fine vicufla wool woven and
dyed. The Incas, as represented in the pictures at Cuzco,^ painted soon
RUINS AT CHUCUITO.*
after the conquest, wore golden breastplates suspended round their necks,
with the image of the sun stamped upon them ; ^ and the Ccoya, or queen,
wore a large golden topu, or pin, with figures engraved on the head, which
secured her IHclla, or mantle. All the utensils of the palace were of gold ;
and so exclusively was that precious metal used in the service of the court
and the temple that a garden outside the Ccuri-cancha was planted with
models of leaves, fruit, and stalks made of pure gold.^
' In the church o£ Santa Anna. The present writer had an opportunity of inspect-
2 [See pictures of Atahualpa in Vol. 11. pp. ing and malting careful Copies of them. His
515, 516. For a colored plate of "Lyoux d'or drawings of the breastplate and lopu were litho-
peruviens," emblems of royally, see Arekime! di graphed for BoHaerCs Amiquarian Researihts in
la Soc. Amir, dt Frami, n. s.. i. pi. v. — Ed.] Peru. p. 146. The breastplate was 5 3-10 inches
a The truth of this useof gold by the Incas in diameter, and had four narrow slits for sus-
does not depend on the glowing descriptions of pendmg it round the neck. The golden leaf was
Garcilasso de la Vega. A golden breastplate iz 7-10 inches long, including the stem ; breadth
and Cc/H, a golden leaf with a long stalk, foar of the base of the leaf, 3 i-io inches. The mod-
specimens of golden fruit, and a girdle of gold els of fruit were 3 inches in diameter, and the
were found neaj Cuzco in 1852, and sent lo the girdle 18 1-4 inches long,
late General Echenique, then President of Peru.
• [After a, drawing in Squii
val AfBH,
<-,/P«^
7, showing a
.11 of hew
•sPiru, p. 3i4.~ED.T,
Hosted by VjO.OQIC
246
The architecture of a people is one of the most important tests of their

civilization, and in this art the Incas had made astonishing progress. When
their ancestor first arrived at Cuzco he had before him the cyclopean labors
of a former dynasty on the heights of the Sacsahuaman. Two mountain
streams flowed from either side of that hill and united in the plain, often
overflowing their banks and forming swamps. The Incas drained the ground,
confined the torrents between maso.nry walls, and erected edifices in the
reclaimed space, which will remain as monuments of their skill and taste
for all time. Here rose the famous city of Cuzco.
LAKE TITICACA.*
Two styles are discernible in Inca architecture. The earliest is an imi-

tation of the cyclopean works of their ancestors on a smaller scale. The
walls were built with polygonal-shaped stones with rough surfaces, but the
stones were much reduced in size. Rows of doorways with slanting sides
• [After ii cut in Ruse's Gtick. dis Zeital. der Bntiiititngen. Sqnier explored the lake with Raimond
In 1864-65, and bears testimony to the general accuracy ot the survey by J. B. Pentland, British consul in Bo-
livia (i8s7-j8 and 1837), published by the British admiralty ; but Squier points out some defects of liis survey
in his Remarques sar la Giog. du Pimu, p. 14, and in Journal Amir. Geog. Sac, iii. There is another view
inWienet's^^roHrfSo/roM, p. 441. Ct. Marltham's Cieza dt ieoB, 370; Marcoy's Voyage ; Baldwin's ^«.
dent America, 128 ; and Philippson's Geseh. des «eu. Zeil.. L 240. Squier in his Peru (pp. 308-370) gives
vsriout views, plans of the ruins, and a map of the lake. — Ed.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
247
and monolithic lintels adorn the facades ; while recesses for /tuacas, shaped
like the doorways, occur in the interior walls. ' Part of the palace called the
Collcampata, at the foot of the Cuzco fortress, the buildings which were
added to the cyclopean work at Ollantay tampu, the older portion of the
Ccuri-cancha temple at Cuzco, the palaces at Chinchero and Rimac-tampu,
are in this earlier style. The later style is seen mainly at Cuzco, where
the stones are laid in regular courses. No one has described this superb
masonry better than Squier.^ No cement or mortar of any kind was used,
the edifices depending entirely on the accuracy of their stone-fitting for their
stability. The palaces and temples were built round a court-yard, and a
hall of vast dimensions, large enough for ceremonies on an extensive scale,
was included in the plan of most of the edifices. These halls were 200 paces
long by 50 to 60 broad. The dimensions of the Ccuri-cancha temple were
296 feet by 52, and the southwest end was apsidal. Serpents are carved in
relief on some of the stones and lintels of the Cuzco palaces. Hence the pal-
ace of Huayna Ccapac is called Amaru-cancha.^ At Hatun-colla, near Lake
Titicaca, there are two sandstone pillars, probably of Inca origin, which are
very richly carved. They are covered with figures of serpents, lizards, and
frogs, and with elaborate geometrical patterns. The height of the walls of
the Cuzco edifices was from 35
to 40 feet, and the roofs were
thatched. One specimen of the
admirable thatching of the Incas
is still preserved at Azangaro.
There are many ruins through-

out Peru both in the earlier and
later styles ; some of them, such
as those at Vilcashuaman and
Huanuco el viejo, being of great
interest. The Inca palace on the
island in Lake Titicaca is a rec-
tangular two-storied edifice, with
numerous rooms having ceilings formed of .flat overlapping stones, laid with
great regularity. With its esplanade, beautiful terraced gardens, baths,
and fountains, this Titicaca palace must have been intended for the enjoy-
ment of beautiful scenery in comparative seclusion, like the now destroyed
palace at Yucay, in the valley of the Vilcamayu.
' "The stones are of various sizes in different with which the stones of some structures were
structures, ranging in length from one to eight fitted together was such that it was impossible
feet.andin thickness ftomsijt inches to twofeet. to introduce the thinnest knife-blade or finest
The larger stones are generally at the bottom, needle between them, may be taken as strictly
each course diminishing in thickness towards true. The world has nothing lo show in the way
the top of the wall, thus giving a very pleasing of stone cutting and fitting to surpass the skill
effect of graduation. The joints are of a precis- and accuracy displayed in the Inca st
ion unknown in our architecture, and not rivalled Cuzco."
in the remains of ancient art in Europe. The * Place of serpents,

t of the old writers, that the accuracy
LAKE TmCACA"
•[One
cut: which did
Intwerp editions of Cieia de Leon. — Ed.J
vGoaosIe
An example of the improvement of architecture after Inca subjugation is

shown in the curious burial-places, or ckulpas, of the CoUao, in the basin of
Lake Titicaca. The earliest, as seen at Acora near the lake, closely resem-
ble the rude cromlechs of Brittany. Next, roughly built square towers
are met with, with vaults inside. Lastly, the ckulpas at Sillustani are well-
built circular towers, about 40 feet high and 16 feet in diameter at the base.
MAP OF TiTICACA, WITH WIENER'S ROUTE.
widening as they rise. A cornice runs round each tower, about three
fourths of the distance from the base to the summit. The stones are admi-
rably cut and fitted in nearly even courses, like the walls at Cueco. The
interior circular vaults, which contained the bodies, were arched with over-
lapping stones, and a similar dome formed the roof of the towers.
The architectural excellence reached by the Incas, their advances in the

other arts and in literature, and the imperial magnificence of their court and
religions worship, imply the existence of an orderly and well-regulated ad-
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ministrative system. An examination of their social polity will not disap-

point even higli expectations. Tlie Inca, though despotic in theory, wj£s
PRIMEVAL TOMB, ACCRA.*

bound by the complicated code of rules and customs which had gradually
developed itself during the reigns of his ancestors. In his own extensive
RUINS AT QUELLENATA.t
family, composed of Auqui^ and Atauchi,^ Palla^ and Nusta,* to the num-
ber of many hundreds,^ and in the Curacas* and Apu-curacas^ of the con-
quered tribes, he had a host of able public servants to govern provinces,
enter the priesthood, or command armies.
The empire was marked out into four great divisions, corresponding with
the four cardinal points of a compass placed at Cuzco. To the north was
' An unmarried prince o£ the Wood royal ; i

nobleman. Father, in the Colla dialect.
* A married prince of the blood royal.
' A married princess [ a lady of noble family.
< An unmarried princess.
' At the conquest there were 59^, but a great

number had been killed in the previous civil war.
« Chiefs.
'' Principal chiefs.
■ [After a sketch in Squler's Prim
rval MonvminU of Peru, Salem, iSJo. He considers it an example of
some of Uw oldest of human monume
been built by Ihe ancestors of the Per
avians of the conquest in their earliest development — Ed.]
t [Reduced from a sketch in Squie

northesist of Lake TJticaca, and the c
lit shows a hill-fortiHs (pucura) and the round, flaring-top burial tonen
(chulpas). Cf, cut in Wiener's Pirn
rfSD;n/i(,p.53S.-ED.l
i^GoosIe
2SO NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
Chinchay-suyu, to the east Anti-suyu, to the west Cunti-suyu, and to the
RUINS AT ESCOMA, E
south Colla-suyu. The whole empire was called Ttahuantin-suyu, or the
SILLUSTANl, PERU.t
four united provinces. Each great province was governed by an Inca vice-
roy, whose title was Ccapac, or Tucuyricoc} The latter word means " He
1 Balboa, Montesinos, Santillana.
• [After a cut in Squier's Primaiat Mmttmints of Peru, p. 9, — a square lwo.storied burial tower (chulpa>
with hUl-fortress {pucura) in the distance, situated east of Lake Titicaca, Cf, Squier's Pern, p. 373- — Ec]
* tSuiKitcles {Intihuatana, where the sun is Hed up), after a cut in Squier's Primeval Monuments of Peru,
p,:;. The nearer circle is 90 feet; the farther, which has a grooved outlying platform, is 150 feet in diam*
ter, C£.planandviewsin Squier's /"e™, eh. 20. — Ed.]
vGoosIe
who sees all." Garcilasso describes the office as merely that of an inspector,
whose duty it was to visit the province and report. Under the viceroy
wfire the native Curacas, who governed the ayllus, or lineages. Each ayllu
was divided into sections of ten families, under an officer called Chunca (10)
eamayu. Ten of these came under a Pachaca (100) camayu. Ten Pachacas
ioimed ci Muaranca {1,000) camayu, cLnd the Hunu (lo.ooo) camayu ruled
RUINS OK AN INCARIAL VILLAGE*
over ten Huarancas. The Chunca of ten families was the unit of govern-
ment, and each Chunca formed a complete community.^
The cultivable land belonged to the people in their ayZ/wj, each Chunca
being allotted a sufficient area to support its ten Purics and their de-
pendants.^ The produce was divided between the government (Incd), the
' The male members of a Ck-utKa were di-

i'ided into ten classes, wiih reference to age and
:on5equent ability to work : —
I. jl/iwiv-ii/iiw, "Newly begun," A baby.
z. Saya-haarma, "Standing boy." A child

that could stand.
3. Mticla-puric, " Walking child." Child aged
of 8.
"Bread r
lioy
5 Pudaec huarmn " Playing boy." Boys
from 8 to 16
6 Cuca fallac ( oca picker." Age from 16
to 20 Light work.
7 Yma huavaa As a youth." Age 20 to 25.
8 Pane Able bodied." Head of a
fam ly paying tribute.
9 Chaufi m cu Elderly." Light service.
^ge JO to 60
10 PuHu ra u Dotage." No work. Sixty
and upwards
A CAuHca consisted of ten Purici, with the
other classes in proportion. The JhirU was
married to one wife and while assisted by the
young hds and the elderly men, he supported
the children and the old people who could not
• [S h ated on the road fj

L Bmp rt Us In oj pi v — Ed.]
work. The Peruvian laborer had many super-

stitions, but he was not devoid of higher religious
feelings. This is shown by his practice when
travelling. On reaching the summit of a pass
his beloved pellet of coca, on a heap by the road-

side, as a thank-offering to God, exclaiming,
Apachicta muchani! "I worship or give thanks
at this heap." Festivals lightened his days of
toil by their periodical recurrence, and certain
family ceremonials were also recognized as occa-
sions for holidays. There was a gathering at
the cradling of a child, called qtdrau. When
the child attained the age of one year, the rulu-
chku took place. Then he received the name
he was to retain until he attained the age of pu-
berty. The child was closely shorn, and the
name was given by the eldest relation. With a
girl the ceremony mas called quicuchica, and
there was a fast of two days imposed before the
naming-day, when she assumed the dress called
aucalluasu.
2 The >ufi
to support
tupiis according
measure of land suffident
and his wife. It was the
a puric received
the number of those depen-
Milo to Hiiancayo. Reduced from an irk drajpng given by Wiener in hb
Hosted bV'
Google
priesthood {Huaca), and the cultivators or poor (Huacchd), but not in equal
shares.' In some parts the three shares were kept apart in cultivation, but
as a rule the produce was divided at harvest time. The flocks of llamas
were divided into Ccapac-llama, belonging to the state, and Huaccka-llama,
owned by the people. Thus the land belonged to the ayllu, or tribe, and
e&ch J>uric, or able-bodied man, had a right to his share of the crop, provided
that he had been present at the sowing. All those who were absent must
have been employed in the service of the Inca or Huaca, and subsisted on
the government or priestly share. Shepherds and mechanics were also de-
pendent on those shares. Officers called Runay-pachaca annually revised
the allotments, made the census, prepared statistics for the Quipu-<:amayoc,
and sent reports to the Tucuyricoc. The Llacta-camayoc, or village overseer,
announced the turns for irrigation and the fields to be cultivated when the
shares were grown apart. These daily notices were usually given from a
tower or terrace. There were also judges or examiners, called Taripasac?
who investigated serious offences and settled disputes. Punishments for
crimes were severe, and inexorably inflicted. It was also the duty of these
officers, when a particular ayllu suffered any calamity through wars or nat-
ural causes, to allot contingents from surrounding ayllus to assist the neigh-
bor in distress. There were similar arrangements when the completion or
repair of any public work was urgent. The most cruel tax on the people
consisted in the selection of the Aclla-cuna, or chosen maidens for the ser-
vice of the Inca, and the church, or Huaca. This was done once a year by
an ecclesiastical dignitary called the Apu-Panaca? or, according to one
authority, the Hatun-uilca* who was deputy of the high-priest. Service
under the Inca in all other capacities was eagerly sought for.
The industry and skill of the Peruvian husbandmen can scarcely alone
account for the perfection to which they brought the science of agriculture.
The administrative system of the Incas must share the credit. Not a spot
of cultivable land was neglected. Towns and villages were built on rocky
ground. Even their dead were buried in waste places. Dry wastes were
irrigated, and terraces were constructed, sometimes a hundred deep, up the
sides of the mountains. The most beautiful example of this terrace cultiva-
tion may still be seen in the " Andencria," or hanging gardens of the valley
of Vilcamayu, near Cuzco. There the terraces, commencing with broad
fields at the edge of the level ground, rise to a height of 1,500 feet, narrow-
ing as they rise, until the loftiest terraces against the perpendicular moun-
tain side are not more than two feet wide, just room for three or four rows
dent on h[m. In parts of Peru, especially on the ^ From Taripani, I examine,
road from Tarma to Xauxa, these small square ' It should probably be Afiunaea : Apu is a
fields, or tafui, may still be seen in great nuni- chief, and naia the plural suffix in the CoUa dia-
bers, divided by low stone walls. lect.
• The shares tor the Inca and Huaca varied * Haiun, great, and uilca, sacred. This offi-
according to the requirements of the state. If cial held a position equivalent to a Christian
needful, the Inta share was increased at the ei- bishop,

pense of the Huaca, but never at the expense of
the people's share
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 2S3
of maize. An irrigation canal, starting high up some narrow ravine at the

snow level, is carried along the mountain side and through the terraces,
flowing down from one to another.
Irrigation on a larger scale was employed not only on the desert coast,
but to water the pastures and arable lands in the mountains, where there is
rain for several months in the year. The channels were often of consider-
able size and great length. Mr. Squier says that he has followed them for
days together, winding amidst the projections of hills, here sustained by
high masonry walls, there cut into the living rock, and in some places con-
ducted in tunnels through sharp spurs of an obstructing mountain. An
officer knew the space of time necessary for irrigating each tupu, and each
cultivator received a flow of water in accordance with the requirements of
his land. The manuring of crops was also carefully attended to.*
The result of all this intelligent labor was fully commensurate with the
thought and skill expended. The Incas produced the finest potato crops
the world hat ever seen. The white maize of Cuzco has never been
approached in size or in yield. Coca, now so highly prized, is a product
peculiar to Inca agriculture, and its cultivation required extreme care, espe-
cially in the picking and drying processes. Ajl, or Chile pepper, furnished
a new condiment to the 0!d World. Peruvian cotton is excelled only by
Sea Island and Egyptian in length of fibre, and for strength and length of
fibre combined is without an equal. Quinua, oca, aracacha, and severaT
fruits are also peculiar to Peruvian agriculture.^
The vast flocks of llamas^ and alpacas supplied meat for the people, dried
charqui for soldiers and travellers, and wool for weaving cloth of every de-
gree of fineness. The alpacas, whose unrivalled wool is now in such large
demand, may almost be said to have been the creation of the Inca shep-
herds. They can only be reared by the bestowal on them of the most con-
stant and devoted care. The wild huanacus and vicunas were also sources
of food and wool supply. No man was allowed to kill any wild animal in
Peru, but there were periodical hunts, called ckacu, in the different prov-
inces, which were ordered by the Inca. On these occasions a wide area
was surrounded by thousands of people, who gradually closed in towards the
centre. They advanced, shouting and starting the game before them, and
closed in, forming in several ranks until a great bag was secured- The
females were released, with a few of the best and finest males. The rest
were then shorn and also released, a certain proportion being killed for the
sake of their flesh. The huanacu wool was divided among the people of the
district, while the silky fleeces of the vicuna were reserved for the Inca.
The Quipucamayoc kept a careful record of the number caught, shorn, and
killed.
' [On the use of guano see Markham's dtut dm AltamerOianiichtn KMlturoSlktrn (Lelptlg,
de LeoH,p. 266, note. — Ed.] 1883), gives a list of sources. — Ed.]
> [Max Stefien, tn hii Die Lat%dwirtscha0 bei ■ [The Uainu wen u«ed in {dm^faif . Cf.
Humboldt'* Viaa tf Natmrt,-^ 1*5. — Ed.]
y Google
254
NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA,
The means of communication in so mountainous a country were an im-

portant department in the administration of the Incas. Excellent roads for
foot passengers radiated from Cuzco to the remotest portions of the empire.
The Inca roads were level and well paved, and continued for hundreds of
leagues. Rocks were broken up and levelled when it was necessary, ravines
were filled, and excavations were made in mountain sides, Velasco meas-
ured the width of the Inca roads, and found them to be from six to seven
yards, sufficiently wide when only foot passengers used them. Gomara gives
them a breadth of twenty-five feet, and says that they were paved with
smooth stones. These measurements were confirmed by Humboldt as
regards the roads in the Andes. The road along the coast was forty feet
wide, according to Zarate. The Inca himself travelled in a litter, borne by
mountaineers from the districts of Soras and Lucanas. Corpa-kuasi, or rest-
^^S
^-^ q\J5]^^
-^m
^Wi
'*^»
^^^^^^
THE
UPPER ROAD "^ÎSS?
1^
OP THE INCAS
^^
^^
FROM HELPS*
houses, were erected at intervals, and the government messengers, or cAas-

guts, ran with wonderful celerity from one' of these stations to another, where
he delivered his message, or quipu, to the next runner. Thus news was
brought to the central government from all parts of the empire with ex-
traordinary rapidity, and the Inca ate fresh fish at Cuzco which had been
■I 393-95. 407-91 4"- Marcoy says the usual
is(vo1. i. 2o6).-
"1
Hosted by VjOOQIC
■'J
caught in the Pacific, three hundred milesaway, on the previous day. Store-
houses, with arms, clothing, and provisions for the soldiers, were also built
at intervals along the roads, so that an army could be concentrated at any
point without previous preparation.
Closely connected with the facilities for communication, which were so

admirably established by the Incas, was the system of moving colonies from
one part of the empire to another. The evils of minute subdivision were
thus avoided, political objects were often secured, and the comfort of the
people was increased by the exchange of products. The- colonists were
called mitimaes. For example, the people of the CoUao, round Lake Titi-
caca, lived in a region where corn would not ripen, and if confined to the
products of their native land they must have subsisted solely on potatoes,
quinua, and llama flesh. But the Incas established colonies from their vil-
lages in the coast valleys of Tacna and Moquegua, and in the forests to the
eastward. There was constant intercourse, and while the mother country
supplied chunus or preserved potatoes, ckarqui or dried meat, and wool to
the colonists, there came back in return, corn and fruits and cotton cloth
from the coast, and the beloved coca from the forests.
Military colonies were also established on the frontiers, and the armies of
the Incas, in their marches and extensive travels, promoted the circulation
of knowledge, while this service also gave employment to the surplus agri-
cultural population. Soldiers were brought from all parts of the empire,
and each tribe or ayliu was distinguished by its arms, but more especially by
its head-dress. The Inca wore the crimson llautu, or fringe ; the Apu, or
general, wore a yellow llautu. One tribe wore a puma's head ; the Cafiaris
were adorned with the feathers of macaws, the Huacrachucus with the
horns of deer, the Pocras and Huamanchucus with a falcon's wing feath-
ers. The arms of the Incas and Chancas consisted of a copper axe, called
champi; a lance pointed with bronze, called chuqui ; and a pole with a
bronze or stone head in the shape of a six-pointed star, used as a club,
called macana. The Collas and Quichuas came with slings and bolas, the
Amis with bows and arrows. Defensive armor consisted of a hualcanca or
shield, the umachucu or head-dress, and sometimes a breastplate. The
perfect order prevailing in civil life was part of the same system which
enforced strict discipline in the army ; and ultimately the Inca troops were
irresistible against any enemy that could bring an opposing force into the
field. Only when the Incas fought against each other, as in the last civil
war, could the result be long doubtful.
The artificers engaged in the numerous arts and on public works subsisted
on the government share of the produce. The artists who fashioned the
stones of the Sillustani towers or of the Cuzco temple with scientific accu-
racy before they were fixed in their places, were wholly devoted to their
art. Food and clothing ha5 to be provided for them, and for the miners,
weavers, and potters. Gold was obtained by the Incas in immense quanti-
ties by washing the sands of the rivers which flowed through the forest-
: Hosted by Ji
2$6 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
covered province of Caravaya. Silver was extracted from the ore by means
of blasting-furnaces called kuayra ; for, although quicksilver was known
PERUVIAN METAL
and used as a coloring material, its properties for reiining silver do not ap-
pear to have been discovered. Copper was abundant in the Collao and in
PERUVIAN POTTERY. 1
Charcas, and tin was found in the hills on the east side of Lake Titicaca,
which enabled the Peruvians to use bronze very extensively.' Lead was
' A bronze instrument found at Sorata had Humboldt gave the composition of a bronze
the following composition, according to an anal- instrument found at Vilcabamba as follows : —

ysis by David Forbes ; —
Copper 8S.05 Copper , 94
Tin 11.42 Tin 6
Iron 36 ,(3^
Silver 17
• [Reproduction of a cut In Benioni's Historia det Monds Nuwo (1565). Cf, D. WLlson's Prehu
Man, L ch. 9, on the Pcnivlin metaWoilien En.]
f [The tripod in tins ffTDvp \% from Piaanit, the others M« Peruvian. Thii tut followi aa cngtavii
Wilson's PnMiloric Man, ii. 41. There »re numerous cuts in Wiener, p. 589, etc. Cf. Stevens's i
CAi/j, p. 171.-- Ed.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
257
also known to them. Skilful workers in metals- fashioned the vases and
other utensils for the use o£ the Inca and of the temples, forged the arms of
the soldiers and the implements of husbandry, and stamped or chased the
ceremonial breastplates, topus, girdles, and chains. The bronze and copper
warlike instruments, which were star-shaped and used as clubs, fixed at
the ends of staves, were cast in moulds. One of these club-heads, now in
the Cambridge collection, has six rays, broad and flat, and terminating in
rounded points. Each ray represents a human head, the face on one sur-
face and the hair and back of the head on the other. This specimen was
undoubtedly cast in a mould. " It is," says Professor Putnam, " a good illus-
ti-ation of the knowledge which the ancient Peruvians had of the methods
of working metals and of the difficult art of casting copper." ^
Spinning, weaving, and dyeing were arts which were sources of employ,
ment to a great number of people, owing to the quantity and variety of the
fabrics for which there was a demand. There were rich dresses interwoven
with gold or made of gold thread ; fine
woollen mantles, or tunics, ornamented
with borders of small square gold and
silver plates ; colored cotton cloths
worked in complicated patterns ; and
fabrics of aloe fibre and sheeps' sinews
for breeches. Coarser cloths of llama
wool were also made in vast quantities.
But the potter's art was perhaps the
one which exercised the inventive fac-
ulties of the Peruvian artist to the great-
est extent. The silver and gold uten-
sils, with the exception of a very few
cups and vases, have nearly all been
melted down. Bijt specimens of pot-
tery, found buried with the dead in great
profusion, are abundant. They are to
be seen in every museum, and at Berlin
and Madrid the collections are very
large. ^ Varied as are the forms to be
found in the pottery of the Incas, and elegant as are many of the designs,
it must be acknowledged that they are inferior in these respects to the
specimens of the plastic art of the Chimu and other people of the Peruvian
coast. The Incas, however, displayed a considerable play of fancy in their
PERUVIAN DRINKING VESSEL."
1 Fifteenth Report of the Trustees of Ike Pe

body Museum of Ethnology, vol. iii. t, p. I;
(Cambridge, 1882).
3 [Cf. the plates in the Necropolis of Anca
n individualily in Ihe head, a(
and De la Rada's Les Vast! P/rtaiiim du Mush

Archiclogique de Madrid, in the Compte Rendu
(p. 236) of the Copenhagen meeling of the Con-
gris des Americanistes. — Ed.]
of the Beckford
" There
yGaosIe
258 . NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
designs. Many of the vases were moulded into forms to represent animals,
fruit, and corn, and were used
1 . ..■I.l't- '!
e-^T
pected liglit upon it.
as conopas, or household
gods. Others took the shape
of human heads or feet, or
were made douhle or quad-
ruple, with a single neck
branching from below.
Some were for interment
with the malquis, others for
household use.^ Professor
Wilson, who carefully exam-
ined several collections of
ancient Peruvian pottery,
formed a high opinion of
their merit, "Some of the
specimens," he wrote, "are
purposely grotesque, and by
no means devoid of true
comic fancy ; while, in the
greater number, the end-
less variety of combinations
of animate and inanimate
forms, ingeniously rendered
subservient to the require-
ments of utility, exhibit fer-
tility of thought in the de-
signer, and a lively percep-
tive faculty in those for
whom he. wrought,"^
There is a great deal more

to learn respecting this mar-
vellous Inca civilization.
Recent publications have,
within the last few years,
thrown fresh and unex-
There may be more information still undiscovered or
' It is believed that some of the heads on the the works of Castelnau, Wiener, Squier, and in
vases were intended as likenesses. One espe- the atlas of the Antigutdades Peruanas. [Cf.
cially, in a collection at Cuzco, is intended, ac- also Marcoy's Voyage ; Mimoires di la Soc. d/s
cording to native tradition, for a portrait of Antiqaaircs du Nord (two plates) ; J. E. Price
Rumi-fiaui, a character in the drama of Ollantiy. in the Anlkrapological Journal, iii. loo, and
* Pnhistoric Man, \. p, 1 10. A great number many of the books of Peruvian travel. — Ed,]
of spedmens of Peruvian pottery are given in
» TAftera
I in Wiener, Pir.
t,p. 65. —Ed.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
inedited. As yet we can understand the wonderful story only imperfectly,

and see it by doubtful lights. Respecting some questions, even of the first
importance, we are still able only to make guesses and weigh probabilities.
Yet, though there is much that is uncertain as regards historical and other
points, we have before us the clear general outlines of a very extraordinary
picture. In no other part of America had civilization attained to such a
height among indigenous races. In no other part 'of the world has the
administration of a purely socialistic government been attempted. The
Incas not only made the attempt, but succeeded.
CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

The student of Inca civilization will first seek mountains and rivers, nor intoleiable hunger and
for information from those Spanish writers who suffering, have ever been sufficient to obstruct
lived during or immediately after the Spanish my two duties, namely, writing and following my
conquest. They were able to converse with na- flag and my captain without fault." He finished
tives who actually flourished before the disrup- tiie First Part of his chronicle in September,
tion of the Inca empire, and who saw the work- l55o,when he was thirty-two years of age. It is
ing of the Inca system before the destruction mainly a geographical description of the coun-
and ruin had well commenced. He will next try, conlaining many pieces of information, such
turn to those laborious inquirers and toromen- as the account of the Inca roads and bridges,
tators who, although not living so near the time, which are of great value. But it is to the Second
were able to collect traditions and other Infor. Part that we owe much of out knowledge of Inca
mation from natives who had carefully preserved civilization. From incidental notices we leam
all that had been handed down by their fathers.' how diligently young CJeza de Leon studied the
These two classes, mdude the vniters of the six- history and government of the Incas, after he
teenth and seventeenth centuries. The authors had written his picturesque description of the
who have occupied themselves with the Quichua country in his First Part. He often asked the
language and the literature of the Incas have Indians what they knew of their condition before
produced works a knowledge of which is essen- the Incas became their lords. He inquired into
tial to an adequate study of the subject.^ Lastly, the traditions of the people from the chiefs of
a consideration of the publications of modem the villages. In 1550 he went to Cuzco with tha
travellers and scholars, who throw light on the express purpose of collecting information, and
writings of early chroniclers, or describe the pres- conferred diligently with one of the surviving de
ent appearance of ancient remains, will show scendants of the Inca Huayna Ccapac, Ci^za
the eitisting position of a survey still far from de Leon's plan, for the second part of his work,
complete, and the interest and charm of which was first to review the system of government of
invite further investigation and research. the Incas, and then to narrate the events of the
Foremost in the first class of writers on Peru reign of each sovereign. He spared no pains to
is Pedro de Cieza de Leon. A general account obtain the best and most authentic informatioii,
of his works will be found elsewhere,' and the and his sympathy with the conquered people, and
present notice will therefore be confined to an generous appreciation of their many good and
estimate of the labors of this author, so far as noble qualities, give a special charm to his nar-
they relate to Inca hbtory and civilization, rative. He bears striking evidence to the his-
Ciezade Leon conceived the desire to write an torical faculty possessed by the learned men at
account of the strange things that were to be the court of the Incas. After saying that on the
seen in the New World, at an early period of his death of a sovereign the chroniclers related the
service as a soldier. "Neither fatigue " he tells events of his reign to his successor, he adds;
us, " nor the ruggedness of the country nor the They could well do Ihb, for there were among
: [The narratives of the Spanish coi
nque t nece sa ly th o v much light, sometimes r
note than incidentally,
upon the earlier history of the regio
n These sou ces are characterized in the criti
chapter viii, of Vol. II., and embrace
bib ograph cal accounts of Herrera, Gomara, Ov
iedo, Andagoya, Xeres,
Fernandez, Oliva, not Co ti^me others
a See Note 11. following this essay.

» Vo
1. II. p. 573.
'Vi-^..^ Hosted .by..
Gâosle
260
them some men with good memories, sound

judgmenls, and sublle genius, and full of reason-
ing power, as we can bear witness who have lieard
them even in these ou( days." Cieia de Leon
is certainly one of the most important authorities
on Inca iiislory and civilization, whether we con-
sider his peculiar advantages, his diligence and
ability, or his character as a conscientious his-
Juan Josj de Betanzos, like Cieza de Leon,

was one of the soldiers of the conquest. He
married a daughter of Atahualpa, and became
a citizen at Cuzco, where he devoted his time
to the study of Quichua, He was appointed
oiiicial interpreter to the Audience and lo suc-
cessive viceroys, and he wrote a Doctrina and
two vocabularies which are now lost. In 1558
he was appointed by the viceroy Marquis of
Cafiete, to treat with theTnca Sayri Tupac,' who
had talien refuge in the fastness of Vilcabamba ;
and by the Governor Lope Garcia de Castro,
to conduct a similar negotiation with Tilu Ciisi
Yupanqui, the brother of Sayri Tupac He was
successful in both missions. He wrote his most
valuable work, the Sataa y Narrachn de Us
Incus, which was finished in the year 1551, by
order of the Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza,
but its publication was p t d by th d ath
of the viceroy. It remain dm ^t and
its existence was first mad k

minican monlt Gregorio G
own worit will be referred t p
said that the history of B tanz
origin, descent, succession d w
was in his possession, and h d b«
to him. Leon Pinelo and Ant
brief notices of the manuscript, but it is only
twice cited by Prescott. The great historian
probably obtained a copy of a manuscript in the
Escurial, through Obadiah Rich, This manu-
script is bound up with the second part of Cieza
de Leon. It is not, however, the whole work
which Garcia appears to have possessed, but
only the first eighteen chapters, and the last in-
complete. Such as it is, it was edited and
1 Cf. Vol. 11, p. 546.
5 Suma y narraciin dc los tncai, pu las [ndias lla.

Cuica y de tsdo lo d ella stijelo. Publ
' We learn from Leon Pinelo that on

Pizarro on the sands of Gallo was an am
Dsn Frandics Pizarro, by Diego de Ti
one of the most respected of the compar
intimate friend of the Inca's brothi
' and hurnanity. He lost his own
behind a copious narrative, and hi
valuable information respecting Iti
Valera, bii
printed for tVe BiMiBleca Hisfano-Ultramarina

by Don Marcos Jimenez de la Espada n 8S0
The work of Betanzos differs f om ha of

Cieza de L«on, because while the latter d sp ays
a diligence and discretion in collecting nforma
tion which give it great weight as an au ho v
the former is imbued with the very sp n of he
natives. The narrative of the prepa a on of
young Yupanqui for the death-struggle with the
Chancas is life-like in its picturesque vigor.
Betanzos has portrayed native feeling and char-
acter as no other Spaniard has, or probably
could have done. Married to an Inca princess,
and intimately conversant with the language,
this most scholarly of the conquerors is only
second to Cieza de Leon as an authority. The
date of his death is unknown.
Betanzos and Cieza de Leon, with Pedro Pi-

zarro, are the writers among the conquerors
whose works have been preserved. But these
three martial scholars by no means stand alone
among their comrades as authors. Several other
companions of Pizarro wrote narratives, which
unfortunately have been lost.' It is indeed sur-
prising that the desire to record some account of
the native civilization they had discovered should
have been so prevalent among the conquerors.
The fact scarcely justifies the term "rude sol-
diery," which is so often applied to the discov-
erers of Peru,
The works of the soldier conquerors are cer-

tainly not less valuable, than those of the law-
yers and priests who followed on their heels.
Yet these latter treat the subject from somewhat
different points of view, and thus furnish supple-
mental information. The works of four lawyers
of the era of the conquest have been preserved,
and those of another are lost. Of these, the
writings of the Licentiate Polo de Ondegardo are
undoubtedly the most important. This learned
jurist accompanied the president. La Gasca, in
his ca'mp^n against Gonzalo Pizarro, having
arrived in Peru a few years previously, and he
subsequently occupied the post of corregidor at
Cuzco, Serving under the Viceroy Don Fran- ,
tos Indios llamaron Cafaccuna que fneron senoreide la liudad d/l

:a/a M. Jiminez de la Esfada (Madrid, iSSo).
of the famous band of adventurers who crossed the line drawn by
b) th Do-
1) C cia
I t g t the
f th I eas
ii. 645).
le Relaii
tdilal
■e descnbrii
ie ChavK
ife in d
ipt and i
^, who strove to save the life of Atahualpa, and was an

Chaves is honorably diaUnguished for his moderation
ith the Indians make it likely thai it contained much
Thei
if Palomi
dalca^
whow
the Brtve Informe of Las Casas. Other bi

Garda de Melo, and Alonso de Mesa, are m
relating to Inca antiquities ; but none of the
t, with the exception of a fragmen

quest, Tomas Vasquez, Frandsco
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Cisco de Toledo, he was constantly consulted by

thai acute but narrow-minded statesman. His
duties thus led Polo de Ondegardo to make dili-
gent researches into the laws and administtation
of the Jncas, with a view to the adoption of all
that was applicable to the new regime. But his
knowledge of the language was limited, and it is
necessary to receive many of his statements with
caution. His two Relaciones, the first dedicated
to the Viceroy Marques de Cafiete (i 561), and
the second finished in 1570,' are in the form of
answers to questions on financial revenue and
other administrative points. They include infor-
mation respecting the social customs, religious
rites, and laws of the Incas. These Relaciones
are still in manuscript. Another report by Polo de
Ondegardo exists in the National Library at Ma-
drid,' and has been translated into English for
theHakluyt Society.* In this treatise the learned
corregidor describes the principles on which the
Inca conquests were made, the division and ten-
ures of land, the system of tribute, the regula-
tions for preserving game and for forest conser-
vancy, and the administrative details. Here and
there he points out a way in which the legisla-
tion of the Incas might he imitated and utilized
by their conquerors.'
Agustin de Zarate, though a,lawyer by profes-

sion, had been employed for some years in the
financial department of the Spanish government
before he went out to Peru with the Viceroy
Blasco Nufiez to examine into the accounts of
the colony. On his return to Spain he was en-
trusted with a similar mission in Flanders. His
PrauiHcia de! Peru was first published at Ant-
werp in 1555.* Unacquainted with the native
languages, and ignorant of the true significance
of much that he was told, Zarate vas yet a
shrewd observer, and his evidence is valuable as
regards what came under his own immediate
observation. He gives one of the best descrip-
tions of the Inca roads.
The lielaiioit of Fernando de Santillan is a

work which may be classed with the reports of
Polo de Ondegardo, and its author had equal ad-
vantages in collecting information. Going out
to Peru as one of the judges of the Audienda in
1550," Santillan was for a short time at the head
of the government, after the death of the Vice-
roy Mendoza, and he took the field to suppress
the rebellion of Giron, He afterwards served in
Chile and at Quilo, where he was_ commissioned
to establish the court of justice. Returning to
1 But not dedicated to the Conde de Nieva, a>

2 B, 135.
8 Report by Polo de Ondegardo, translated b)
■'[SeeVoI.lI.p.57'--ED.]
« [See Vol. II. p, 567-8, for bibliography. — 1
S [See Vol. II. p. 542. — Ed.]
' Additional MSS. 5469, British Museum, fol
Spdn,he took orders, and was appobted Bishop

of the La Plata, but died at Lima, on his way to
his distant see, in 1576. The Relacion of Santil-
lan remained in manuscript, in the library of the
Escurial, until it was edited by Don Mircos
Jimenez de la Espada in 1879. This report ap-
pears to have been prepared in obedience to a
decree desiring the judges of Lima to examine
aged and learned Indians regarding the adminis-
tiative system of the Incas. The report of San-
tillan is mainly devoted to a discussion of the
laws and customs relating to the collection ol
tribute. He bears testimony to the excellence
of the Inca government, and to the wretched
condition to which the country had since been
reduced by Spanish misrule.
The work of the Licentiate Juan de Matienzo,

a contemporary of Ondegardo, entitled Gobierna
de el Peru, is still in manuscript. Like Santillan
and Ondegardo, Matienzo discusses the ancient
institutions with a view to the organization of
the best possible system under Spanish rule.'
Melchor Bravo de Saravia, another juiê of

the Royal Audience at Lima, and a contemporary
of Santillan, is said to have written a work on
the antiquities of Peru ; b\it it is either lost or
has not yet been placed within reach of the slu.
dent. It is referred to by Velasco. Cieza de
Leon mentions, at the end of his Second Part,
that his own work had been perused by the
learnedjudges Hernando de Santillan and Bravo
de Saravia.
While the lawyers turned their attention chiefly

to the civil administration of the conquered peo-
ple, the priests naturally studied the religious
beliefs and languages of the various tribes, and
collected their historical traditions. The best
and most accomplished of these sacerdotal au-
thors appears to have been Bias Valera, judging
from the fragments of his writings which have
escaped destruction. He was a native of Peru,
born at Chachapoyas in 1551, where his father,
Luis Valera,' one of the early conquerors, had
settled. Young Bias was received into the Com-
pany of Jesus at Lima when only seventeen years
of age. and, as he was of Inca race on the moth-
er's side, he soon became useful at the College in
Cuzco from his proficiency in the native lan-
guages. He did missionary work in the sur-
rounding villages, and acquired a profound
knowledge of the history and institutions of the
Incas. Eventually he completed a work on the
subject in Latin, and was sent to Spain by his
tl states, for
' died in 1 564.

iarkham {Hakluyl Society, 1873).
Sfiiogle
262
Jesuit superiors with a view to its publication. Balboa, a. soldiet who had taken orders late in
Unfortunately the greater part of his manuscript life, went out to America in 1566, and settled at
was burnt at the sack of Cadiz by the Earl of Quito, where he devoled himself to the prepara-
Essex in 1596, and Bias Valera himself died tion and writing of a work which he entitled
shortly afterwards. The fragments that were Miscellanea Austral. It is in three parts; but
rescued fell into the hands of Garcilasso de la only the third, comprising about half the work,
Vega, who translated them into Spanish, and relates to Peru. Balboa, tells us that his author-
printed them in his Commentaries. It is to Bias ity for the early Inca traditions and history was
Valera that we owt the preservation of two spe- the learned Christoval de Mohna, anii this gives
cimens of Itica poetry and an estimate of Inca special value to Balboa's work. Moreover, Bal-
;hronology. He has also recorded the tradi- boa is the only authority who gives any account
sayings of several Inca sovereigns, and of the origin of the coast people, and he also
among his fragments there

chapters on the religion, the laws and ordinances,
and the language of the Incas, and on the vege-
table products and medicinal drugs of Peru.
These fragments ate evidence that Bias Valera
was an elegant scholar, a keen observer, and
thoroughly master of his' subject. They enhance
the feeling of regret at the irreparable loss that
we have sustained by the destruction of the rest
Nest to Bias Valera, the most important an-
upplics a detailed narrat

Huascar and Atahualpa. The portion relating
to Peru was translated into French and pub-
lished by Ternaux Conipans in 1840.*
The Jesuits who arrived in Peru during the

latter part of the sixteenth century were devoted
to missionary labors, and gave an impetus to
the study of the native languages and history.
Among the most learned was Jos^ de Acosta,
who sailed for Peru in 1570. At the early age
of thirty-five
thority on Inca civilization, among the Spanish, cial of the Jesuits in Peru, and his duties re-
priests who were in Peru during the sixteenth quired him to travel over every part of the coun-
century, is undoubtedly Christoval de Molina, try. His great learning, which is displayed in
He was chaplain to the hospital for natives at his various theological works, qualified him for
Cuico, and his work was written between 1570 the task of wtitiijg his Natural and Moral His-
and 1584, the period embraced by the episcopate tory of the Indies, the value of which is increased
of Dr. Sebastian de Artaun, t

icaled. Molina gives minute and detailed ac-
counts of the ceremonies performed at all the
religious festivals throughout the year,
prayers used by the ptie
with the
jt of the fourteen prayers preserved by Molina,

four are addressed to the Supreme Being, two to
the sun, the rest to these and other deities com-
bined. His mastery of the Quichua language,
his intimacy with the native chiefs and learned
men, and his long residence
lina a very high place as an authority on Inca
civilization. His work has remained in manu-
script,> but it has been translated into English
and printed for the Hakluyt Society.^
Molina, in his dedicatory address to Bishop
Artaun, mentions a previous narrative which he
had submitted, on the origin, history, and gov-
ernment of the Incas. Fortunately this account
was preserved by Miguel Cavello Balboa, an au-
thor who wrote at Quito between 1576 and i;86.
by the author's personal acqu^ntance with the

countries and their inhabitants. Acosta went
home in the Spanish fleet of 1587, and his first
care, on his return to Spain, was to make arrange-
ments for the publication of his manuscripts.
The results of his South American researches
first saw the light at Salamanca, in Latin, in 1 5SS
and 1 589. The complete work in Spanish, His-
toria Natural y Moral lie las Indias, was pub-
lished at Seville in 1590. Its success was never
s latter years Acosta presided
College at Salamanca, where
he died in his sixtieth year, on February 15,
1600.^ In spite of the learning and diligence of
Acosta and of the great popularity of his work,
it cannot be considered one of the most vaUiable
contributions towards a knowledge of Inca civ-
ilization. The information it contains is often
inaccurate, the details are less complete than iu
most of the other works written soon after the
conquest,* and a want of knowledge of the Ian-
1 National Library at Madrid, B, 13;.
s The fables and rites of the Incas, by Christmial
de Mc
Ji»a, tra
nsl»ted a
nd edited by
Clemei
Its K. Mark
ham (Hakluyt Society, 1873).
« [SeeVolIl. p. 576.-E0.]
■.0, 421.
» Notices of the life and works of Acosta have bee
in given in biographical
dictionaries, ;
ind in
histories ol
the Jesuits, An eneellent biography will be found In
; entitled
[Los Ant.
fr«, by Don
Enrique Torres Saldamando, which was published at
I.imai
n .885,
See also
an introducti
jrynot
ice in Mark
ham's edition (1SS0).
8 Thus his lists of the Incas, of Ihe names of r

nam« of stars, though copied from Balboa without a
aonths and of fi
cknowledgmenl,
stivals, a
re very defect
plete.
ive; ar
id his list ol
Hosted by VjOOQIC
guage is frequently made apparent. The best historical works are entitled Memories Antiguat
chapters are those devoted to the animal and Hislorialis del Pern, and Analci 6 Memorica
vegetable products of Peru ; and Feyjoo calls Nutvas del Peru.* From Limi Montesinos pro-
Acosta the Pliny of tlie New World.' ceeded to Quito as " Viaitador General," with
The Licentiate Fernando Montesinos, a native very full powers conferred by the bishop,
of Osuna, was one of the most diligent of all The work of Montesinos remained in manu-
those who in early times made researches into script until it was translated into French by M.
the history and traditions of the Incas. Monte- Teriiaux Compans in 1840, with the title Mi-
siiios went out in the fleet which took the Vice- tnoirts Hisloriques sur I'aacitn PSrou. In 1882
roy Count of Chinchon to Peru, arriving early the Spanish tent was very ably edited by Don
in the year 1SZ9. Having landed at Payta, Marcos Jimenez de la Espada.* Montesinos
Montesinos travelled southwards towards the gives tlie history of several dynasties which pre-
capital until he reached the city of Truxitlo. At ceded the rise of the Incas, enumerating upwards
that time Dr. Carlos Marcelino Conii was Bishop of a hundred sovere^ns. He professes to have
of Truxillo.' Hearing of the virtue and learning acquired a knowledge of the ancient records
of Montesinos, Dr. Corni begged that he might through the interpretations of the qidpus, com-
be allowed to stop at Truxillo, and take charge municated to him by learned natives- It was
of the Jesuits' College which the good bishop long supposed that the accounts of these eailiei
had established there. Montesinos remained sovereigns received no corroboration from any
at Truxillo until the death of Bishop Comi, in other authority. This furnished legitimate
October, 1629,* and then proceeded to Polosi, grounds for discrediting Montesinos. Bot a
where he gave his attention to improvements in narrative, as old or older than that of the licen-
the methods of extracting silver. He wrote a tiale, has recently been brought to light, in which
book on the subject, which was printed at Lima, at least two of the ancient sovereigns in the lists
and also compiled a code of ordinances for mines of Montesinos are incidentally referred to. This
with a view to lessening disputes, which was circumstance alters the aspect of the question,
officially approved. Returning to the capital, and places the Memorial Aniiquas del Peru in a
he lived for several years at Lima as chaplain of higher position as an authority; for it proves
one of the smaller churches, and devoted all his that the very ancient traditions which Montesi-
energies to the preparation of a history of Peru, nos professed to have received from the natives
Making Lima his headquarters, the indefatigable had previously been communicated to one other
student undertook excursions into all parts oi independent inquirer at least,
the country, wherever he heard of learned na- This independent inquirer is an author whose
tives to be consulted, of historical documents to valuable work has recently been edited by Don
be copied, or of information to be found. He Mircos Jimenei de la Kspada.O His narrative
travelled over 1,500 leagues, from Quito tp Po- is anoiiymous.but internal evidence establishes
tosi. In 1639 he was employed to write an the fact that he was a Jesuit, and probably one
account of the famous Auto de Fe which was of the first who arrived in Peru in 1 568, although
celebrated at Lima in that year. His two great he appears to have written his work many years
1 Acosta was the chief source whence the civilized world of the M
the limits of Spain, derived a knowledge of Peruvian civilization,
lib", v. p, 869 ; vi, p. 931), quotes largely from the learned Jesuit, and an abstract of his work is given in Har-
ris's Voyages tyib.'i.ap. xiii.pp. 7Si-;99). He is much relied upon as an authority by Robertson, and is quoted
19 Unies in Prescolt's Conquest B/ftra, thus Uking the fourth place as an authority with regard to that work,
since Gaicilasso is quoted S9 times, Cieia de Leon 45, Ondegardo 41, Acosta 19.
2 Of whose parentage a pleasing story is told. He was a native of Truxillo, of French parents, his father
being a metal-founder. When he was a small boy his father said to him, "Study, little Charles_, study! and
this hell that I am founding shall be rung for you when you are the bishop," (" Estudiar, Carletc, estuâr I
que con esta campana te han de repicar cuando seas obispo.") Dr. Comi rose to be a prelate of great virtue
and erudition, and an eloquent preacher. At last he became Bishop of Truxillo in 1610, and when he heard
the chimes v^hich were rung on his approach to the city, he_ said, " That bell which excels all the others was
" Pafeles Varies de Indias. MS. Brit. Mus,
1 This last work is devoted to the Spanish conquest.
6 In the series entitled Coleccion de Hires Es/aSsIes raros 6 euriosm, torn xvl. (Madrid, l88l.) [The orig-
inal manuscript is in the library of the Real Academia de Historia at Madrid. Brasseur de Bourbourg had a
copy {Piaart Catalogue, No. 638 ; Bibl. Mex. Gual., p. 103), which appeared also in the Del Monte sale
(N. v., June, 188S, — Ca^H/D^fi*, iii. no. 554). Cf. the present îrtorj', II. pp. 570, 577. — Et),]
» Relachn de las coslumires antiques de los naturales de! Peru. AnSnima. The original is among the
manuscript in the National Library at Madrid. It was publisbcd as part of a volume entitled Tres Selacienei
de Antigiiedades Peruanai. PuHicatas el Ministsrio tie Fomento [Madrid, 1879).
yGaosIe
264
afterwords. The anonymous Jesuit supplies in-

formation respecting works on Peruvian civiliza-
tion which are lost to us. He describes the tem-
ples, the orders of [tie priesthood, the sacrifices
and religious ceremonies, explaining the origin
of the eironeous statement that human sacrifices
were offered up. He also gives the code, of
criminal law and the customs which prevailed
in civil life, and concludes his work with a short
treatise on the conversion of the Indians.
The efforts of the viceroys and archbishops of

Lima during tiie eaily part of the seventeenth
century to extirpate idolatry, particularly in the
province of Lima, led to the preparation of re-
ports by the priests who were entrusted with the
duty Of extirpation, which contain much curious
information. These vrere the fathers Hernando
de AvendiBo, Francisco de Avila, Luis de Te-
ruel, and Pablo Jose de Arnaga. Avendano, in
addition to his sermons in Quichua, wrote an ac-
count of the idolatries of the Indians, — Relacion
di lot Iddatriai de Iss Indies, — which is still in
manuscript. Avila was employed in the prov-
ince of Huarochiri, and in 1608 he wrote a report
on the idols and superstitions of the people, in-
cluding some exceedingly curious religious le-
gends. He appears to have written dovm the
original evidence from the mouths of Ihe Indians
in Quichua, intending to translate it into Span-
ish. But he seems to have completed only six
chapters in Spanish; or perhaps the translation
is by another hand. There are still thirly-one
chapters in Quichua awaiting the labors of some
learned Peruvian scholar. Rising Quichua stu-
dents, of whom there are not a few in Peru, could
nndertake no more useful work. This important
report of Avila is comprised in a manuscript
volume in the National Library at Madrid, and
the six Spanish chapters have been translated
and printed for the Hakluyl Society.! Teruel
was the friend and companion of Avila, He
also wrote a treatise on native idolatries,'' and
another against idolatry,^ in which he discusses
the origin of the coast people. Arriaga wrote a

still more valuable work on the extirpation of
idolatry, which was printed at Lima in 1621, and
vvhich relates the religious beliefs and practices
o£ the people in minute detail.'
Antiquarian treasures of great value are bur-

ied in the works of ecclesiastics, the principal
objects of which are the record of the deeds of
one or other of the religious fraternities. The
most important of these is the Coronica Mn-
talizada del erden de San Augjistin en el Peru ;
del Padre Antonio de la Calancha (1638-1653),'
which is a precious storehouse of details respect-
ing the manners and customs of the Indians and
the topography of the country. Calancha also
gives the most accurate Inca calendar. Of less
value is the chronicle of the Franciscans, by Di-
ego de Cordova y Salinas, published at Madrid
in 1643.
A work, the title of which gives even less

promise of containing profitable information, is
the history of the miraculous image of a virgin
at Copacabana, by Fray Alonso Ramos Gavilan.
Yet it throws unexpected light on the move-
ments of the milimaes, or Inca colonists ; it gives
fresh details respecting the consecrated virgins,
the sacrifices, and the deities worshipped in the
Collao, and supplies another version of the Inca
calendar.'
The work on the origin of the Indians of the

New World, by Fray Gregorio Garcia,' who
travelled extensively in the Spanish colonies, is
valuable, and to Garcia we owe the first notice
of the priceless narrative of Betanzos. His sep-
Mar
ork <
I de Miiru
the Inc
e of Guernica, i
Bis-
1; of s
êru. He wrote a general history of the Incas,

vhich was copied by Dr. Muiioz for his collec-
ion, and Leon Pinelo says that the manuscript
vas illustrated with colored drawings of«insig-
via and dresses, and portraits of the Incas.^
The principal writers on Inca civilization in
1 Narralht of ihe
i. Squier
-I, false gods, and oihir
litions and diabolical riles in ichieh Ihe Indiat.

■d by Dr. Francisco de Avila, lt>o8 : translated
R. Markkam (Hakluyt Society, 1S73). [There vfas a copy of the Spanish MS. in
,D.}
the
« Tratado de las idolttirias de Us Indios del Peru, This work is mentioned by Leon Findo as " una obra
grande y de mucha ecndicion," liut it was never printed.
» Contra idolairiam, MS.
* Bxtirfacion de la idolatria del Peru, per el Padre Pablo Joseph de Arriaga {W-aM, 1621, pp. 137).
» [See Vol. 11. p. 5;o. The Historic Pereana ordinis Bremitarum S. F. Augustini tibri octodecim (i6ji-
Si) is mainly a translation of Calancha. Cf. Salsn, nos. S760, 9870. — Ed,]
« Hisloria de Copacabana y de su milagrosa imagen, escrita per el S. P. Pray Alonso RaHos Gavilan
(1610). The work of Ramos was reprinted from an incomplete copy at La Paz in i860, and edited by Fr.
Rafael Sans.
' Origen de los Indios del Nueoo Munde {1607), and in Barcia (1729).
» Menarquia de los Incas del Peru. Antonio sajra of this work, " Tertium quod promiserat adhuc latct
■ Historia general del Peru, origen y descendencia de los Incas, pueblos y ciudades, par P. Fr. Martin de
M-lrua (1618). [Cf. Markham's cieia's Travels, Second Part, p. 12. — Ed,]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
the century immedialely succeeding the conquest,

of the three different professions, — soldiers,
lawyers, and priests, — have now been passed
in review. Attention must next be given to
the native miters who followed in the wake
of Bias Valera. Firstamongthese isthe Inca
GarcilassodelaVega,a4i author vv hose name
is probably better known to the general reader
than that of any other who has written on the
same subject. Among the Spanish conquer-
ors who arrived in Peru in 1534 was Garci-
lasso de la Vega, a cavalier of very noble
lineage,! who settled at Cuzco, and was mar-
tied to an Inca princess named Chimpa Ocllo,
niece of the Inca Huayna Ccapac. Their son,
the future historian, was born at Cuzco in
1 539, and his earliest recollections were con-
nected with the stirring events of the civil
war between Gonzalo Fizarro and the presi-
dent La Gasca, in 1548. His mother died
soon afterwards, probably in r55o, and his
father married again. The boy was much in
the society oE his mother's kindred, and he
often beard them talk over the times of the
Incas, and repeat their historical traditions.
Nor was his education neglected; for the
good Canon Juan de Cuellarread I.atin with
the half-caste sons of the citizens of CuKO
for nearly two years, amidst all the turmoil
of the civil wars. As he grew up, he was em-
ployed by his father to visit his estates, and he
travelled over most parts of Peru. The elder
Garcilasso de la Vega died in 1560, and the
young orphan resolved to seek his fortune in
the land of his fathers. On his arrival in Spain
he received patronage and kindness from his pa-
ternal relatives, became a captain in the army
of Philip II, and when he retired, late in life, ha
took up his abode in lodgings at Cordova, and
devoted hunself to literary pursuits. His first
production was a translation from the Italian of
"The Dialogues of Love," and in 1591 he com-
pleted his narrative o£ the expedition of Her-
nando de Soto to Florida.2
As years rolled on, the Inca began to think

more and more of the land of his birth. The
memory of his boyish days, of the long evening
chats with his Inca delations, came back to him
in his old age. He was as proud of his maternal
descent from the mighty potentates of Peru as
of the old Castilian connection on his father's
side. It would seem that the appearance of
several books on the subject of his native land
finally induced him to undertake a work in which,

while recording its own reminiscences and the
information he might collect, he could also com-
HOUSE IN CUZCO IN WHICH GARCILASSO
WAS BORN.*
ment on the statements of other authors. Hence
the title of Commentaries which he gave to his
work. Besides the fragments of the writings of
Bias Valera, which enrich the pages of Garci-
lasso, the Inca quotes from Acosta, from Go-
mara, from Zarate, and from the First Part of
Cieza, de Leon.' He was fortunate in getting
possession of the chapters of Bias Valera rescued
from the sack of Cadiz. He also wrote to all
his surviving schoolfellows for assistance, and
received many traditions and detêd replies On
other subjects from them. Thus Alcobasa for-
warded an account of ihe ruins at Tiahuanacu,
and another friend sent him the measurements
of the great fortress at Cuzco.
The Inca Garcilasso de la Vega is, without

doubt, the first authority on the civilization oE
his ancestors ; but It is necessary to consider his
qualifications and the exact value of his evidence.
He had lived in Peru until his twentieth year ;
Quichua was his native language, and he had
1 Hew
poet of the sa
if Feria
Commtntarist Scales (Pari

;a de Leon (first part), ^^ fi
ccidmtalis of FTay Geronil
I.)of Garcilassos de la Veg:
tin 21 quotations from Bias Valera, 30

n Zarate, 3 from the Refublica di lot
cm the Inca'a schoolfellow Alcobaaa,
jle
constantly heard the traditions of the Incas re< at Cordova at the age of seventy-six, and was
lated and discussed by his mother's relations, buiied in the cathedral in 1616. He lived just
But when he began to write he had been sepa- long enough to accomplish his most cherished
rated from these associations for upwards of wish, and to complete the work at which he had
thirty years. He received materials from Peru, steadily and lovingly labored for so many years,
enabling him to compose a connected historical Another Indian author wrote an account of
narrative, which is not, however, very reliable, the antiquities of Peru, at a time wrhen the grand-
The true value of his work is derived from his children of those who witnessed the conquest
own reminiscences, aroused by reading the books by the Spaniards were living. Unlike Garci-
which are the subjects of his Commentary, and lasso, this author never left the land of his birth,
from his correspondence with friends in Peru, but he was not of Inca lineage. Don Juan de
His memory was excellent, as is often proved Santacruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua was
when he corrects the mistakes of Acosta and a native of the Coilao, and descended from a
others with diffidence, and is invariably right, family of local chiefs. His work is entitled Re-
He was not credulous, having regard to the age lacion de AtttigiUdades destc Reyno del Peru. It
in which he lived; nor was he inclined to give long remained in manuscript in the National
the rein to his imagination. Mote than once we Library at Madrid, until it was edited by Don
find him rejecting the fanciful etymologies of the Marcos Jimenez de la Espada in 1879. It had
authors whose works he criticises. His nana- previously been translated into English and ed-
tives of the battles and conquests of the early ited for the Hakluyt Society.* Salcamayhua
Incas often become tedious, and of this he is gives the traditions of Inca history as they were
himself aware. He therefore intersperses them handed down to the third generation after the
with more interesting chapters on the religious conquest. Intimately acquainted with the lan-
ceremonies, the domestic habits and customs, guage, and in a position to converse with the
of the people, and on their advances in poetry, oldest recipients of native lore, he is able to
astronomy, music, medicine, and the avts. He record much that is untold elsewhere, and to
often inserts an anecdote from the storehouse confirm a great deal that is related by former
of his memory, or some personal reminiscence authors. He has also preserved two prayers in
called forth by the subject on which he happens Quiehua, attributed to Manco Ccapac, the first
to be writing. His statements frequently receive Inca, and some others, which add to the number
undesigned corroboration from authors whose given by Molina, He also corroborates the im-
works he never saw. Thus his curious account portant statement of Molina, that the great gold
of the water sacrifices, not mentioned by any plate in the temple at Cuzco was intended to
other published authority, is verified by the full represent the Supreme Being, and not the sun.
description of the same rite in the manuscript of Salcamayhua is certainly a valuable addition to
Molina. On the other hand, the long absence of the authorities on Peruvian history,
the Inca from his native country entailed upon While so many soldiers and priests and law-
him grave disadvantages. His boyish recoUec- yers did their best to preserve a knowledge of
tions, though deeply interesting, could not, from Inca civiliiation, the Spanish government itself
the nature of the case, provide him with critical was not idle. The kings of Spain and their otfi-
knowledge. Hence the mistakes in his work are cial advisers showed an anxiety to prevent tha
serious and of frequent occurrence. Dr. Villat destruction of monuments and to collect his-
has pointed out his total misconception of the torical and lopograj:hical information which is
Supreme Being of the Peruviana, and of the sig- worthy of all praise. In 1585, orders were given
nificmce of the word " Uiracocha." ' But, with to al! the local authorities in Spanish America
all its shortcomings,^ the work of the Inca Gar- to transmit such information, and a circular, con-
cilasBO de la Vega must ever be the main source taining a series of interrogatories, was issued for
of our knowledge, and without his pious labors their guidance. The result of this measure was,
the story of the Incas would lose more than halt that a great number of Relaciones deicriptivas
its interest. were received in Spain, and stored up in the ar-
The first part of his Comtnentarios Riales, chives of the Indies. Ilerrera had these reports
which alone concerns the present subject, was before him when he was writing his history, but
ptiblished al Lisbon in 1607.' The author died it is certain that he did not make use of half the
1 In a learned pamphlet on the word Uirakocha, — " Leiicologia Ktsl.
\ua por Leonardo Villar" (pp. 16,
double columns. Lima, .887).
z [The common eipression of distrust is such as is stiown by Hutchin
son in his 7-7W Ye:,rs m Peru, who
:judice of the older peoples ; and by
Marcoyinhis Travels in 5oi-(i ^«j™<i, who speaksof his "simple and :

ludadous gasconades" (Eng. trans.
Lp.i85).-ED.]
» [Cf. the bibliography of the book In Vol. 11. pp. 569, %T; 575- -Ei>.]
* By Clements R. Markham, in 1872.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
26;
[Note, — The tille-page of the fifth decade of Hecreia, showing the Inca potttaits. is giver
plate in Stevens's English translation of Heirera, vol. iv., Lotidon, 1740, id eition. — Eo.]
■ Ho-steef-b^sA
lie
material they confain.* Another very curious people is to be found in ordinances and decrees
2nd valuable source of information consists of of the Spanish authorities, both civil and eccle-
the reports on the origin of Inca sovereignty, siaslical. These ordinances are contained in the
which were prepared by order of the Viceroy Ordenanxas del Peru, of the Licentiate Tomas
Don Francisco de Toledo, and forwarded to the de Ballesteros, in the Foliika Indiana of Juan
council of the Indies. They consist of twenty de Solorzano (Madrid, 1649),* in the Concilium
documents, forming a large volume, and pre- Litnente of Acosta, and in the Constitaciones
ceded by an introductory letter. The viceroy's Syiodales of Dr. Lobo Guerrero, Archbishop o£
object was (o establish the fact that the Incas Lima, printed in that city in 1614, and again in
had originally been usurpers, in forcibly acquir- 1754.
ing authority over the different provinces of the The kingdom of Quito received attention from
empire, and dispossessing the native chiefs. His several early writers, but most of their manu-
inference was, that, as usurpers, they were r^ht- scripts are lost to us. Quito was fortunate, how-
f ully dethroned by the Spaniards. He failed to ever, in finding a later historian to devote himself
see that such an argument was equally fatal to a 10 the work of chronicling the story of his native
Spanish claim, based on anything but the sword, land. Juan de Velasco was a native of Rio-
Nevertheless, the traditions collected with this bamba. He resided for'forty years in the king-
object, not only from the Incas at Cuzco, but dom of Quito as a Jesuit priest, he taught and
also from the chiefs of several provinces, are preached in the native language of the people,
very important and interesting.^ and he diligently studied all the works on the
The Viceroy Toledo a!so sent home four subject that were accessible to him. He spent
cloths on which the pedigree of the Incas was six years in travelling over the country, twenty
represented. The figures of the successive sov- years in collecting books and manuscripts; and
ereigns were depicted, with medallions of their when the Jesuits were banished he took refuge
wives, and their respective lineages. The events in Italy, where he wrote his Historia del Jteina
of each reign were recorded on the borders, the lie Quito. Velasco used several authorities which
traditions of Paccari-tampu, and of the creation are now lost. One of these was the Cotiquijla
by Uiracocha, occupying the first cloth. It is de la Provincia del Quito, by Fray Marco de
probable that the Inca portraits given by Her- Niza, a companion of Pizarro, Another was
rera were copied from those on the cloths sent the Historia de las guerras civiles del Inca Ala-
home by the viceroy. The head-dresses in Her- hualpa, by Jacinto Collahuaso. He also refers
rera are very like that of the h^h-priest in the to the Antigiiedades del Peru by Bravo de Sara'
Relation of the anonymous Jesuit. A map seems via. As a native of Quito, Velasco is a strong
to have accompanied the pedigree, which was partisan of Atahualpa; and he is the only histo.
drawn under the superintendence of the distin- rian who gives an account of the traditions re-
guished sailor and cosmographer, Don Pedro specting the early kings of Quito. The work
Sarmiento de Gamboa," was completed in 1789, brought from Europe,
Much curious information respecting the laws and printed at Quito in 1844, and M. Temaux
and customs of the Incas and the beliefs of the Compans brought out a French edition in 1840.'
J [Cf, hibliog. of Herrera in Vol. II. pp. 67, 68. - En.]
a lisfsrmacinnis merca del Senaris y Gaiiems de las Tngas

Toledo yireydel Peru 11570-72). Edited by Don Mircos Jim
Esfanoles raros 6 curiosos, Tamo svi, (Madrid, 1881).
Wefirst hear of Sarmiento in a memorial dated at Cuico on March 4, 1572, in which he saya that he was
the author of a history ot the Incas, now lost. We further gather that, owing to having found out from the
reconds of the Incas that Tupac Inca Yupanqui discovered two islands in the South Sea, called Akuackumfi
and Ninachumfi, Sarmiento sailed on an expedition to discover them at some time previous to i;64. Balboa
also mentions the tradition of the discovery of these islands by Tupac Yupanqui, Sarmiento seems to have
discovered islands which he believed to be those of the Inca, and in 1567 he volunteered to command the
expedition dispatched by Lope de Castro, then goyemor of Peru, to discover the Terra AustraUs. But Castro
gave the command to hb own relation, Mandana. We learn, however, from the memorial of Sarmiento, that
he accompanied the expedition, and that the first land was discovered through taping a course in accordance
with his advice. Sarmiento submitted a full report of this first voyage of Mandana, which is now lost, to the
Viceroy Toledo. In 1579, Sarmiento was sent to explore the SJraits of Magellan. In 1586, on his way to
Spain, he was captured hy an English ship belonguig to Raleigh, and was entertained hospitably by Sir Walter
at Durham House until his ransom was collected. From the Spanish captive his host ohlained much informa-
tion respecting Pern and its Incas. He could have no higher authority. One of the journals of the survey of
Magellan Straits by Sarmiento was published at Madrid in r768; Viagi al eslreeko de Magellants : for el
CapUan Pedro Sarmiento de Gamioa, en hs anoi isjg y isSo. See Vol. 11. p. 6t6.
* [Cf. Vol. II. p. 571.]
» Historia del Reino de Quito, en la America Meridional, escrila for el PreshiUto Don Juan de Velaica
Hosted by VjOOQIC
269
Recent authors have written introductory es-

says on Peruvian civilization to precede the story
of the Spanish conquest, have described the
ruins in various parts of the country after per-
sonal inspection, or have devoted their labors to
editing the early authorities, or to bringing pre-
viously unknown manuscripts to light, and thus
widening and strengthening the foundation on
which future histories may be raised.
Robertson's eicellent view of the story of the

Incas in his History of America ' was for many
years the sole source of information on the sut>-
ject for the general English public; but since
1848 it has been superseded by Prescott's charm-

ing narrative contained in the opening book of
his Conguist ef rtru? The knowledge of the
present generation on the subject of the Incas is
derived almost entirely from Prescott, and, so
far as it goes, there can be no belter authority.
But much has come to light since his time.
Prescott's narrative, occupying ijg pages, is
founded on the works of Gatcilasso de la Vega,
who is the authority most frequently cited by
him, Cieza de Leon, Ondegardo, and Acosta.*
Helps, in the chapter of his Spaaiii CoMfufs/ on
Inca civilization, which covers forty-five pages,
WILLIAM ROBERTSON."
natitv dt Mismo Seim/, ane de ifgg. A Spanish edition, Quilo, ImfreHla del GetUrito, 1844, 3 ToniM,
was printed (rom the manuscript, Histeire du Rayaume de Quito, for Don Juan de Velasce (inidUe,) voL
LK. Voyages, &'c., par H. Ternaux Comfans (Paris, 1840). This version, however, covers only a part of
the work, of which the second vokme only relates to the indent history. [Cf. Vol. II. p. 576. — ED.]
1 [Cf. Vol. II. p. 5?8. — Ed.]
a [Cf. Vol. II. p. 577 i Sabin's Dictionary, xv. p. 439. The opinions of Prescott can be got H through
/*m./*'i /jirfM, p. 993. H. H. Bancroft, C«ra»ic/«, 25, gives a characteristic estimate of Prescott's arehiEO-,
logical labors. Prescott's catalogue of his own library, with Ms annotations, is in the Boston Public Ijbrary.
no. 63J4.2;.-ED.]
B Prescott quotes these four authorities 249 times, and all othet early writers known to hnn (Herrera, Zarate,
■*"' D-tu- ..— .„i... o,j..T.i — ro,Femandei,Gomara, Levinus Apollonius,V*lasco, andtheMS.
"Decliracion de la Audiencia") 8i times.
• [After a print in the European Mag
jle
2/0 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
only cited two early aulliotities not used by Pres- Several scholars, both in Europe and America,
cott,' and his sketch is much more superlicial have published the results of their studies relat-
than that o£ his predecessor.' ing to the problems of Inca history. Ernest
The publication of the Antigutdades Peruanas Desjardins has written on the state of Peru be-
by Don Mariano Eduardo de Rivero (the di- fore the Spanish conquest,' J. G. Mkiller on the
rector of the National Museum at Lima) and religious beliefs of the people,^ and Waitz on
Juan Diego de Tschudi at Vienna, in 1851, Peruvian anthropology.w The writings of Dr.
marked an important turning-point in the pro- Brinton, of Philadelphia, also contain valuable
gress of investigation. One of the authors was reflections and useful information respecting the
himself a Peruvian, and from that time some of mythology and native literature of Peru." Mr.
the best educated natives of the country have Bollaert had been interested in Peruvian re-
given their attention to its early history. The searches during the greater part of his lifetime
Antigvedade! for the first time gives due promi- (b. 1807 ; d. 1876), and had visited several prov-
nence to an estimate of the language and litera- inces of Peru, especially Tarapaca. He accu-
lure of the Incas, and to descriptions of ruins mulated many notes. His work, at first sight,
throughout Peru. The work is accompanied by appears to be merely a confused mass of jottings,
a large atlas of engravings ; but it contains grave and certainly there is an absence of method and
inaccuracies, and the map of Pachacamac is a arrangement! but closer examination will lead
serious blemish to the work.* The AntigiUdadis to the discovery of many facts which are not to
were followed by the Annals of Cuzco* and in be met with elsewhere.''
l^6o\he Ancient History of FerUihyDoaSshaS' A critical study of early authorities and a

tian Lorente, was published at I.ima.^ In a se- knowledge of the Quichua language are two es-
ries of essays b the Rmisla Peruana!' Lorente sential qualifications for a writer on Inca civili-
gave the results of many years of further study zation. But it is almost equally important that
of the subject, which appear to have been the he should have access to intelligent and accurate
concluding labors of a useful life. When he descriptions of the remains of ancient edifices
died, in November, 1884, Sebastian Lorente had and public works throughout Peru. For this he
been engaged for upwards of forty years in the is dependent on travellers, and it must be con-
instruction of the Peruvian youth at Lima and fessed that no descriptions at all meeting the
in other useful labors. A curious genealogical requirements were in existence before the open-
work on (he Incarial family wras published at ing of the present century. Humboldt viras the
Paris in 1850, by Dr. Justo Sahuaraura Inca, a first traveller in South America who pursued his
canon of the cathedral of Cuzco, but it is of no antiquarian researches on a scientific basis. Hij
historical value.' works are models for all future travellers. It
' Calancha and a MS. letter o£ Valverde. He also refers several times to the AnligHedadit Peruanas of
Tschudi and Kivero.

s 5/B»«*CoBj«(i/i«^>mmfl, vol. iii.bookiiii. chap. 3, pp. 46810513. [C£. Vol, II, p, 578. — Ed.]
" It was translated into Enghsh as Ptruvian Antiquities, by Dr. Francis L. Hawkes, of New York, m 1S53.
[The English translation retained the woodcuts, but omitted the atlas. Cf. Field, Ind. Billias., no. 1306 ;
Sabin, xvii, p. 319. There is a French edition, AntiquUis Piruviennis (Paris, 1S59). Dr. Tschudi later
published Riistn durch SUd Amtrika, in five vols. (Leipzig, 1866-69), "hich was translated into English as
Travels in Peru, 1SJS-1S41, and published in New Yoilt and London. — Ed.]
* LsiAnaleidil Cuun.for Dr. Mesa (Cuico, 2 vols,).
( Histgria Antigua del Peru, for Seiaslian Lorente tjjmi., 1860I.
• f/istaria do la civilitaiion Peruana, Revista de Lima (Lima, 1 880),
^ Seiuerdoi de la Manarquia Peruana, S Bssquejo de la hislariade Us Incas, par Dr. Justo Sahua-
raura Inca, Canonigo en la Catedral de Cutco (Paris, 1850).
.8 Le Pirou avant la eenquete esfiagnele, d'afris les frincifaux historlens criginaux el quelques dacu-
ments inidils sur Its aniijuills de ci fays (Paris, 1858).
« Geschichteda- AmerikantseAen Urreligioncn, von J, G. UUlUr (Baêl, 1867),
» Anlkrofologie der Naiurvllker,-!,en Dr. Tkeodor IVaitt (^ \6li.) Leipzig, 1S64,
11 Mytis of the New World, a treatise on Ike symbolism and mythology of the Red Race of America, iy
Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. (New York, 186S). Aioriginal American authors and their productions, esfe-
cially those in the naiini languages, by Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. (Philadelphia, 1883). [Brinton's writ-
ings, however, in the main illustrate the antiquities north of Panama.]
1! Antiquarian, ethnological and other researches in Nea Granada, Equador, Peru, and Chile ; viiih
abatrvaliims on the Pre-tncarial, Incarial, a*td other monuments of Peruvian nations, by William Bollaert,
P. R. G. S. (London, 1S60). [Bollaert's minor and periodical contributions, mainly embodied in his final worlt^
1, World. Ancient Peruvian
rsatisns on the history of the
arenui
nerous; Contributions to an introduction
graphi
c Records Itr. in Archives de la Soc. Ami
;r. de France, n. s., i.). Obs,
Incas (
.in the Transactions Ethnological Soc, 18
54).- Ed.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
271
is to Humboldt,^ and his predecessors the Ul-

loas,' that vre owe graphic descriptions of Inca
luins in the kingdom of Quito and in northern
Peru as far as Caxamarta. French travellers
have contributed three worlcs of importance to
the same department of research. M. Alcide
D'Orbigny examined and described Ihe ruins of
Tiahuanacu with great cate.' M. Francis de
Castelnau was the leader of a scientific expedi-
tion sent out by the French government, and his
work contains descriptions of ruins illustrated
by plates' The work of M. Wiener is more
complete, and is intended to be exhaustive. He
was also employed by the French government
on an archseological and ethnographic mission
to Peru, from 1875 to 1877, and he has per-
formed his task with diligence and ability, while
no cost seems to have been spared in the pro-
duction of his work,'' The maps and illuslta-
tions are numerous and well executed, and M.
Wiener visited nearly every part of Peru where
archôlogicai remains are to be met with. There
is only one fault to be found with Che praise-
worthy and elaborate works of D'Otbigny and

Wiener. The authors are too apt to adopt the-
ories on insufBcient grounds, and to confuse
their otherwise admirable descriptions with im-
aginative speculations. An example of this kind
has been pointed out by the Peruvian scholar
Dr. VUlar, with reference to M. Wiener's erro-
neous ideas respecting Culle de Piau ou de tc
flute, et U dim Quann.i M. Wiener is the only
modern traveller who has visited and described
the interesting ruins of Vilcas-huaman.
The present writer has published two books

recording his travels in Peru. In the first he
described the fortress of Hervay, the ancient
irrigation channels at Nasca on the Peruvian
coast, and the ruins at and around Cuzco, in-
cluding Ollantay-tampu-^ In the second there
are descriptions of the ikulpas at Sillustani in
the Collao, and of the Inca roof over the Suntur-
huasi at Aiangaro.' ,
The work of E. G. Squier is, on the whole, the

most valuable result of antiquarian researches in
Peru that has ever been presented to the pub-
1 Vues dis Cordillires, iu Monamens des PiufUs indigines de I'Atnir

called in the English translation, Researthis crmcerning the institutions and 1
Hand e/ America, -mlk deseriplians and views of imu afihe most striking sc,
into EngHih iy fie/en Maria Williams (London, 1814). Voyage aux Rig.
Continent fait in ijgg-iSof, avec deux Atlas, 3 vols, 4to <Paris, 1814-15 ; a
in the English translation, PtrscHai narratrne of travels to the equinoctial re
A. von Humboldt [and A. Bonpland] : translated and edited by Tkomasino
■ IS by H. M. Williams (London, 181S-1829). [Humboldt's "
«<Pi
; in 8vo, 1816),
\ the Cordilleras. Transl.

quinoxialts du Novveau
1, 13 vols, 1816-31), called
$f America, if^g-iS04, by
<Lond., 185a); and in ear-
found
s Ansiehlen der Natur (Stuttgart, 1849; EngUsh tr., y^j/lerfj of Nature, by Mrs. Sabme, London and
Philad., T849; and Views of Nature, by E. C. Otti, Loadon, 1850). Current views of Humboldt's American
studies can be tracked through Poole's Index, p. 613. — Ed.J
3 Antonio Ulloa's Memoires fhilosopkiques, kisteriques, fhysipies, concernant le deeomerie de I'AmS-

rique (Paris, 17S7). Voyage kistoriqut de PAmSrique Meridionale, fail far ordre du Roy dBsfagne;
ouvrage qui eontient une kistoire des Yncas du Perou, et des observations astronomiques et physiques, faites
four determiner la figure et la grandeur de la lirre (Arnsterdam, 1731). Or in the English translation,
Voyage to South America by Don Jorge Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa, IvaU.im (London, 1758, 1771;
fifth ed. 1S07). [Another of the savans in this scientific expedition was Charles M. La Condamine, and we
have his observations in his Journal du Voyage fail h FEiûateur (1751), and in a paper on the Peruvian
monuments in the Mimoires at the Berlin Academy (1746). Other early observers deserving brief menUon
are Pedro de Madtiga, whose account is appended to Admiral Jacques d'Heremite's Jgurnael van de Nas.
sausche Vloat (Amsterdam, 1652), and Amed6eFran9ois Freiier's Voyage to Ihe South Sea (London, 1717).
-Ed.]
e DHomme Amiricain eonsidire sous ses Raff oris Physiologiques et Moraux (Paris, 1839). [He gives
a large ethnological map of South America. His Ijook is separately printed from Voyages dans PAmiriqus
Meridionale (9 vols.) — Eo.J
• Esplditioa dans les fariies centrales de PAmlrique de Sud, executie far ordre du Gouvememenl Fran-
fOis fendant les anntes 1S43 i ig4j. Troisiime fartie, Antiquites dss Incas {4.0, Paris, 1854).
( PlroH et Bolivie, Rieii de voyage suhii d'itudts archeologiques et eihaografhiques et de notes sur rlcri-
lure et les langues des populations Indiennes. Ouvrage contenant plus de iioo gravures, 17 cartes el 18
flans, par Charles Wmw^ (Paris, 1880). [Wiener earUer publbhed two monographs; Notice sur le lotH-
muaitmr des Incas (Paris, 1874) i ^""i '«' '" instHutions politiques, religieuses. iconotnipies et socialei de
PEmfire des tncas (Paris, 1874). — Ed.]
B Uiracocha,for Leonardo Villar (Lima, 18B7).
' Cuico and Lima (London, 1856).
s Travels in Peru and India TUhile superintending Ihe cslledion of chinchona plants and seeds in South
America, and their introduction into India {London, 1S61}. [Cf. Field's Indian Bibliog. for notes an Hr.
Markham's book. He epitomizes the accounts of Peruvian antiquities in his Peru (London, iSSo), oi the
" Fordgn Countries Series." Cf. Vol. II. p. 578. — Ed.]
272
be' Mr. Squier had special qualifications for gives most accurate descriptions o£ thearchitec-
the task. He had already been engaged on tural remains, which are invaluable to the stu-
similar work in Nicaragua, and he was well dent. His style is agreeable and interesting,
versed in the history of his subject. He vbited while it inspires confidence in the reader; and
nearly all the ruins of importance in the country, his admirable book is in all respects thoroughly
constructed plans, and took numerous photo- workman like.^
graphs. Avoiding theoretical disquisitions, he Tiahuanacu is minutely described by D'Or-
CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM."
1 Piru, Inddmts of travel and exfhraHsn in the land of the tnias (N. Y. 1877 ; London, 1S77). [Squier
was sent to Peru on a diplomatic mission by the United States government in 1S63, and this service rendered,
he gave two years to exploring the antiquities of the lountry. His Peru emliodieE various separate studies,
which he had previously contributed to Ihe Journal of the American Geographical Society (vol. iii, 1870-71) ;
the AfKerican Noturaliit |vol. iv. 1870) ; Harper's Monthly (vob. vii., iixvL, xxiTii.). He contributed
" Quelques retnarques sur la gSographie et les monuments du Pfrou"to t\is Bulletin de la Soci^tl de giogra-
fihii d4 Paris, Jan., 1868. A list of Squier's publications is appended to the Sale Catalogue of his Library
(N. Y., 1876), which contains a Ust of his MSS., most of which, it is believed, passed into the collection of H.
H. Bancroft Mr. Squi ei' 5 cloang years were obscured by Infirmity; he died in 18S8. — Ed.]
s [Atnong the recent travellers, mention may be made of a few of various interests ; Edmund Temple's
TroBils in Peru (Lond., 1S30) ; Thomas Sutclifte's Sixtein Years in Chili and Peru (Lond, 1841) ; S. S.
HUl's Travels in Peru and Mexico (Lond., i860) ; Thos. J. Hutchinson's Two Years in Peru (with papers
on prehistoric anthropology in the WKMro/o/aficn/ /oHrna/, iv. 43S, and "Some Fallacies about the Incas,"
in the Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool, 1B73-74, ^ "0 ; Marcoy's Voyage, first in the Tour du Monde,
t86j-64,aud then separately in French, and again in English; E. Fertuiset's U Trhor des Incas (Paris,
1877) ; and Comte d'Ursel's Sud-Amirifue, 3d ed. (Paris, 1879). F. Hassaurek, in his Pour Years among
Sfanish Americans (N. Y., 1867), epitomiies in his ch. nvi. the history of Quito. ~ Ed.]
• [After a photograph kindly furnished by hi
Lself at
le edito
D.]
Hosted by VJ-OOQIC
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 2?3
bigny, Wiener, and Squier, and the famous ruins Iry, and the results of his prolonged sdehtific
have also been the objects of special attention labors are now gradually being given to the pub-
from other investigators. Mr. Helsby of Liver- lie. The plan of this exhaustive monograph b
pool took careful photographs of the monolithic a division into six parts, devoted to the geogra-
doorway in 1857, which were engraved and pub- phy, geology, mineralogy, botany, toblogy, and
lished.withadescriptiveartidebyMr.BoUaert.l ethnology of Peru. The geographical division
Don Modesto Basadre has also written an ac- will contain a description of the principal ancient
count of the ruins, with measurements .2 . But monuments and their rums, while the ethnology
the most complete monograph on Tiahuanacu will include a treatise on the ancient races, their
is by Mt. Inwards, who surveyed the ground, origin and civilization. But as yet only three
photographed all the ruins, made enlarged draw- ' volumes have been published. The first is en-
ings of the sculptures on the monolithic door, titled Piirtt Preliminar, describing the plan of
way, and even attempted an ideal restoration of the work and the extent of the author's iravela
the palace. In the letter-press, Mt, Inwards throughout the country. The second and third
quotes from the only authorities who give any volumes comprise a history of the progress of
account of Tiahuanacu, and on this particular geographical discovery in Peru since the con-
point his monograph entitles him to be consid- quest by Piiarro. The completion of this great
ered as the highest modern authority,' work, undertaken under the auspices of the gov-
Another special investigation of equal interest, ernment of Peru, has been long delayed.'
and even greater completeness, is represented The labors of explorers ate supplemented by
by the superb work on the burial-ground of An- the editorial work of scholars, who bring to light
con, being the results of excavations made on the precious relics of early authorities, hitherto
the spot by Wilhelm Reiss and Alphonso Stii- buried in scarcely accessible old volumes or in
bel. The researches of these painstaking and manuscript. First in the tanks of these laborers
talented antiquaries have thrown a flood of light in the cause of knowledge, as regards ancient
on the social habits and daily life of the civilized Peruvian history, stands the name of M, Temaux
people of the Peruvian coast.* Compans. He has furnished to (he student
The great work of Don Antonio Raimondi on carefully edited French editions of the narrative
Peru is still incomplete. The learned Italian of Xeres, of the history of Peru by Balboa, of the
has already devoted thirty-eight years to the Mimoires Hisloriques of Monlesinos, and of the
Study of the natural history of hb adopted eoun- history of Quito by Velasco.'

1 InUthelual Observrr, May, 1863 (London).
> The ItmpU of the Andes, by Richards Iffuiards (London, 18S4), (Mr. Markham has also had occasion to
speak of these ruins in annotating his edition of Cieia de Leon, p. 374. There is a privately printed book by
L. Angrand, Aniiquitis Amhricaines: lettres sur les antipiilis de Tiaguana<:o, et Porigine frisumable
de la f Iks ancienne diiilisation rfM Hartl-Perau (Paris, 1865), — Ed.]
* This superb work was issued at Berlin and London with German and Ei^ltsh texts. The English title
reads, Ptruvian Antiquities : the Necropolis sfAncM in Peru, A contribution to our knowledge of the cul-
ture and indusiriis of the empire of the Incai. Being the results of excavations made an the spot. Trans-
lated by A. H. Keane. With the aid of the general administration of the royal museums o£ Berlin (Berlin,
18S0-87) ; in three folio volumes, with 119 colored and plain plates. The divisions are: 1. The Necropolis and
its graves, 2, Garments and textiles, 3. Ornaments, utensils, earthenware ; evolution of ornamentation, with
treatises by L. Wittmack on the plants found in the graves ; R. Virchow on the human remains, and A, Neh-
ling on the animab, [A few of the plates are reproduced in hlack and white in Ruge's Geschichle des Zeit-
alters der Enideciungen, The authors represent that the graveyard of Ancon, an obscure place lying near the
coast, north of Lima, was probably the burial-place of a poor people ; hut its obscurity has saved it to lis while
important places have been ransacked and destroyed. The reader will be struck with the richness of the woven
materials, which ate so strikingly figured in the plates. On this point StUbel published in Dresden in iSSS, as
a part of the Festschrift ol the twenty-fifth anniversary of the " Verein fur Erdkunde," a paper UcWr altperu-
anische Geweiemuster und thnen analoge Ornaments der alttlassischen Kunst (Dresden, 1888), Some ol
the plates in the larger work unpress one with the great variety of ornamenting skill. The collection formed by
John H. Blake from an ancient cemetery <in the bay of Chacota, now In the Peabody Museum at Cambridge,
Mass., is described in the Reports of that Institution, xi. 19;, 277. Reference may also be made to B M.
Wnght's Description of the collectieH of gold ornaments from tie •' huacas," or graves of some aboriginal
rates of the northwestern provinces of Seulh America, belonging to Lady Brassey (London, 188s). — Ed.]
» Antonio Raimondi. El Peru. Tome I. Parle Preliminar, .,io, fp. 444 (Umi, JS74). Tomo II. Hii-
lorta de la Geogriâ del Peru, 4lo,pp. ,^73 (Lima, 1876). Temo III. Hisloria de !a Geagrafia del Perui
*«,>>, 6.,* (Lima, .880)-
« Voyages, Relations el Mimoires Origtnaux pour servir h IHistoire de la Dicouverte de FAmerique, JO

vols, in 10, 8vo (Paris, 1837-41). See Vol. II,, introd. p. vi.
VOL. L— 18
j^QoosIe
274
The present writer has iranslaied into English

and edited the works of Cieza de Leon, Garci-
lasso de la Vega, Molina, Salcamayhua, Avila,
Xeres, Andagoya, and one of the reports of On-
degardo, and lias edited the old translation of
Acosta.
Dr. M. Gonzalei de la Rosa, an accomplished
Peruvian scholar, brought to light and edited, in
career of literary usefulness is by no means
Although so much has been accomplished in

the field of Peruvian research, yet much remains
to be done, both by explorers and in the study.
The Quichua chapters of the work of Avila,
containing curious myths and legends, remain
untranslated and in manuscript. A satisfactory
mXrCOS JIMENEZ DE LA ESPADA*
1879, the curious Htstirria di Lima of Father

BernaU Cobo. It was published in successive
numbers of the Revista Peruana, at Lima.
But in this department students are most in-

debted to the learned Spîish editoc, Don Mar-
cos Jimenez de la Espada ; for he has placed
within our reach the works of important author-
ities, which were previously not Only inacces-
sible, but unknown. He has edited the second
part of Cieza de Leon, the anonymous Jesuit,
Montesinos, Santillana, the reports to the Vice-
roy Toledo, the Suma y Narrachti of Betanzos,
and the War of Quila, by Cieia de Leon. More-
over, there is every reason to hope that his
test of the Ollantay drama, after collation of all

accessible manuscripts, has not yet been se-
cured. Numerous precious manuscripts have
yet to be unearthed in Spain. Songs of the
times of the Incas exist in Peru, which should
be collected and edited. There are scientific
excavations to be undertaken, and secluded dis-
tricts to be explored. Tlie Vunca grammar of
Carreia requires expert comparative study, and
comparison with the Eten dialect. Remnants of
archaic languages, such as the Puquina of the
Urns, must be investigated. When all this, and
much more, has been added to existing means
of knowledge, the labors of pioneers will ap-
■ [After a photograph, kindly funiished by himself, a
iD.]
Hosted by VjOOQIC
cienl Peruvian civiliiation which will be worthy

of Ihe subjecl.'
1 [Among less important ot more genera! later w

Charles Labarthe's La Civilualisn f^ruvienne avanl
/"roKirs, n. a., i.). antl his paper from OieAnHuairt Ethntgrapittqui, on tne " Uocumenla intaits sur rem-
piredes incas" (Paris, 1861); Kudolf Falb's Das Land der inca iit seiner Bedentung fUr du UrgisckitliU
dir Sftache and Schrift (}jav%\%, 1883); Lieut. G. M. Gilliss, in Schoolcraft's /arf, Tribes,i.biT, Dr. Ma-
cedo'3 comparison of the Inca and Aztec civiliiations in the Pmc. a/ the Numism. and Aalig. Soc. (Philad.
18S3); VicomteTh.de Bussibre's Le Pirou (Paris, 1863]; beside chapters in such comprehensive works as
those of Nadaillae, Huge, Baldwin, Wilson (PrehistsHc Man), and the papers of Castaing and others in the
Archives de la See. Amir, de Franee, and an occasional paper in the Journals of the American and other
geographical and ethnological societies. Current English comment is reached through Peole'i Index, pp. 627,
99'. -Eo.]
NOTES.
r. Ancient People of the Pekuvian Coast.— There was a civilized people on the coast of Peru,
but not occupying the whole coast, which was distinctly different, both as regards race and language, from the '
Incas and their cognate tribes. This coast nation was called Cksmu, and their language Mockiea.i
The numerous valleys on the Peruvian coast, separated by san^y deserts of varying width, required only
careful irrigation to render them capable of sustaining a large population. The aboriginal inhabitants were
probably a diminutive race of fishermen. Driven southwards by Invaders, they eventually sought refuge in
Arica and Tarapaca- D'Orbigny described their descendants as a gentley hospitable race of fishermen, never
exceeding five feet in height, with flat noses, fishing in boats of inflated sealskins, and sleeping in huts of
sealsicin on heaps of dried seaweed. They are called Changes. Bollaert mentions that they buried their
dead lengthways. Bodies found in this unusual posture near Canete form a slight Lnk connecting the Chan-
gos to the south with the early aboriginal race of the mote northern valleys.
The Chimu people drove out the aborigines and occupied the valleys of the coast from Payta nearly to
L ma f m ng distinct communities, each under a chief more or less independent. The Chimu himself ruled
o e the fi e valleys of Parmunca, Hualii, Huanapu, Santa, and Chimu, where the city of Truxillo now
stands Ihe total difference of their language from Quiehua makes it cleat that the Chimus did not come
f om the Andes or from the Quito country. The only other alternative is that they arrived from the sea.
Balboa ndeed, gives a detailed account of the statements made by the coast Indians of Lambayeque, at the
t n of the conquest. They declared that a great fleet arrived on the coast some generations earlier, com-
manded bj a chief named Noymlap, who had with him a green-stone Idol, and that he founded a dynasty of
The Chimu and his subjects, let their orighi be what it may, had ceitai
ci.iliza«on. The vast palaces of the Chimu near the seashore, with a surr
ounding city, and great mounds or
artificial hills, are astonishing even in their decay. The principal hall of the palace was 100 feet long by 5s,
The vfalls are covered with an intricate and very effective series of arabesq
ues on stucco, worked in relief. A
neighboring hall, with walls stuccoed in color, is entered by passages and si
(irted by openings leading to small
rooms seven feet square, which may have been used as dormitories. A lo
ng corridor leads from the back of
the arabesque hall to some recesses where gold and silver vessels hspe bee
n found. At a short distance from
this palace there is a sepulchral mound where many relics have been diseov.
sred. ITie bodies were wrapped in
cloths woven in ornamental figures and patterns of different colors. On
some of the cloths plates of silver

were sewn, and they were edged with borders of feathers, the silver plates h
idng occasionally cut in the shapes
of fishes and birds. Among the ruins of the dly there are great rectangul
iar areas enclosed by massive walls.
containing buildings, courts, streets, and reservoirs for water.a Thelargest
is about a mile south of the palace,
and is 550 yards long by j,ao. The outer wall is about 30 feet high and 1
feet thick at the base, with sides
inclining towards each other. Some of the interior walls are highly otnani
enled in stuccoed patterns ; and in
■ \il-xnMHI,yi>ws<,/ Nature, Itslm'"' out Ihl. Ihe ' [Wiener, /-fr^B
el Bolivie, p. ^ gives a plan ot the
ixillo, showing the posirion " du Gran
_Ei>.l Chimu.-' and an enl
aried plan of the ruin.. -Ed.]
yGcx)Qle
2/6
i« part there is »n edifice o
15 chambers or cells, which is supposed to have been a prison. The
:eet long by 19;, and 60 feel deep.

The dry climate favored the adornment of outer walls by color, and those of the Chimu palaces were cov-
ered with very tasteful sculptured patterns. Figures of colored birds and animals ate said to have been
painted on the wails of temples and palaces. Silver and gold ornaments and utensils, mantles richly embrol-
dered, robes of feathers, cotton cloths of fine texture, and yases of an infinite variety of curious designs, are
Cieza de Leon gives us a momentary glimpse at the life of the Chunu chiefs. Each ruler of a valley, he
tells us, had a great house with adobe pillars, and doorways hung with matting, built on extensive terraces.
He adds that the chiefs dressed in cotton shirts and long mantles, and were fond of diinking-boiits, dancing
and singing. The walls of their houses were painted with bright colored patterns and figures. Such pbces,
ui the other, must have been suitable abodes for joy and feasting. Around them were the fertile valleys;
peopled by industrious cultivators, and carefully irrigated. Their irrigation worlis were indeed stupendous.
" In the valley of NepeBa the reseiyoir is tiiree fourths of a mile long by more than half a mile broad, and con-
sists of a massive dam of stone 8a feet thick at the base, carried across a gorge between two rocky hills. It
was supplied by two canals at different elevations ; one starting fourteen miles up the valley, and the other
from springs five miles distant." 1
The custom prevalent among the Chimus of depositing with their dead all objects of daily use, as well as
SECTION OF A MUMMY-CASE FRbM ANCON

exclusive and mclusive plurals, which are among t
has enabled us tp
gain a fiirthe
r insight into the
social history of I
searches of Reuss a
nd Stiibel at the necropoUs of An-
con, near Lima, ha>
fe been most in
iportant. Numer-
ous garments, inter
woven with wo
.rk of a decorative
character, cloths of many colors
. and complicated
patterns, implemen
ts used in spii
work-baskets of pla
ited grass, ball:
s of thread, finger-
rings, wooden and c
und with the mum-
mies. The spindl,

is are richly ca
rved and painted,
and attached to them are terra co
tta cylinders aglow
with ornamental co
loringa which were used as wheels.
Fine earthenware
vases of var
led patterns, and
wooden or clay disl
les, also occur.
Turning to the
language of th
e coast people, we
find that no Mochi.
ca dictionary w
there is a gramm
ar and a short list of words by

Carreia, and the Li
)rd'5 prayer in 1
Mochica, by Bishop
Ori. The gramm
ar was compos.
Bd by a priest who
had settled at Truj
liUo, near the r
uins of Uie Chimu
palace, and who wa
s a great-gram
ison of one of the
first Spanish conqi
pubUshed at Lima
in .644. At that
lime the Mochica language was
spoken in the vallej
IS of Truxillo,
Chicama, Choeope,
'- Lamha eq
Chda H
■ amba, Olmos,
id to have en-
sa ed
11s us that the
so
ry ffi
be
learn it. The
bea
em ha
to Quichua.
diff
Moc
verbs, and no
ra
QT
lochica conju-
irch;
,Li.
Itramra y
NMcias
pMlka.gm
&a la Sxkdad A
de Amam
'cs dt Limn
a. .79i->79S>. at
ipeai
edinlweii
'c Yolume>
.. It is often
ti.e,a_i.dtheSpi
misi
igovemm.
int finallyi
nterdidedll.
Afteracutffver
Lby
Ruge, (oil,
>winf.ph
at In 7-** A-,
lacon tombL S
»a
cutinSquiw'lf™
, p. 73. -Ed.;
Hosted by VjOOQIC
277
g^tiona ate foraied in quite a different way from those in the Quichua language. The Mochica system of
numerals appears to have been very complete. With the language, the people have now almost if not entirely
disappeared. Possibly the people of Eten, south of Lambayeque, who still speak a peculiar language, may
be descendants of the Chimus.
The Chimu dominion extended probably from Tumbei, In (he eitreme north of the Peruvian coast, to
Ancon, north of IJma. The Chimus also had a
strong colony in the valley of Huarcu, now called
Cailete. But the valleys of the Bimac, of Lurin,
Chi lea, and Mala, north of Caiietei and those of
Chincha, Yea, and Nasca, south of CaBete; were
not Chimu territory. The names of
valleys are all Quichua, as well as the names of
their chiefs, as recorded by Garcilasso de la Vega
and others. The inhabitants were, therefore, of
Inca race, probably colonists from the Huanca na-
the curious mythological legei

Avila as being believed by the pei
and the neighboring coast, ail
origin. These Inca coast people
had a famous oracle near the
called "Kimac." or "Hewht
probably it was merely the name given
river Rimac, babbling over its stones,
that there was a temple on the coast wil
the fame of which had been widely sj
idol called Pachacamac, or " The wo
was described by the first Spanish vis
Eslete, as being made of wood and
The to
IS then h^
MUMMY
it by the Incas.
Jete network of undergo

courses for irrigation. At Yea " they removed the sand from vast areas, until they reached the rei
tuie, then put in guano from the islands, and thus formed sunken gardens of extraordinary richnt
liar methods were adopted in the valleys of Pisco and Chilea.
When the Inca Pachacutec began to annex the coast va'

people of Inca origin, who soon submitted to his rule. Bu(
pendence. Those of the Huarcu (CaSclc) valley made :
length they submitted, the Inca built a fortress and palace
awe them. The ruins now called Hervai are partlcularl
most imposing example of Inca architecture in which the building material is adc^jes and not stone,
taking, necessitating more than one hard-fought campaign. When it was completed, great numbers 01
leys, he met
with slight
oppos
ition
nly fron
.the
s struggled
hard t
n their inde-
desperate
and prolong
■ed rei
tistanct
:. Whe
on a rocky ■
eminence ovi
«looki
ng the
sea to(
)ver-
the p
rincipal
and
best fighting-
Cbimua bei
e Chim
this
I the Spaniards arrived, so that ther
served. Cieza de Leon and Balboa
1st, Arequipa, Moqiiegua, and Tacn
4Ve the general name of yitmin,
was but slight chance of the history of the

lone supply us with notices of any value.>
1, were occupied by mitimaes or colonists
dwellers in the warm valleys, to all the
unconnected with the othi

is clear. DlfficulUes surrc
disappeared from the face
ruins of their palaces and
tifically examined, Ther<
ination. There are crania
be history and origin o( the Chimu people. That they were wholly separate and
aces of Peru seems almost certain. That they were far advanced in civilization
d any further prosecution of researches concerning them. They have themselves
the earth. Their language has gone with them. But there are the magnificent
a grammar and a small vocabulary of words calling for close comparative exam-
waiting similar comparative study. There is a possibility that further information
• [After a cut i.
almost iuvariably
Wilson's Pnhisto.
r. J. HoIchinsoT
legendt^, |
dbyA,
id Avila, had any <

%A (Markhapi'i Otxa dt Lm
yGoosIe
GRAVES OF ANCON.*
mgin and develnpinent of Inca civiliiation, without a knowledge of the native lanjru
iccotdingly received the close attention o( laborious students from a very early period
r would be incomplete without appending an enumeration of the Quichaa grammars
y Google
with membets of that tribe, who were of pure Inca race, and whose territory ties to the vestwaid of Cuico.
The name has since been generally adopted for the language of the Peruyian empire.!
Diego de Torres Rubiowasbom in 1547, in a village near Toledo,became a Jesuit at the age of nineteen, and
went out to Peru in 1577. He studied the native languages vnth great diligence, and composed grammars and
vocabularies. His grammar and vocabulary of Quichua first appeared at Saville in 1603, and passed through
four editions.* A long readence in Chuquisaca enabled him to acquire the Aymara language, and in 1616 he
published a short grammar and vocabulary of Aymara. In 1617 he also published a grammar of the Guaiani
language. Torres Rubio was tectot of the college at Potosi for a short Ume, but his principal labors were
connected with missionary work at Chuquisaca. He died in that city at the great age of ninety-one, on the
13th of April, 1638. Juan de Figueredo, whose Chinchaysuyu vocabulary is bound up with later editions of
Torres Rubio, was born at Huancavelica in 1648, of Spanish parents, and after a long and useful missionary
life he died at Lima in 1734.
The most voluminous grammatical work on the language of the Incas had for its author the Jesuit Diego
Gonzales Holguin. This learned missionary was the scion of 1 distinguished family in Estremadura, and
was befriended in his youth by his relation, Don Juan de Obando, President of the Council of the Indies,
' After graduating at Alcali de Henares he became a member of the Society of Jesus in 1568, and went out
to Peru in 1581. He redded for several years in the Jesuit college at Juli, near the banks of Lake Titicaca,
where the fathers had established a printing-press, and here he studied the Quichua language. He was en-
trusted with important missions to Quito and Chili, and was nominated interpreter by the Viceroy Toledo.
His later years weie passed in Paraguay, and when he died at the age of sixty-si", in 1618, he was rector of
the college at Asuncion. His Quichua dictionary was published at Lima in i;86, and a second edition ap-
peared in 1607,1! the same year in which the grammar first saw the light.* The Quichua grammar of Holguin
is the most complete and elaborate that has been written, and his dictionary is also the best in every respect.
While Holguin was studiously preparing these valuable works on the Quichua language in the college at
Juli, a colleague was laboring with equal leai and assiduity at the dialect spoken by the people of the Collao,
to which the Jesuits gave the name of Aymara. Ludovico Bertonio was an Italian, a native of the marches of
Ancona. Arriving in Peru m 1581, he resided at Juli for many years, studying the Aymara language, until,
attacked by gout, he was sent to Lima, where he died al the age of seventy-three, in 1625. His Aymara
grammar was first published at Rome in 1603,6 hut a very much improved second edition,' and a large dic-
tionary of Aymara,^ were products of the Jesuit press at Juli in 1612. Berlonio also wrote a catechism and
a life of Christ in Aymara, which were printed at Juli.
A vocabulary of Quichua by Ftay Juan Martinez was printed at Lima in 1604, and another in 1614. Four
Quichua grammars followed during the seventeenth century. That of Alonso de Huerta was published at
Lima in 1616; the grammar of the Franciscan Diego de Olmos appeared in 1633 ; Don Juan Roxo Mexia y
Ocon, a naOve of Cuieo, and professor of Quichua at the University of Lima, published his grammar in 164S ;
and the grammar of Estevan Sancho de Melgar saw the light in 1691.S Leon Pinelo also mentions a Quichua
grammar by Juan de Vega. The anonymous Jesuit refers to a Quichua dictionary by Melchior Fernandez,
' Gramnvaiam Artt de lit Itttgua gtmral dt lo! Indias
> S'âiuiario de la Ltn^m gener-l de lsd0 el Peru
llamada Itngtui Quickua 6 del Inea. En 1> ciudad de lol
Stotslre Fray Damlngo di S. Tlumat dt la erdett di S.
Reyes, 1586. Second edition printed by Frandsco del
Dommgit, Marador en Ins diihss rejittia. Imprcsso tn
Canto. .607 (i volj. ilo). [Leclerc (no. 1401). in .879,
priced this ed. at ijw fraiicii Quariteh, a defective copy.
Ltxuon 6 Vocahilariil de la lingua geniral del Peru,
£>r.-F.D.i
Uamada Quichua (Valladoliil, 1560). The Rianunar and
• Gramaticay Arle miraM Ji la lengaa general de Isdir

vocabulary are usually bound up together. [The two were
priced respectively by Leclerc, bi iSjg, at 2,500 and 6a.
de Cactrtt Itnfrean tn la Ciudud di Im Eijes del Pim,
The grammar and vocabulary of San Tonus were re-
far Francises del Canli,, rtaj. [Leclerc, 1S79, no. H02,
printed al Lima in isM by Antonio Ricario Inlhe&l
IJma in ,8,1,
p. 99), the printer Ricardo is entered as the author of Ihia ^ Arle y gramaika muy copwsa de la lengna A_
Lima edition of San Tomas. cen muchesy Vftriadrji mgdQ$ de ka6lar (Roma, 1603 1.
' Gmttttnatkay Vscabuiario en la lengva general del * Arte delalengua Aymard con una selva de/raeet en
(Seville, 1603). (This ori^nal ediUon is of great rarity, tn Ut loia dt la Cemfania dejtaade Jnli tn la previn^
Quaritlh, in 1885, asked ;£2D for a defective copy. — Ed.) cia de Ckucnyla. Per Fmncitce del CanU, Ibri. pp.
34*-
A second edition was prinlifil al Liniaini6i9; andathird ' rxaiularlli dr la Itngna Aymara. ynli ilirl, Sjamiih
in 1700. To this third edition a vocabulary was added oC and Aymara, pp. 410. Aymara and Spanish, pp. J78.
[Piked
the Oiuicfaaysuyu dialect, by Juan de FlKueredo. A fourth by Qnariich in 1SS5 at £60 ; by Lederc in 1871) at
tâoa
edition was published at Uma in 17J4. also containing the francs. — Eo.)
Chinchaysuyu vocabulary, which is spoken in the north of ' Arlrde la leiigva general JePynga llamada
Queckkna
Peru. [For this i7;4 edition tee Leclen, no. 1409. li i> (Lima, 1691). Lecleit, 1S79. 25° iranca.
worth about (so, —Ed,]
Hasted--by-
Google
gSo NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
iciiilizcd people iirhose tuUr was the grand Chimu. Now the language is extinct, or spoken only by a few
Indiana in the coast village of Eten. The work of Catrera Is therefore important, as, with the exception of
f specimen of the language preserved by Bishop Or*, it is the only book in which the student can now obtain
i(Ry linguistic knowledge of the lost civiliiation. The Yunca grammar was reprinted in numbers in the
fiviHa dt Lima of 1880 and following yeats.i
There was a professorial chair for the study of Quichua in the University of San Mdrcos at Lima, and the
language was cultivated, during the two centuries after the conquest, as well by educated natives as by many
Spanish ecclesiaalics. The sermons of Dr. Don Fernando de Avendaiio have already been referred to.^
pr. Lunarejo, of Cuzco, was another famous Quichuan preacher, and the Confesionatios and catechisms in
the language were very numerous. Bishop Louis Geronimo OiS, of Guamanga, in his citualislic manual, gives
the Ijird's prayer and commandments, not only in Quichua and Aymara, but also in the Puquina language
spoken by the Urns on Lake Titicaca, and in the Yunca language of the coast, which he calls Mochiea.s
A very curious book was published at Lima in t6os, which, among other things, treats of the Quichua
l^nguageandol the derivations of names of places. The author, Don Diego D'Avalos y Figueroa, appears to
have been a native of La Paz. He was possessed of sprightly wit, was well read, and a close observer of
nature. We gather from his MisceloHca Austral* the names of birds and animals, and of fishes in Lake Titi-
caca, as weU as the opinions of the author on the cause of the absence of rain on the Peruvian coast, on the
lacustrine system of the CoUao, and on other interesting points of physical geography.5
In modem times the language of the Incas has recaved attention from students o£ Peruvian history. The
jfrint authors, Dr. Von Tsch^di and Don Mariano Eduardo de Rivero, in their work entitled AntigUfdades
Pa-uaaa), published at Vienna in 1851, devote a chapter to the Quichua language. Two years afterwards
Dr. Von Tschudi published a Quichua grammar and dictionary, with the text of the loca drama of Ollantay,
and other specimens of the language.5 Thepiesentwriter's contributions towards a giammar and dictionary
()f Quichua were published by Triibner in 1S64, and a few years previously a more complete and elaborate
work had seen the light at Sucre, the capital of Bolivia. This was the grammar and dictionary by Father
Honorio Mossi, of Potosi, a large volume containing thorough and excellent work.' Lastly a Quichua gram-
par by Jos4 Dionisio Anchorena was published at Lima in 1874.8
The curious publication of Don Jos6 Femandei Nodal in 1874 is not so much a grammar of the Quichua
iinguage as a heterogeneous collection of notes on all sorts of subjects, and can scarcely take a place among
serious works. The author was a native of Arequipa, of good family, hut he was carried away by enthusiasm
^nd allowed his imagination to run riot.^
The gospel of St. Luke, with Aymara and Spanish in parallel columns, was translated from the vulgate by
Don Vicente Paios-kanki, a graduate of the University of Cuzco,and pubUshed in London in iSig ; '" and more
recently a Quichua version of the gospel of St. John, translated tv Mr. Spilsbury, an English missionary,
l|as appeared at Buenos Ayres." These publications and others of the same kind have a tendency to preserve
ihe purity of the language, and are therefore welcome to the student of Incarial history.
Quichua has been the subject of detailed comparative study by more than one modern philologist of emi-
nence. The discusMon of the Quichua roots by the learned Dr. Vicente Fidel Lopez is a most valuable
addition to the literature of the subject ; while the historical section of his work is a great aid to a critical con-
sideration of Montesinos and other early authorities. Whatever may be thought of his theoretical opinions,
Tmxmo, eon iatcenftsisn^rio,ytodeslAtcVA£i&ntscris* Lima fior Anionie Ricardo,a^B iboa.
iioMIUJrPirasaisat. Autprttbene/iciade DeitFrrnaniJo * Die KeehitaSfraeAetL ; SfrAckUhre, II- ; WSrier^

4,laCarr,ra Ciây ficîx de San Martin de Stqu, *«*, ™» ?. ?. ('«. 7-«*»;i(Wien, 1853),
This work il eitremFly rare. Only Ihree CD)aes are Ptru, llamada amnmrnlllnlt Quiihua, far il R. P. Fr.
Brilish HuieuDI, which belnnged Id M. Terniui Compani, ganda fidt dt la caidad dr Patoti |Su<tb, 1S59). lAn
qnde lor William von Humboldt from Ihe Brilish Museum Leclerc says it has become very rare. — Ed.]
of the Rniita dt Lima in iSSo, under the editorial >npCT- > ElimttUo! de Cramalica Quiclma i iditma de Ita
visicHi of Dr, Gonialei de la Rosa. Ymas for t! Dr. 7iai Ftrnandtt Nodal, The book was
■ Sirmsmt dt lot mislirios de nueslra Satda Fl cats- printed in England in 1874.
Uta, en tengim CasteUana-y ta general dellnca. Imfiitg- "* El Evangelro de yeiu Ckristo iegu/i San Liicas en
MAHU Iti trrorei fiarticulares que h/i Indios kan ienido, Aymara y Espanot^ tradncido de la vvJgAla Latin al
fiffr el Doctor Don Ftrnttrtdo de A t^ndaHo, 1648- Rivero Aymard for Don lîcente PavfS-Aanii, Doctor de la
and Von Tuhudi give some extracit from these sermons in Vmvinidad del Coco e Indiiiiduo de la Sxiedad His-
t)lC Aallfuedadet Peruanat. p. loS. torica dt /feuva York (Lcndrea, 1819).
• Rilnalt tiu Manua/e Perwanum juxta ordinem " Afumhit Sa-da Voancama EhnangeliMn, Quichua
^t^ta Romanr Ecclesia, per R. F. F. Ludj/vicum cayri yncaiiminfii quillkcoica. El Sanio Et<angelie de
t/itronymiim Orerum (Neapoli. 1607). Jfueitm SeHor yem-CkritIO iegnn San Juan, traducido
\ CarterBrown, ll, 7. drl original a la lengua Quicluta odel Vnca ; fiffr el Rev
■ Primera farit dt la mdieilanea matrat de Don Diego J. ff. CyMon Sfilttury. Buenos Airei. ISSO.
IfAtalaty Figveroa en variat coloquiatt interlecutrtrei
i by Google
THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 38l
ind of the considerations by which he mainlains them, (here can tie no doubt thai Dr. Lopez has rendered
most important service to aJl students of Peruvian hlstoiy.' The theoretical identification of Qoidiuin rool»
with those of Turanian and Iberian languages, as it has been elaborated by Mr. Ellis, is also not without its
use, quite apart from the truth or otherwise of any linguistic theory.^
Editorial labois connected with the publication of the te« and of translations of the Inca drama ot Ollanlay
have recently conduced, in an eminent degree, to the scholarly study
of Quichua, while they have sensibly contributed to a better knowl-
edge of the subject Von Tschudi was the first to publish the te«t of
Ollantay, in the second part of his Kichua Sprachi, having given
extracts from the drama in the chapter on the Quichua language in
the AnligHedadis Piruanas. After a long interval he brought out
a revised text with a parallel German translation,' from his foimer
manuscript, collated with another bearing the date of La Iî, 1735-
The drama, in die exact form that it existed when represented be-
fore the Intas, is of course lost to us. It was handed down by tradi-
Eupplied with stage directions in Spanish limes. Several manuscripts

were preserved, which differ only slightly from each other ; and they
The drama was first publicly brought to notice by Don Manuel Pala-
eios, in the Musat ErvdUo, a periodical published at Cuzco in 1837 ;
but it was not until 1S53 that the text was printed by Von Tschudi.
His manuscript was copied from one preserved in the Dominican
monastery at Cuzco by one of the monks. The transcription was
made Iwtween 1840 and 184; for the arUstRugendas, of Munich, who
gave it to Von TschudL There was another old manuscript in the
possession of' Dr. Antonio Valdei, the priest of Sicuani, who lived in
the last century, and was a friend of the unfortunate Tupac Amaru.
Dr. Valdei (Bed In 1816 ; and copies of his manuscript were possessed
by Dr. Pablo Justiniani, the aged priest of Laris, a village in the
heart of the eastern Andes, and by Di. Rosas, the priest of Chinchero.
The present writer made a copy of the Justiniani manuscript at
Laris, which he collated with that of Dr. Rosas. In 1871 he published
the text of his copy, with an attempt at a literal English translation.*
In 1868 Dr. Barranca published a Spanish translation from the text
of Von Tschudi, now called the Dominican text-S The Peruvian poet
Constantino Catrasco afteiwards brou^t out a version of the drama
of Ollantay in verse, paraphrased from the translation of Barranca.*
The enthusiastic Peruvian student, Dr. Nodal, printed a different
with a Spanish translation, in parallel ci
There
cripls, ai
1 of the w
There
n the
Vom a schola
possession of Dr. Gonialei de la Rosa, which belonged to Dr. Jus
Sahuaraura Inca, Archdeacon of Cuzco, and descendant of Paullu, the younger son of Huayna Ccapac. In
1878 the Quichua scholar and native of Cuico, Don Gavino Pacheco Zegarra, published the text of Ollantayal
Paris, from a manuscript found among the books of his great-uncle, Don Pedro Zegana. He added 3 very
"ree translation in French, and numerous valuable notes. The work of Zegarra is by far the most Important
Ihat has appeared on this subject, for the accomplished Peruvian has the great advantage of knowing Quichua
' Lit Rat,
IS da P,
I, by OemeDti R.
It Fidil Lefiz (Paris et Moo-
tevideo, 1871). tLopei's book was subjected loan eiamina- (Wien. 1875).
lion by Luden Adam, In a paper, " Le Quichua, ai il nne • Olbnla, an mcient
tangue aryenne?" in the Luiembours Cam^-Rrndu da Maikham (London. 1871),
C<mgrUdesAmh'iia»iats,n.ii. f2i. MacmiU^^t Mag., • OILmla sm lit avtridad dt m f^r
xxvii. 414, by A, Lang. — En.l dt In rey drama traducidff del Quiiku,
' Pirmia SiyMai. The Qrichta laagitagt qf Ptru: per Jasi S. Barranca (Uma, 186S).
ill ierbmliim/ram Cenlral Aiia, with the American * OOaMafar Ct>mla<tliitsCarrau:ii(UBa.,\%-fi,).
anguases in genrra/, and ■wllh Ike Turanian and Iberian ' Ldi cimmlai de Ollanta y £iui Kceflltr, Drama tn
languages of Ike Old World, incliiding He Basque, the Qmelma. Joii Femandei Nodet Dr. Nodal conunenced,
ILycian, and Ike Pre-Aryan language ef Eiruria; if but never completed, an EngHsh translation.
Saiert Ellis, B. D. (TrObuer & Co., London, .875).
> Reienrchts, 1
» in New
Hos-ted'tef
jle
, not possessed by any previous writer, he unites e:
The leasons for assigning an ancient dat
Argentine Republic, published an essay in

in comparatively modern times,^ The pri
to the English lianslatlon of the second
Spanish and published at Buenos Ayres in
note from the pen of Dr. Vicente Lopei.*
series of articles
history of the conquest of Peru, not yet
lis drama of OUantay are conclusive in the judgment of ail

isusof opinion. But General Mitre, the ex-PresIdent of the
} prove that OUantay was of Spanish origin and was written
riter replied to his aiguments in the introduction (p, itiix)
Cilia dc Lion (1883), and thb reply was translated into
le year, by Don A
iblicalion on tlie subject of OUantay consists of a

by Don E. Larrabure y Unanue, the accomplished author of a
jbllshed. The. general conclusion which has been arrived at by
Quichua scholars, after this thorough sifting of the question, is that, although the division into scenes and
the stage directions are due to some Spanish hand, and although some few Hispaniclsms may have crept
into some of the texts, owing to the carelessness or ignorance of transcribers, yet that the drama of OUanlay, in
all essential points, is of Inca origin. Several old songs are imbedded in it, and others have been preserved
by Quichua scholars at Cuico and Ayacucho, and in the neighborhood of those cities. The editing of these
remains of Inca literature will, at some future time, throw further light on the history of the past. There are
in Spain. Among tiiem may be mentioned Dr. Villar of Cuico, a ripe scholar, who has recenUy published
a closely reasoned essay on the word Uira-cocha. Don Luis Carranza, and Don Martin A. Mujica, a native of
Huancavelica.
m. The New Granada Tribes. — The incipient dvillzation of the Chibchas or Muiscas of New Gra-
nada was first made generally known by Humboldt ( Vues det Cordilltres, octavo ed., 11. 220-67 1 yimvi of
Nature, Eng. trans., 425). Cf. also, E. Urieoechea's Memoria! sohrt las Antigttedadis slihgranadinas
(Berlin, 1854) ; Bollaert ; Rivero and Von Tschudi ; Nadaillac, 459; and Joseph Acosla's Comfendis histsrha
del DcsacbTimUnts de la Nunia Granada (Paris, 1S48 ; with ttansl. in Bollaert).
' Ccllictiim Lhigitiitique A auricaittc. Tsmi iv. O!- Barlalami Milrt, fuUaada IK la Nutoa Rtviita de Biu-
JkU tl cmmintf, far GaviM Paclaca Zig-rra (Paris, ' Pacsia Dramalim de las /«raj, Ottantajt, fcr CU-
lS7S),pp, eliiiiivandi6s. uuMe R. Marhham traducido dtl Itgles /ior Adal/e
» Ollanl^. Eitlîe sobrt el drama Quahua, for F. Olararn, f seguida de ana carta critiea del Dr. Dm
VicITIIe Fidel Lofez {BaOioa Ayr^. iSgj),
Hosted by VjOOQIC
CHAPTER V.
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA IN CONTACT

WITH THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH.
BY GEORGE E. ELLIS, D.D., LL.D.

President of Ike Masiachusells Hiitorical Soiiety.
THE relations into which the iirst Europeans entered with the abo-
rigines in North America were very largely influenced, if not wholly
decided, by the relations which they found to exist among the tribes on
their arrival here. Those relations were fiercely hostile. The new-comers
in every instance and in every crisis found their opportunity and their
immunity in the feuds existing among tribes already in conflict with each
other. This state of things, while it gave the whites enemies, also fur-
nished them with allies. So far as the whites could learn in their earliest
inquiries, internecine strife had been waging here among the natives from
an indefinite past.
Starting, then, from this hostile relation between the native tribes of
the northerly parts of the continent, we may trace the development of our
subject through five periods : —
1. The first period, a very brief one, is marked by the presence of a
single European nationality here, the French, for whom, under stringency
of circumstance that he might be in friendly alliance with one tribe, Cham-
plain was compelled to espouse its existing feud with other tribes.
2. The next period opens with the appearance and sharp rivalry here
of a second European nationality, the English, the hereditary foe of the
French, transferring hither their inherited animosities, amid which the
Indians were ground as between two mill-stones.
3. Upon the extinction of French dominion on the continent by the

English, the former red al%sôf the French,' with secret prompting and
help from the dispossessed party, were stirred with fresh animosities against
the victors.
4. Yet again the open hostilities of contending Indian tribes were largely
turned to account, to their own harm, in their respective alliances with the
English colonies or with the mother-country in the War of Independence.
5. The closing period is that which is still in progress as covering the

relations with them of the United States government. The old hostilities
between those tribes have been steadily of less account in affecting their
yOfiiOQle
later fortunes ; and our government has not found it essential or expedient
to aggravate its own severity against its Indian subjects, or "wards," by
availing itself of the feuds between them.
The same antagonisms which had kept the Indian tribes in hostility with
each other prevented their effective alliance among themselves against the
whites, and also embarrassed the English and French rivals, who sought to
engage them on their respective sides. Many attempts were made by
master chiefs among the savages, from the first intrusion of the Europeans,
to organize combinations, or what we call " conspiracies," of formerly con-
tending tribes against the common foe. The first of them, formidable
though limited in its consequences, was made in Virginia in 1623. Only
two of these schemes proved otherwise than wholly abortive. That of
King Philip in New England, in 1675, was effective enough to show what
havoc such a combination might work. That of PonCiac,in 1763, was vastly
more formidable, and was thwarted only by a resistance which engaged at
several widely severed points all the warlike resources of the English.
But the inherent difficulties, both of combining the Indian tribes among
themselves, and of engaging some of them in alliance on either side with
the French and the English contestants, were vastly increased by the seeds
of sharp dissension sown among them through the rivalries in trade and
temptations offered in the fluctuating prices of peltries. Even the long-
standing league of the Five Nations was ruptured by the resolute English
agent Johnson. He succeeded so far as to secure a promise of neutrality
from some of them, and a promise of friendly help from one of them.
There were some in each of the tribes falling not one whit behind the
sharpest of the whites in skilled sagacity and ^calculation, who were swift
to mark and to interpret the changes in the balance of fortune, as one or
the other of the parties of their common enemies made a successful stroke
for ascendency.
The facilities for alliance with one or another native tribe against its
enemies made for the Europeans a vast difference in the results of their
warfare with the aborigines. One might venture positively to assert that
the occupancy of this continent by Europeans would have been indefinitely
deferred and delayed had all its native tribes, in amity with each other, or
willing for the occasion to arrest their feuds, made a bold and united front
to resist the first intrusion upon their common domains. Certainly the
full truth of this assertion might be illustrated as applicable to many
incidents and crises in the first feeble and struggling fortunes of our
original colonists in various exposed and inhospitable places. In many
cases absolute starvation was averted only by the generous hospitality of
the Indians. Taking into view the circumstances under which, from the
first, tentative efforts were made for a permanent occupancy by the whites
on our whole coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, and along the lakes and
great western valleys, we must admit that their fortunes had more of peril
than of promise. While, of course, we must refer their success and security
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 28$
in large measure to the forbearance, tolerance, and real kindliness of the

natives, yet it was well proved that as soon as the jealousy of these natives
was stirred at any threatened encroachment, only their own feuds disabled
them from any united opposition, and gave to one or another tribe the alter-
native of fighting the white intruders or of an alliance with them against
their neighbor enemies. The whole series of the successive encroachments
of Europeans on this continent is a continuous illustration of the success-
ful turning to their own account of the strife of Indians against Indians.
And when two rival European nationalities opened their two centuries of
warfare for dominion on this continent, each party at once availed itself of
red alHes ready to renew or prolong their own previous hostilities.
The French Huguenots in Florida and the Spaniards who massacred

them had each of them allies among the tribes which were in mutual hos-
tility. ChampJain was grievously perplexed by the pressure, to which none
the less he yielded, that if he would be in amity with the Hurons he must
espouse their deadly enmity with the Iroquois. Even the poor remnants of
the tribe with which the Pilgrims of Plymouth made their treaty of peace,
which lasted for fifty years, were the vanquished and tributary representa-
tives of a broken people. A sharp war and a more deadly plague had made
that colony a possibility.
And so it comes to pass that, if we attempt to define at any period dur-

ing the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the conflicts between the sav-
ages and Europeans on this continent, we have to look for the explanation
of any special change in the relations of the Indian tribes to the varying
interests and collisions of the different foreign nationalities in rivalry
here. The hostilities between the French and the English were chronic
and continuous. Frenchman's Bay, at Mt. Desert, preserves the memorial
of the first collision, when Argall, from Virginia, broke up the attempted
settlement of Saussaye.^ As to the later developments of the antagonism,
resulting in the extinction of French possession here, we are to refer them
in about equal measure to two main causes, — the jealousy of the home
governments, and the keen rivalry of the respective colonists for the lucra-
tive spoils of the fur trade. The profit of traffic may be regarded as
furnishing the prompting for strife on this side of the water, while the
passion for territorial conquest engaged the intrigues and the armies of
foreign courts in the stakes of wilderness warfare.
In tracing the course of such warfare we must take into our view two very
effective agencies, which introduced important modifications in the methods
and results of that warfare. In its progress these two agencies became
more and more chargeable with very serious consequences. The first of
these is the change induced in the warfare of the Indians by their possession
of, leading steadily to a dependence upon, the white man's firearms and
supplies. The second is the usage, which the Indians soon learned to be
profitable, of reserving their white prisoners for ransom, instead of subject-
ing them to death or torture-
> See Vol IV. p. 141.
t,vJQ&og\e
When we read of some of the earliest so-called "deeds" by which the

English colonists obtained from the sachems wide spaces of territory on
the consideration of a few tools, hatchets, kettles, or yards of cloth, we
naturally regard the transaction as simply illustrating the white man's
rapacity and cunning in tricking the simplicity of the savage. But we may
be sure that in many such cases the Indian secured what was to him a full
equivalent for that with which he parted. For, as the whites soon learned
by experience, the savages supposed that in such transactions they were
iiot alienating the absolute ownership of their lands, but only covenanting
for the right of joint occupancy with the English, And then the coveted
tools or implements obtained by them represented a value and a use not
measurable by any reach of wild territory. A metal kettle, a spear, a
knife, a hatchet, transformed the whole life of a savage. A blanket was to
him a whole wardrobe. When he came to be the possessor of firearms and
ammunition, having before regarded himself the equal of the white man,
he at once became his superior. We shall see how the rivalry between the
French and the English for traffic with the Indians, the enterprise of traders
in pushing into the wilderness with packhorses, the establishment of truck-
ing houses, the facility with which the natives could obtain coveted goods
from either party, and the occasional failure of supplies in the contingen-
cies of warfare, were on many occasions the turning-points in the fights in
the wilderness, and in the shifting of savage partisanship from one side to
the-other, as the fickle allies found their own interests at stake.
It was in 1609, when Champlain invaded the Iroquois country, on the

lake that bears his name, that the astounded savages first saw the flash and
marked the deadly effect of his arquebuse. But the shock soon spent itself.
The weapon was found to be a terrestrial one, made and put to service by
a man. The Dutch on the Hudson very soon supplied the Mohawks with
this effective instrument for prosecuting the fur trade. The French began
the general traffic with the Indians near the St. Lawrence, in metal vessels,
knives, hatchets, awls, cotton and woollen goods, blankets, and that most
coveted of all the white man's stores, the maddening " fire-water." But
farther north and west for full two hundred years, from 1670 quite down to
our own time, annual cargoes of these commodities were imported through
Hudson Bay by the chartered company, and had been distributed by its
agents among those who paid for them in peltries, in such abundance that
the savages became really dependent upon them, and gradually conformed
their habits to the use of them. Of course, in their raids upon English out-
posts, the spoils of war in the shape of such supplies added rapacity to their
ferocity. It was with a proud flourish that Indian warriors, enriched by
the plunder on the field of Braddock's disastrous defeat, strutted before the
walls of Fort Duquesne, arrayed in the laced hats, sashes, uniform, and
gorgets of British officers.
When C^loron was sent, in 1749, by the governor of Canada, to take pos-
I of interior posts along the Alleghanies, he found at each of the
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 287
Indian villages, as at Logstown, a chief centre, from a single to a dozen

English traders, well supplied with goods for a brisk peltry traffic. He
required the chiefs, on the threat of the loss of his favor, to expel them and
to forbid their return. But the Indians insisted that they needed the goods.
Some of these traders were worthless reprobates, mostly Scotch-Irish, from
the frontiers of Pennsylvania. When Christopher Gist was sent, the next
year, by the Ohio Land Company, to follow C^loron and to thwart his
schemes, he complained strongly of these demoralized and demoralizing
traders. In the evidence given before the British House of Commons on
the several occasions when the monopoly and the mode of business of the
Hudson Bay Company were under question, the extent to which the natives
had come to depend upon European supplies was very strongly brought
into notice. It was urged that some of the tribes had actually, by disuse,
lost their skill in their old weapons. It was even affirmed that in some of
the tribes multitudes had died by freezing and staJ-vation, because their
recent supplies had failed them. This dependence of the natives upon the
resources of civilization, observable from the opening of their intercourse
with the whites, has been steadily strengthening for two hundred years, till
now it has become an absolute and heavy exaction upon our national
treasury.
The custom which soon came in, to soften the atrocities of Indian warfare
by the holding of white prisoners for ransom, was grafted upon an earlier
usage among the natives of adopting prisoners or captives. There was a
formal ceremonial in such cases, and after its performance those who would
otherwise have been victims were treated with all kindness. The return
of a war-party to its own village was attended with widely different mani-
festations according to the fortune which had befallen it. If it consisted
only of a baffled and flying remnant that had failed in its hazardous enter-
prise, its coming was announced, and received by the old men, women, and
youths in the village with howls and lam e'n tat ions. If, however, it had been
successful, as proved by rich plunder, reeking scalp-locks, and prisoners,
some runners were sent in advance to announce its approach. Then
began a series of orgies, in which the old squaws were the most demonstra-
tive and hideous. While the scalp-locks were displayed and counted, the
well-guarded prisoners were exultingly escorted by their captors, the squaws
gathering around them with taunts and petty tormentings. The woful
fate which was waiting these prisoners was foreshadowed in prolonged
rehearsals for its final horrors. One by one they were forced to run the
gauntlet from goal to goal, between Hnes of yelping fiends, under blows
and missiles, stones, sticks, and tomahawks, while efforts were made to trip
them in their course, that they might be pounded in their helplessness when
maddened with pain. Any exhibition of weakness or dread did but in-
tensify the malignant frenzy of their tormentors. Those who lived through
this ordeal, which was intended to be but a preliminary in the barbaric
Hosted by-
Google
288 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA-
entertainment, and to stop short of the actual extinction of life, were

afterwards, by deliberate preparations made in lull view of the prisoners,
subjected to all the ingenuities of rage and cruelty which untamed savage
fiendishness could devise. The hero who bore the trial without flinching,
singing his song of defiance, and in his turn mocking his tormentors
because they failed to break his spirit, was most likely to find mercy in a
finishing stroke dealt by a magnanimous foe.
Anything like an alleviation of these dread revenges of savage warfare

being unallowable, there was open one way of complete relief in the usage
of adoption, just referred to. This, however, was never available to the
prisoner from his own first motion or prompting. He was wholly passive
in the matter. It came solely from the inclination of any one in the village,
a warrior or a squaw who, having recently lost a relative, or one whose ser-
vice was necessary, might select a prisoner from the group as desirable to
supply a place that was vacant. There would seem to have been a large
liberty allowed in the exercise of this privilege, especially for those who
were mourning for a relative lost in the encounter in which the prisoner
was taken. Sometimes the merest ' caprice might prompt the selection.
Scarcely, except in the rare case of some proud captive who would haughtily
scorn to avail himself of a seeming affinity with the tribe of a hated or
abject enemy, would the offered privilege of adoption be refused. For, in
any case, an ultimate escape from an enforced durance might be looked
to. Of course those who were thus adopted were mostly the young and
vigorous. The little children were not especially favored in the process, —
except, as soon to be noted, the children of the whites. The ceremonial
for adoption was traditional. Beginning generally with somewhat rough
and intimidating treatment, the captive was for a while left in suspense as
to his fate. When at length the intent of the arbiter o£ his life was made
known to him, the method pursued has been very frequently described to
us in detail by the whites who were the subjects of it.^ The candidate was
plunged and thoroughly soused in a stream to rinse out his white blood ;
the hair of his head, saving the scalp-lock, was plucked out ; and after some
mouthings and incantations, completing the initiation, all winning blandish-
ments, arts, and appliances were engaged to secure the confidence of the
adopted captive, and to draw from him some responsive sign of affection.
He was arrayed in the choicer articles of forest finery, and nestled in the
family lodge. The father, the squaw, or the patron, in whatever relation, to
whom he henceforward belonged, spared no effort to engage and comfort
him. Watchful eyes, of course, jealously guarded any restless motions
* A most graphic and picturesque account of by whLcli he was adopted as one o( the Caugh-
the ceremonies attending hp fdp- g Hhlhlife and ravings of the
tion is given iti the JVarra f h C p } f be II 60 h hgol back to his home ;

Cal, JJCwiiM Smith. He wa. tak p mpan d B q t as a guide; was colonel
May, l755,bylwoDeIawar I d ns d arr d f g m Revolutionary War, and
to Fort Duquesne. Hed I hmhd af ards m mb f the Kentucky legis-
of the men and the wome Id I wn 1 H rt ly was a varied career.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
looking towards an escape. The final aim was to secure a fully nationalized
and acclimated new member of a tribe, ready to share all its fortunes in
peace and war.
Naturally there were differences in this whole process and its results, as
they concerned these attempted affiliations between the members of Indian
tribes and in the adoption of white captives.'
In their early conflicts with the whites, the Indians generally practised an
indiscriminate slaughter. There were a few exceptions to the rule in King
Philip's war.2 In the raids of the French, with their Indian allies, upon the
English settlements, prisoners taken on either side came gradually to have
the same status as in civihzed warfare, and to be' held for exchange. This,
however, would proceed upon the supposition that both parties had prison-
ers. But before there was anything like equaUty in this matter, the cap-
tives were for the most part such as had been seized from among the whites
in inroads upon their settlements, not in the open field of warfare. A mid-
night assault upon some frontier cabins, or upon Jhe lodge of some lonely
settler, left the savages to choose between a complete massacre or upon
a selection of some of their victims for leading away with them to their
own haunts, if not too cumbersome or dangerous for the wilderness journey.
It soon came to be understood among the raiding parties of Indians in
alliance with the French in Canada that white captives had a ransom value.
Contributions were often gathered up in neighborhoods that had been
I Governor Coldeii says that when he first "For the Indian Sagamores, and people that
went among the Mohawks he was adopted by are in warre against us.
them. Tlie name given to him was " Cayender- " Inteligence is Come to us thai you haue some
ogue," which was borne by an old sachem, a English (especially weomen and children) in
notable warrior. He writes: "I thought no Captivity among you. Wee haue therefore sent
more of it at that time than as an artifice to draw this messenger, offering to redeeme them either
a belly-full of strong liquor from me for himself for payment m goods or wompom ; or by ex-
and his companions. But when, about ten ot change of prisoners. Wee desire your answer
twelve years after, my business led me among by this our messinger, what price you demand
them," he was recognized by the name, and it for euery man woman and child, or if you will
served him in good stead. {Hist, of Fan Nats., exchînge for Indians ; if you haue any among
3d ed., i. p. II.) The savages always took the you that can write your Answer to this our mes-
liberty of assignmg names of their own, either suage, we desire it in writting, and to that end
general or individual, to the Europeans with haue sent paper, pen and Incke by the mes-
whom they had intercourse. The governor of senger. If you letl our messenger haue free
Canada, for the time being, was called " Onon- accesse to you and freedome of a safe retume :
tio"; of New York, "Corlear"; of Virginia, Wee ace willing to doe the like by anymessenger
"Assaiigoa"; of Pennsylvania, "Onas," etc. of yours. Prouided he come vnarmed and Carry
At a council o£ the Sin Nations with the gov- a white flagg Vpon a Staffe vissible to be scene :
einois of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland, which we calle a flagg of truce : and is used by
held at Lancaster in June, 1744, it came under Civil nations in time of warre when any messin-
notice that the governor of Maryland had as
yet no appellation assigned him by the natives.
Much formality was used in providing one for
him. It was tried by lot as to which of the
tribes should have the honor of naming him.
The Jot fell to the Cayugas, one of whose chiefs,
after solemn deliberation, assigned the name
"Tocariyhogan." (Colden, ii. p. 89.}
* From Archives of Massachusetts, vol. liviii.

p.193! —
VOL.1.— 19
gers are sen

" Boston ;
i in a way of treaty ;
messenger.
)ith of March 1676
which wee hau
past by the Council E. R. S. &
was signed
" In testimony whereof I haue set to my ban
& Seal. F. L. Gov."
(From N. E. Hist, aij Gen. Rigiiler, Jan']
188s, pp. 79. 80)
y Google
ago NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
raided, and in the meeting-houses of New England on Sundays, for redeem-

ing such captives as were known to be in Canada. And, curiously enough.
Judge Sewall in his journal records appeals for charity in the same form for
the redemption of captives in the hands of our own savages, and for the
ransom of our seamen and traders who were kept in durance by Afri-
can corsairs.
In the raids of desolation on either side of the Alleghanies and along

the sources of the Susquehannah and the Ohio, from the outbreak of the
French and Indian war, down to and even after the crushing of Pontiac's
conspiracy, while more than a thousand cabins of the borderers were burned
and their inmates mostly slaughtered, several hundred captives were borne
off by the Indians and distributed among their villages. The ultimate fate
of these captives always hung in dread uncertainty. If a panic arose
among the lodges in apprehension of an onset from a war-party of the
whites, the captives might be massacred. But the force of circumstances
and the urgency of interested motives steadily made it an object for their
captors to retain their prisoners unharmed, and even to make captivity tol-
erable to them. The alternative of death or life to them generally depended
upon whether they might escape or be released by an avenging party with-
out compensation, or could be held for redemption through a ransom. The
knowledge that the Indians retained such captives of course became a very
effective motive in inducing their relatives in the settlements'to gather par-
ties of neighbors for following the victims into the forest depths. Temporary
truces also, when made by victorious parties of the whites, were conditioned
upon the surrender of all their surviving countrymen who were supposed to
be in duress. The savages practised all their artifices and subterfuges in
concealing some of their prisoners, alleging that they had been carried deeper
into the country by new masters, or by positively denying all knowledge of
their whereabouts. But the persistency and threats of those who had
learned how to deal with these red diplomates, with a few resolute strokes
generally brought about their surrender. When Bouquet had secured pos-
session of Fort Duquesne with his army of 1,500 men, he stoutly followed
up his success beyond the Ohio to the Indian settlements near the Muskin-
gum, and with his sturdy pluck and strong force he overawed the represen-
tatives of the neighboring tribes which he had summoned to meet him.
He insisted, as the first condition of a truce, upon the delivery of all the
white prisoners secluded among them, not only without the payment of any
ransom, but upon their being brought in with a protecting escort and with
means of sustenance. Of course there was always ignorance or doubt as
to the number of captives in any particular place, and as to the hands into
which any individual known or supposed to be in durance might have fallen.
The word of an Indian on these points was worthless unless backed by
other testimony. A stimulating of the tongue into unguarded speech by a
dram of rum might in some cases serve the purpose of the rack or the
thumb-screw in more civilized cross-examinations. An uncertainty of
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 29I
course always hung over the survival or the whereabouts o£ individuals or

members of a family whose bodies had not been found on the scene of an
Indian frontier raid. Bouquet was accompanied by friends and relatives of
supposed survivors held in captivity as the spoils of some massacre, and
these might be depended upon to circumvent the falsehoods and cunning of
the captors, and to insist upon their giving up their prizes. The persistency
and the plain evidence of resolved purpose manifested by Bouquet finally
compelled from the representatives of the tribes in council a pledge to sur-
render all the prisoners in their hands, and messengers were sent out to
gather and bring them in, though with some plausible excuses for delay,
and the grudging return of only a part of them. But those who were
given up became the best witnesses as to the deception practised by the
cunning culprits in holding back others. Only after repeated exposures of
falsehood by those so grudgingly surrendered, asserting of their own knowl-
edge that there were others held in durance, whom they might even
know by name, was there brought about a full deliverance, saving that,
whether truly or falsely, in the case of a few individuals demanded the ex-
cuse was alleged that they belonged to some chief or tribe absent at a dis-
tance on a hunt, and so not to be reached by a summons. Bouquet was
also absolute in his demand for all such white captives, young or old, as
were alleged to have been adopted or married among the tribes. His firmly
insisting upon this, and the compliance with it in many cases, led to some
scenic manifestations in the wilderness, of a highly dramatic character, full
of the matter of romance in their revelations of the working of human
nature under novel and strange conditions. Such manifestations often
attended similar scenes in the ransom or forced surrender of whites who
had been in captivity among the Indians. But in this special instance of
Bouquet's resolute course with the Ohio tribes, numbers, variety, pictur-
esqueness in those manifestations, gave to the bringing in and the recep-
tion of captives features and incidents which strongly engage alike the
sympathies and antipathies of human nature. Some of those brought into
Bouquet's camp, who had once at least been whites, came with full as much
reluctance on their part as that which was felt by those who gave them up.
Indeed, several of them could be secured only by being bound and guarded.
Approximation in all degrees to the manners and habits of Indian life
and to all the qualities of Indian nature had been realized by Europeans
from the first contact of the races on this continent. Of course the in-
stances were numerous and very decisive in which this approximation was
completed, and resulted in a substitution of all the ways and habits of sav-
agery for those of civilization. Many of those who were forced back into
Bouquet's camp clung to their Indian friends, and repelled all the manifes-
tations of joy and affection of their own nearest kin by blood. They posi-
tively refused to return to the settlements. They had been won by prefer-
ence to the fascinations and license of a life in the wilderness. This
preference was by no means inexplicable, even for some full-grown men and
1 who had heen reared in the white settlements. Life in scattered

cabins on the frontiers had more points of resemblance than of difference
in hard conditions and privations, when compared with savage life in the
woods. Such society as these scattered cabins afforded was rude and
rough, all experiences were precarious, daily drudgery was severe, the soli-
tary homes were gloomy, and only exceptional cases of early domestic and
mental training alleviated the stern exigencies of the condition of the first
generation of the settlers. For women and children especially, the out-
look and the routine of life were dismal enough. As for the men, the more
they conformed themselves in many respects to the actual habits and re-
sources of the Indians in the training of their instincts, in their garb,
their food, their adaptation of themselves to the ways and resources
of nature, the easier was their lot. Many women, likewise made captives
by the savages, in some cases of mature age, and having looked forward to
the usual lot of marriage, found an Indian to be preferable, or at all events
tolerable, as a husband. Children who preserved but a faint remembrance
of home and parents very readily adopted savage tastes, ^nd testified by
their shrieks and struggles their unwillingness to part from their red friends.
Specimens from each of these classes were the most marked and demon-
strative among the groups brought in to Bouquet from Indian lodges, being
in number more than two hundred. Doubtless, however, the majority of
them had had enough of the experiences of savage life to make a return to
the settlements a welcome release. Such persons thenceforward consti-
tuted a useful class as interpreters, mediators, and messengers between the
contending parties. Their knowledge of Indian character, superstitions,
limitations, weak and strong points, impulsive excitability, stratagems, and
adaptability to circumstance proved on many emergent occasions of good
account Such of these returned captives as had had the rudiments of an
education, and were trustworthy as narrators, have made valuable contribu-
tions to local history.
Among many such intelligent and trustworthy reporters was Col. James
Smith, captured on the borders of Pennsylvania in 1755, when eighteen
years of. age, and kept in captivity five years. Another was John McCul-
lough, taken at about the same time and from the near neighborhood, when
eight years old. He was retained eight years, and, being a quick-witted and
observing youth, he kept his eyes and ears open to all that he could learn.
From such sources we derive the most authentic information we possess of
that transition period in the condition and fortunes of many of our aborigi-
nal tribes when the intrusion of Europeans upon them with their tempting
goods and their rival schemes, which equally tended to dispossess them of
their heritage, introduced among them so many novel complications. Some
of the narratives of the whites, who, under the conditions just referred to,
lived for years and were assimilated with the Indians, present us occasion-
ally by no means unattractive pictures of the ordinary tenor of life among
them. In the brief intervals of peace, and in some favored recesses where
Hosted by VjOOQIC
game abounded and the changing seasons brought round festivals, plays,
and scenes of jollity, there were even fascinations to delight one of simple
tastes, who could enjoy the aspects of nature, share the easy tramp over
mossy trails, content himself with the viands of the wilderness, employ
the long hours of laziness in easy handiwork, delight in basking beneath
the soft hazes of the Indian summer, or listening to the traditional lore of
the winter wigwam. The forests very soon began to be the shelter and the
roving haunts of a crew of renegades and outlaws from the settlements,
who assimilated at all points With the savages, and often used what re-
mained to them of the knowledge and arts of civilization for ingenious
purposes of mischief. It has always proved a vastly more easy and rapid
process for white men to fall back into barbarism than for an Indian to con-
form himself to civilization. Wild life brought out all reversionary tenden-
cies, and revived primitive qualities and instincts. It gave those who shared
it a full opportunity to become oblivious of all fastidious tastes and of all
the squeamishness of over-delicacy. The promiscuous contents of the
camp-kettle, with its deposits and incrustations from previous banquets,
were partaken of with a zestful appetite. The circumstances of warfare in
the woods quickened all the faculties of watchfulness, made even the natu-
ral coward brave, imparted endurance, and multiplied all the ingenuities of
resource and stratagem. There is something that surpasses the merely
marvellous in the feats of sturdy and persevering scouts, escaped captives,
remnants of a butchery, messengers sent to carry intelligence in supreme
peril, and lonely wayfarers treading the haunted forests, or creeping stealth-
ily through ambushed defiles, penetrating marshes, using the sky and their
woodcraft for guidance, fording or swimming choked or icy streams, climb-
ing high tree-tops for a wider survey from the closed woods and thickets,
subsisting on roots and berries and moss, and yielding to the exhaustion
of nature only when all perils were passed and the refuge was reached.
Alike on the march of armies and in the siege of some little forest strong-
hold surrounded by yelping savages, it was necessary from time to time to
send out a single plucky hero to carry or to obtain intelligence. When
such a messenger was not designated by the commander, and the extremity
of the emergency left the dismal honor to a volunteer, such was never found
to be lacking. It confounds all calculations of the law of chances to learn
how, even in the majority of such dire enterprises as are on record, for-
tune favored the brave. Narratives there are which for ages to come will
gather all the exciting elements of tragedy and romance, and occasionally
even of comedy, as, set down in the language of the woods, without the
constraints of art or grammar, they make us for the moment companions of
some imperilled man or woman who borrowed of the bear, the deer, the
fox, or the beaver, their several instincts and stratagems for outwitting
pursuit and clinging to dear life. Rare, it may be, but still well authenti-
cated, are cases of victims with a strong tenacity of vitality, who, left as
dead, mutilated and scalped, reasserted themselves when the foe had gone,
found their way back to their homes, and, after such reconstruction as the
art of the time would allow, enjoyed a long life ^terwards.
The conditions attending the entrance of European war-parties, with

their necessary supplies, into the depths of the wilderness were of the most
severe and exacting character. They involved equally the outlay of toH
and an exposure to perils requiring the most watchful vigilance. Well-
worn trails made by the natives, and always sufficiently travelled to lieep
them open, had long been in use for such purposes as were needed in prim-
itive conditions. These were very narrow, necessitating that progress
should be made through them singly, in "Indian iile." At portages or car-
rying-places, burdens were borne on the back from one watercourse to
another, round a rapid or across an elevation. Some of these trails are
even now traceable in the oldest settled portions of the country, where the
woods have never been wholly cleared. Part of that which was availed of
by the whites two hundred and fifty years ago between Plymouth and Bos-
ton, and others in untitled portions of the Old Colony, are clearly discern-
ible. The thickets and undergrowths came close to the b'orders of these
trails, and the overhanging branches of the trees were found a grievous
annoyance when the earliest traders with pack-horses traversed them. In
a large part of our present national domain and in Canada, it may safely
be said that nineteen twentieths of all movement from place to place was
made by the savages by the watercourses of lake and stream, and the same
was done by the Europeans till they brought into use horses first, and then
carts. These were first put to service by the traders from the English set-
tlements on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The pack-horses,
heavily laden, trained to their rough service for rocky and marshy grounds,
as well as for the thick and stifling depths of the forest, and able to sub-
sist on very poor forage, carried goods most prized by the natives, and gen-
erally in inverse ratio to their real worth. They returned to the settle-
ments from the Indian villages with a burden of precious furs, the traffickers
mutually finding their account in their respective shares in barter and profit.
These traders with their pack-horses were for a long time the pioneers of
the actual settlers. The methods and results of their traffic, trifling as they
may seem to be, had the two leading consequences of critical importance :
first, they made the Indians acquainted with and dependent upon the white
man's goods, and then they provoked and embittered the rival competi-
tion between the French and the English for the considerable profits.
What we now call a military road was first undertaken on a serious scale
in the advance of the disastrous expedition of General Braddock, in 1755,
over the Alleghanies to the forks of the Ohio. The incumbrances with
which he burdened himself might wisely have been greatly reduced in kind
and in amount. But the exigencies of the service in which he was engaged
were but poorly apprehended by him. As in the case of the even more
disastrous campaign of General Burgoyne, twenty-two years later, (1777)
though his route was mainly by water, the camp was lavishly supplied with
Hosted by VjOOQIC
appliances of luxury and sensuality, Braddock's way for his cattle, carts,
and artillery was slowly and poorly prepared by pioneers in advance, level-
ling trees, stiffening marshy places, removing rocks and bushes, and then
leaving huge stumps in the devious track to rack the wagons and torment
the draught animals. It is not without surprise that we read of the presence
of domestic cattle far off in the extreme outposts of single persevering set-
tlers. But when, on the first extensive military expeditions for building a
fort on the shore of a lake, at river forks, or to command a portage, we find
mention of cannon and heavy ammunition, we marvel at the perseverance
involved in their transportation. The casks of liquor, of French brandy
and of New England rum, which generally, without stint, formed a part
of the stores of each military enterprise, furnished in themselves a mo-
tive spirit which facilitated their transport. Flour and bread could, with
many risks from stream and weather, be carried in sacks. But pork and
beef in pickle, the mainstay in garrisons which could not venture out to
hunt or fish, required to be packed in wood. After all the persevering toil
engaged in this transportation, the dirfe necessities of warfare under these
stem conditions often compelled the destruction of the stores, every article
of which had tasked the strained muscles and sinews of the hard-worked
campaigners. When it was found necessary to evacuate a forest post, the
stockade was set on fire, the magazine was exploded, the cannon spiked,
the powder thrown into the water, and everything that could not be carried
off in a hasty retreat was, if possible, rendered useless as booty. As the
French and English military movements steadily extended over a wider
territory and at more numerous points, with increased forces, the waste and
havoc caused by disasters on either side involved an enormous destruction of
the materials of war. Vessels constructed with incredible labor on the lakes,
anvils, cordage, iron, and artillery having been gathered for their building
and arming by perilous ocean voyages and by transit through inner waters
and portages, and thousands of bateaux for Lakes Champiain and George,
now lie sunken in the depths, most of them destroyed by those in whose
service they were to be employed. The "Griffin," the first vessel on Lake
Erie, built by La Salle in 1679, disappeared on her second voyage, and lies
beneath the waters still. After Braddock's defeat, when the fugitive rem-
nant of his army had reached Dunbar's camp, a hundred and fifty wagons
were burned, and fifty thousand pounds of powder were emptied into a
creek, after the incredible toil by which they had been drawn over the
mountains and morasses.
There were many occasions and many reasons which prompted the
Europeans to weigh the gain or loss which resulted to them from the em-
ployment of Indian allies, who were always an incalculable element in any
enterprise. They could never be depended upon for constancy or persist-
ency. A bold stroke, followed, if successful, with butchery, and a rush to
the covert of the woods if a failure, was the sum of their strategy. They
had a quick eye in watching the turning fortunes and the probable issue of
Hosted by
■©ssosle
a venture, and they acted accordingly. They were wholly disinclined for
any protracted siege operations. In the weary months of the investment
of Detroit, the only enterprise of the sort engaged in by large bodies of
savages acting in concert, we find a single exceptional case of their uniform
impatience of such prolonged strategy. And even in that case there were
intervals when the imperilled and starving garrison had breathing-spells for
recuperation. Charges and counter-charges, pleas and criminations of every
kind, plausible, false, or sincere, are found in the journals and reports of
English and French officers, prompted by accusations and vindications of
either parly, called out by the atrocities and butcheries wrought by their
savage allies in many of the conflicts of the French and Indian war. In
vain did the commanders of the white forces on either side promise that
their red allies should be restrained from plunder and barbarity against the
defeated party. It was an attempt to bridle a storm. From the written
opitiions expressed by various civil and military officials during all our In-
dian wars one. might gather a list of judgments, always emphatically worded,
as to the qualities of the red men as allies. Governor Dinwiddle, writing
in May 28, 1756, to General Abercrombie, on his arrival here to hold the
chief command till the coming of Lord Loudon, expresses himself thus :
"I think we have secured the Six Nations to the Northward to our Interest
who, I suppose, will join your Forces. They are a very awkward, dirty sett
of People, yet absolutely necessary to attack the Enemy's Indians in their
way of fighting and scowering the Woods before an Army. I am per-
swaded they will appear a despicable sett of People to his Lordship and
you, but they will expect to be taken particular Notice of, and now and
then some few Presents. I fear General Braddock despised them too
much, which probably was of Disservice to him, and I really think without
some of them any engagement in the Woods would prove fatal, and if
strongly attached to our Interest they are able in their way to do more than
three Times their Number. They are naturally inclined to Drink. It will
be a prudent Stepp to restrain them with Moderation, and by some of your
Subalterns to shew them Respect."^ Baron Dieskau, in 1755, had abun-
dant reason for expressing himself about his savage auxiliaries in this fash-
ion : " They drive us crazy from morning to night. One needs the patience
of an angel to get on with these devils, and yet one must always force
himself to seem pleased with them."^
It would seem as if the native tribes, when Europeans first secured a

lodgment, were beguiled by a fancy which in most cases was very rudely
dispelled. This fancy was that the new-comers might abide here with-
out displacing them. The natives in giving deeds of lands, as has been
said, had apparently no idea that they had made an absolute surrender of
territory. They seem to have imagined that something like a joint occu-
' Dinividdie Papers, ii. p. 426.
' Quoted in Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfi, i. p. 297.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
pancy was possible, each of the parties being at liberty to follow his own
ways and interests without molesting the other. So the Indians did not
move off to a distance, but frequented their old haunts, hoping to derive
advantage from the neighborhood of the white man. King Philip in 1675
discerned and acutely defined the utter impracticability of any such joint
occupancy. He indicated the root of the impending ruin to his own race,
and he found a justification of the conspiracy which he instigated in point-
ing to the white man's clearings and fences, and to the impossibility of
joining planting with hunting, and domestic cattle with wild game.
The history of the Hudson Bay Company and that of the enterprises con-
ducted by the French for more than a century, when set in contrast with
the steady development of colonization by English settlers and by the people
of the United States succeeding to them, brings out in full force ^he
different relations into which the aborigines have always been brought by
the presence of Europeans among them, either as traders or possessors of
territory. The Hudson Bay Company for exactly two centuries, from 1670
to 1870, held a charter for the monopoly of trade with' the Indians here over
an immense extent of territory, and in the later portion of that period held
an especial grant for exclusive trade over an even more extended ' region,
further north and west. The company made only such a very limited occu-
pancy of the country, at small and widely distant posts, as was necessary
for its trucking purposes and the exchange of European goods for pel-
tries. During that whole period, allowing for rare casualties, not a single
act of hostility occurred between the traders and the natives. A large
number of different tribes, often at bitter feud with each other, were all
kept in amity with the official residents of the company, and each party
probably found as much satisfaction in the two sides of a bargain as is
usual in such transactions. Deposits of goods were securely gathered in
some post far off in the depths of the wilderness, under the care of two or
three young apprentices of the company, and here bands of Indians at the
proper season came for barter. Previous to the operations of this com-
pany, beginning as early as 1620, large numbers of Frenchmen, singly or
in parties, ventured deep into the wilderness in company with savage
bands, for purposes of adventure or traffic, and very rarely did any of them
meet a mishap or fail to find a welcome. Such adventurers in fact became
in most cases Indians in their manner of life. Nor did the jealousy oE
the savages manifest itself in a way not readily appeased when they found
the French priests planting mission stations and truck-houses. In no case
did the French intruders ask, as did the English colonists, for deeds of ter-
ritory. It was understood that they held simply by sufferance, and with a
view to mutual advantage for both parties, with no purpose of overreach-
ing. The relations thus established between the French and the natives
continued down till even after the extinction of the territorial claims of
France. And when, just beEore the opening of the great French and In-
dian hostilities with the English colonists, the French had manifested their
yG-iao sle
ZgS N-ARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
purpose to get a foothold on the heritage of the savages by pushing a line

of strongly fortified posts along their lakes and rivers, the apprehensions of
the savages were craftily relieved by the plea that these securities were
designed only to prevent the encroachment of the English.
A peaceful traffic with the Indians, like that of the Hudson Bay Company
and the French, had been from the first but a subordinate object of the Eng-
lish colonists. These last, while for a period they confined themselves to the
seaboard, supplemented their agricultural enterprise by the fishery and by
a very profitable commerce. -As soon as they began to penetrate into the
interior they took with them their families and herds, made fixed habita-
tions, put up their fences and dammed the streams. Instead of fraterniz-
ing with the Indians, they warned them off as nuisances. We must also
takb into view the fact that this steadily advancing settlement of the In-
dian country directly provoked and encouraged the resolute though baffled
opposition of the savages. They could match forces with these scattered
pioneers, even if, as was generally the case, a few families united in con-
structing a palisadoed and fortified stronghold to which they might gather
for refuge. If a body of courageous men had advanced together welt pre-
pared for common defence, it is certain the warfare would not have been
so desultory as it proved to be. All the wiles of the Indians in conduct-
ing their hostilities gave them a great advantage. They thought that the
whites might be dislodged effectually from further trespasses if once and
again they were visited by sharp penalties for their rash intrusion. It was
plain that they were long in coming to a full apprehension of the pluck of
their invaders, of their recuperative energies, and of the reserved forces
which were behind them. From the irregular base line of the coast the
English advanced into the interior, not by direct parallel lines, but rather
by successive semicircles of steadily extending radii. The advances from
the middle colonies of Pennsylvania and Virginia marked the farthest
reaches in this curvature. The French, in the mean while, aimed from the
start for occupying the interior.
The period which we have here under review is one through which the
savages, for the most part, were but subordinate agents, the principals be-
ing the French and the English. So far as the diplomatic faculties of the
savages enabled them to hold in view the conditions of the strife, there were
doubtless occasions in which they thought they held what among civilized
nations is called the balance of power. Nor would it have been strange if,
at times, their chiefs had imagined that, though it might be impossible for
them again to hold possession of their old domains free from the intrusion
of the white man, they might have power to decide which of the two na-
tionalities should be favored above the other. In that case the French
doubtless would have been the favored party. We have, however, to take
into view the vast disproportion between the numbers, if not of the re-
sources, of these two foreign nationalities, when the struggle between them
Hosted by VJ O-OQ IC
earnestly began. In 1688 there were about eleven thousand of the French
in America, and nearly twenty times as many English. The French were
unified under the control of their home government. Its resources were
at their call : its army and navy, its arsenals and treasury, its monarch and
ministers, might be supposed to be serviceable and engaged,{or making its
mastery on this continent secure. The English, however, were only nomi-
nally, and as regards some of the colonies even reluctantly and but trucu-
lently, under the control of their home government. It had been the
jealous policy of the New England colonists, from their first planting, to
isolate themselves from the mother-country, and to make self-dependence
the basis of independence. Their circumstances had thrown them on their
own resourcesj and made them feel that as their foreign superiors could
know very little of their emergencies, it was not wise or even right in
them to interpose in their affairs. Indeed, it is evident that all the
British colonists felt themselves equal, without advice or help from abroad,
to take care of themselves, if they had to contend only against the savages.
But when the savages had behind them the power of the French mon-
arch, it was of necessity that the English should receive a reinforce-
ment from their own countrymen. In the altercations with the British
ministry which followed very soon after the close of the French and In-
dian war, a keenly argued question came under debate as to the claim
which the mother-country had upon the gratitude of her colonists for com-
ing to their rescue when threatened with ruin from their red and white
enemies. And the answer to this question was judged to depend upon
whether, in sending hither her fleets and armies, Britain had in view an ex-
tension of her transatlantic domains or the protection of her imperilled sub-
jects. At any rate, there were jealousies, cross-purposes, and an entire lack
of harmony between the direct representatives of English military power
and the cooperating measures of the colonial government. Never, under
any stress of circumstances, was England willing to raise even the most
serviceable of the officers of the provincial forces to the rank of regulars
in her own army. The youthful Washington, whose sagacity and prowess
had proved themselves in field and council where British officers were so
humiliated, had to remain content with the rank of a provincial colonel.
Nor did the provincial legislatures act in concert either with each other, or
with the advice and appeals of their royal governors in raising men, money
or supplies for combined military operations against common enemies.
Each of the colonies thought it sufficient to provide for itself. Each was
even dilatory and backward when its own special peril was urgent. These
embarrassments of the English did very much to compensate the French
for their great inferiority in numerical strength. We are again to remind
ourselves of the fact that the French, alike from their temperament and
their policy, were always vastly more congenial and influential with the
savages.
The French in Canada from the first adopted the policy of alliance with
"Hosteciby-
<s®osIe
native tribes. Though their warfare with the English was hardly intermit,
tent, there were several occasions when it was specially active. Beginning
with the first invasion of the Iroquois territory by Champlain, in 1609,
already mentioned, under the plea of espousing the side of his friends and
allies, the Hurons and Algonquins, other like enterprises were later pur-
sued. Courcelles, in 1666, made a wild and unsuccessful inroad upon the
Iroquois. Tracy made a more effective one in the same year. De la
Barre in 1684, Denonville in 1687, and Frontenac in 1693 and 1696, re-
peated these onsets. The last of these invasions of what is now Central
New York was intended to effect the complete exhaustion of the Indian
confederacy. Its havoc was indeed well-nigh crushing, but there was a
tenacity and a recuperative power in that confederacy of savages which
yielded only to a like desolating blow inflicted by Sullivan, under orders
from Washington, in our Revolutionary War.
This formidahle league of the Five Nations, when first known to Euro-
peans, claimed to have obtained by conquest the whole country from the
lakes to the CaroUnas, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. France,
as against other Europeans, though not against the Indians, claimed the
same territory. Great Britain claimed the valley of the Ohio and its tribu-
taries, first against the French as being merely the longitudinal extension
of the line of sea-coast discovered by English navigators, and then through
cessions from and treaties with the Five Nations. The first of these
treaties was that made at Lancaster, Pa., in June, 1744, But the Indians
afterwards complained that they had been overreached, and had not in-
tended to cede any territory west of the Alleghanies. Here, of course,
with three parties in contention, there was basis enough for struggles in
which the prize, all considerations of natural justice being excluded, was to
be won only by superior power. Neither of the rivals and intruders from
across the ocean dealt with the Indians as if even they had any absolute
right to territory from which they claimed to have driven off former pos-
sessors. So the Indian prerogative was recognized by the French and the
English as available only on either side for backing up some rival claim of
the one or the other nation ; though when the mother-countries were at
peace in Europe, their subjects here by no means felt bound even to a
show of truce, and they were always most ready to avail themselves of a
declaration of war at home to make their wilderness campaigns. It is
curious to note that in all the negotiations between the Indians and Euro- _
peans, including those of our own government, the only landed right recog-
nized as belonging to the savages was that of giving up territory. The
prior right of ownership by the tenure of possession was regarded as invali-
dated both by the manner in which it had been acquired and by a lack to
make a good use of it.
It was in the closing years of the seventeenth century and in those open-
ing the eighteenth that the military and the priestly representatives of
France in Canada resolutely advised and undertook the measures which
yGo£)Qle
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA. 3OI
promised to give them a secure and extended possession of the whole north
of the continent, excepting only the strip on the Atlantic seaboard then
firmly held by the English colonists. Even this excepted region of terri.
tory was by no means, however, regarded as positively irreclaimable, and
military enterprises were often planned with the aim of a complete extinc-
tion of English possession. The French in their earliest explorations, in
penetrating the country to the west and to the south, had been keenly
observant in marking the strategic points on take and river for strongholds
which should give them the advantage of single positions and secure a
chain of posts for easy and safe communications. Their leading object w^
to gain an ascendency over the native tribes ; and as they could not expect
easily and at once to get the mastery over them all, policy dictated such
a skilful turning to account of their feuds among themselves as would
secure strong alliances of interest and friendship with the more powerful
ones. The French did vastly more than the English to encourage the
passions of the savages for war and to train them in military skill and arti-
fice, leaving them for the most part unchecked in the indulgence of their
ferocity. It is true that the Dutch and the English had the start in supply-
ing the savages with firearms, under the excuse that they were needed by
the natives for the most effective support of the rapidly increasing trade in
peltries. But the French were not slow to follow the example, as it pre-
sented to them a matter of necessity. And through the long and bloody
struggle between the two European nationahties with their red allies, it may
be safely affirmed that the frontier warfare of the English colonists was
waged against savages armed as well as led on by the French.
Two objects, generally harmonious and mutually helpful of each other,

inspired the activity of the French in taking possession successively of
posts in the interior of the continent. The first of these was the establish-
ment of mission stations for the conversion of the savages. The other
object of these wilderness posts was to secure the lucrative gains of the fur
trade from an ever-extending interior. Though, as was just said, these two
objects might generally be harmoniously pursued, it was not always found
easy or possible to keep them in amity, or to prevent sharp collisions be-
tween them. There was a vigorous rivalry in the fur trade between the
members of an associated company, with a government monopoly for the
traffic, and very keenly enterprising individuals who pursued it, with but
little success in concealing their doings, in defiance of the monopolists.
The burden of the official correspondence between the authorities in Canada
and those at the French court related to the irregularities and abuses of
this traffic. Incident to these was a lively plying of the temptations of that
other traffic which poured into the wilderness floods of French brandy.
The taste of this fiery stimulant once roused in a savage could rarely after-
wards be appeased. The English colonists soon gained an advantage in
this traffic in their manufacture of cheap rum. It is easy to see how this
rivalry between monopolists and individuals in the fur trade, aided by the
>, Google
303- NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
Stimulant for which the Indian was most craving, would impair the spirit-
ual labors of the priests at their wild stations. Nor were there lacking
instances in which the p'riests themselves were charged with sharing not
only the gains of the fur trade, but also those of the brandy traffic, either
in the interests of the monopolists or of individuals.
The earliest extended operations of the French fur trade with the Indians
were carried on by the northerly route to Lake Huron by the Ottawa River.
The French had little to apprehend from English interference by this diffi-
cult route with its many portages. But it soon became of vital necessity
tg the French to take and hold strong points on the line of the Great Lakes.
These were on the narrow streams which made the junctions between
them. So a fort was to be planted at Niagara, between Ontario and Erie ;
another at Detroit, between Erie and Huron ; another at Michilimackinac,
between Michigan and Huron ; another at the fall of the waters of Superior
into Huron ; and Fort St. Joseph, near the head of Lake Michigan, facili-
tated communication with the Illinois and the Miami tribes ; the Ojibwas,
Ottawas, Wyandots, and Pottawattomies having their settlements around
the westernmost of the lakes, the Sioux being still beyond. South of
Lake Erie, in the region afterwards known as the Northwest Territory,
between the Alleghanies, the Ohio, and the Mississippi, were the Delawares,
the Shawanees, and the Mingoes. It is to be kept in view that this terri-
tory, though formally ceded by France to England in the treaty of 1762-63,
had previously been claimed by the English colonists as rightfully belong-
ing to their monarch, it being merely the undefined extension of the sea-
coast held by virtue of the discovery of the Cabots.
The fifth volume of the Mimoires published by Margry gives us the ori-
ginal documents, dating 16S3-169S, relating to the first project for opening a
chain of posts to hold control of, and to facilitate communication between,
Canada and the west and south of the continent. The project was soon
made to extend its purpose to the Gulf of Mexico. The incursions of the
Iroquois and the attempted invasions of the English, with a consequent
drawing off of trade from the French, had obliged the Marquis Denonville
to abandon some of the posts that had been established. In spite of the
opposition of Champigny, Frontenac vigorously urged measures for the re-
possession and strengthening of these posts. The Jesuits were earnest in
pressing the measure upon the governors of Canada. In pushing on the
enterprise, the French had sharp experience of the intense hostility of the
inner tribes who were to be encountered, and who were to be first con-
ciliated. The French followed a policy quite unlike that of the English in
the method of their negotiations for the occupancy of land. The colonists
of the latter aimed to secure by treaty and purchase the absolute fee and
ownership of a given region. They intended to hold it generally for cul-
tivation, and they expected the Indians then claiming it to vacate it. The
French beguiled the Indians by asserting that they had no intention either
of purchasing or forcibly occupying, as if it were their own, any spot where
Hosted by VjOOQIC
they established a stronghold, a trucking or a mission station. They pro-

fessed to hold only by sufferance, and that, too, simply for the security and
benefit of the natives, in furnishing them with a better religion than their
own and with the white man's goods. The Iroquois, finding the hunting
and trapping of game for the English so profitable on their own territory,
were bent on extending their field. They hoped, by penetrating to MichOi-
mackinac, to make themselves the agents or medium for the trade with the
tribes near it, so that they could control the whole southern traffic. So
they had declared war against the Illinois, the Miamis, the Ottawas, and the
Hurons. It was of vital importance to the French to keep firm hold of
Lakes Ontario and Erie, and to guard their connections. The Iroquois
were always the threatening obstacle. It was affirmed that they had become
so debauched by strong drink that their squaws could not nourish their few
children, and that they had availed themselves of an adoption of those
taken from their enemies. As they obtained their firearms with compara-
tive cheapness from the English on the Hudson and Mohawk, they used
them with vigor against the inner tribes with their primitive weapons, and
were soon to find them of service against the English on the frontiers o£
Virginia. So keenly did the English press their trade as to cause a waver-
ing of the loyalty of those Indian tribes who had been the first and the fast
friends of the French. Thus it was but natural that the Iroquois should
be acute enough to oppose the building of a French stronghold at any of
the selected posts.
In 1699,^ La Mothe Cadillac proposed to assemble their red allies, then

much dispersed, and principally the Ottawas, at Detroit, and there to con-
struct both a fort and a village. At the bottom of this purpose, and of the
opposition to it, was a contention between rival parties in the traffic. The
favorers and the opponents of the design made their respective representa-
tions to the French court. De Callieres objected to the plan because of the
proximity of the hostile Iroquois, who would prefer to turn all the trade to
the English, and his preference was to reestablish the old posts. The real
issue to be faced was whether the Indians now, and ultimately, were to be
made subjects of the English or of the French monarch. Cadillac combated
the objections of Callieres, and succeeded in effecting his design at Detroit.
The extension of the traffic was constantly bringing into the field tribes
heretofore too remote for free intercourse. In each such case it depended
upon various contingencies to decide whether the French or the English
would find friends or foes in these new parties, and the alternative would
generally rest, temporarily at least, upon which party was most accessible
and most profitable for trade. It would hardly be worth the while for an
historian, unless dealing with the special theme of the rivalries involved
in the fur trade as deciding with which party of the whites one or another
tribe came into amity, to attempt to trace the conditions and consequences
of such diplomacy in inconstant negotiators.
> Margry,v. 133-250.
y Google
The English began the series of attempts to bind the Five, afterwards
the Six, Nations into amity or neutrality by treaty in 1674. These treaties
were wearisome in their formalities, generally unsatisfactory in their terms
of assurance, and so subject to caprice and the changes of fortune as to need
confirmation and renewal, as suspicion or alleged treachery on either side
made them practically worthless. There were two ends to be gained by
these treaties of the English with the confederated tribes. The one was
toâvert hostilities from the English and to secure them privileges of tran-
sit for trade. The other object, not always avowed, but implied as a
natural consequent of the first, was to alienate the tribes from the French,
and if possible to keep them in a state of local or general conflict. Each
specification of these treaties was to be emphasized by the exchange of a
wampum belt. Then a largess of presents, always including rum, was the
final ratification. These goods were of considerable cost to the English,
but always seemed a niggard gift to the Indians, as there were so many to
share in them.
The first of this series of treaties was that made in 1674, at Albany, by
Col. Henry Coursey, in behalf of the colonists of Virginia. It was of little
more service than as it initiated the parties into the method of such pro-
ceedings.
In the middle of July, 1684, Lord Howard, governor of Virginia, sum-

moned a council of the sachems of the Five Nations to Albany. He was
attended by two of his council and by Governor Dongan of New York,
and some of the magistrates of Albanyl Howard charged upon the sav-
ages the butcheries and plunderings which they had committed seven years
previous in Virginia and Maryland, " belonging to the great king of Eng-
land." He told the sachems that the English had intended at once to
avenge those outrages, but through the advice of Sir Edmund Andros,
then governor-general of the country, had sent peaceful messengers to
them. The sachems had proved perfidious to the pledges they then gave,
and the governor, after threatening them, demanded from them conditions
of future amity. After their usual fashion of shifting responsibility and
professions of regret and future fidelity, the sachems renewed their cove-
nants. Under the prompting of Governor Dongan they asked that the
Duke of York's arms should be placed on the Mohawk castles, as a protec-
tion against their enemies, the French. Doubtless the Indians, in desiring,
or perhaps only assenting to, the affixing of these English insignia to their
strongholds, might have had in view only the effect of them in warning off
the French. They certainly did not realize that their English guests
would ever afterwards, as they did, regard this concession of the tribes as
an avowal of allegiance to the king of Great Britain, and as adopting for
themselves the relation of subjects of a foreign monarch.
The experience gained by many previous attempts to secure the fidelity

of the tribes, thenceforward known as the Six Nations by the incorporation
into the confederacy of the remnant of the Tuscaroras, was put to service
Hosted by VjOOQIC
in three succeeding councils for treaty-making, held respectively at Phila-

delphia in 1743, in Lancaster, Pa., in 1744.' and at Albany in 1746.^ Much
allowance is doubtless to be made in the conduct of the earlier treaties
for the lack of competent and faithful interpreters in councils made up
of representatives of several tribes, with different languages and idioms.
Interpreters have by no means always proved trustworthy, even when
qualified for their office.^ The difficulty was early experienced of putting
into our simple mother-tongue the real substance of an Indian harangue,
which was embarrassed and expanded by images and flowers of native
rhetoric, wrought from the structure of their symbolic language, but adding
nothing to the terms or import of the address. It was observed that often
an interpreter, anxious only to state the gist of the matter in hand, would
render in a single English sentence an elaborately ornate speech of an
orator that had extended through many minutes in its utterance. The
orator might naturally mistrust whether full justice had been done to his
plea or argument. There is by no means a unanimity in the opinions or
the judgments of those of equal intelligence, who have reported to us the
harangues of Indians in councils, as to the qualities of their eloquence or
rhetoric. The entire lack of terms for the expression of abstract ideas
compelled them to draw their illustrations from natural objects and rela-
tions. Signs and gestures made up a large part of the significance of a
discourse. Doubtless the cases were frequent in which the representation
of a tribe in a council was made through so few of its members that there
might be reasonable grounds for objection on the part of a majority to the
terms of any covenant or treaty that had been made by a chief or an ora-
tor. Of one very convenient and plausible subterfuge, or honest plea, —
whichever in any given case it might have been, — our native tribes have
always been skilful in availing themselves. The assumption was that the
elder, the graver, wiser representatives of a tribe were those who appeared
on its behalf at a council. When circumstances afterwards led the whites
to complain of a breach of the. conditions agreed on, the blame was always
laid by the chiefs on their " young men," whom they had been unable to
restrain.
During the long term of intermittent warfare of the French and English
on this continent, with native tribes respectively for their foes or allies, the
■ By the treaty at Lancaster, the Indians cov- Germany in lyto, and settled at Schoharie,
enaiited to cede to the English, for goods of the N. Y. His ability and integrity won him the
money value of ;^4O0, the lands between the Al- confidence alike of the Indians and the English,
leghanies and the Ohio. [See our Vol. V. 566. iTiWxtCotUclions of the Historical Society of Finn-
— Ed.] syivania, vol. i. pp. 1-34. are autobiographical,
^ These treaties are fully presented, with alt personal, and narrative papers and journals by
the harangues, by Colden, vol. ii. this remarkable man, equally charaeteriied by
' The most capable and intelligent interpreter the boldest spirit of adventure and by an ardent
employed by the English for a long period, and piety. He gives in full his journal of his mis-
who served at the councils for negotiating the sion from the gOTemmcnts of Pennsylvania and
most important treaties of this time, was Con- Virginia to negotiate with (he Six Nations in .
rad WeUer. He came with his family from 1737. [See Vol. V. 566. — Ed.J
VOL. I. — 20
Hosted -tiy'
Ge^sle
conditions of the conflict, as before hinted, were in general but slightly

affected by the alternative of peace or war as existing at any time between
their sovereigns and people in Europe. Some of the fiercest episodes of
the struggle on this soil took place during the intervals of truce, armistice,
and temporary treaty settlements between the leading powers in the old
world. When, in the treaties closing a series of campaigns, the settlement
in the articles of peace included a restoration of the territory which had
been obtained by either party by conquest, no permanent result was really
secured. These restitutions were always subject to reclamation. Valuable
and strategic points of territory merely changed hands for the time being;
Acadia, for example, being seven times tossed as a shuttlecock between
the parties to the settlement. The trial had to be renewed and repeated
till the decision was of such a sort as to give promise of finality. The
prize contended for here was really the mastery of the whole continent,
though the largeness of the stake was not appreciated till the closing years
of the struggle. Indeed, the breadth and compass of the field were then un-
known quantities. Those closing years of stratagem and carnage in our for-
ests correspond to what is known in history as the "Seven Years' War" in
Europe, in which France, as a contestant, was worsted in the other quarters
of the globe, as in this. Clive broke her power in India, as the generals of
Britain discomfited her here. The French, in 1758, held a profitable mer-
cantile settlement on five hundred miles of coast in Africa, between Cape
Blanco and the river Gambia. It is one of the curious contrarieties iu
the workings of the same avowed principles under different conditions,
that just at the time that the pacific policy of the Pennsylvania Quakers
forbade their offering aid to their countrymen under the bloody work go-
ing on upon their frontiers, an eminent English Quaker merchant, Thomas
Gumming, framed the successful scheme of conquest over this French
settlement in Africa.^
The treaty of Aix-la-Chapel!e, in 1748, seemed to promise a breathing-

time in the strife between the French and English here. In fact, however,
so far from there being even a smouldering of the embers on our soil, that
date marks the kindling of the conflagration which, continuing to blaze for
fifteen years onward, comprehended all the decisive campaigns. The
earliest of these were ominous and disheartening to the English, but they
closed with the fullness of triumph. We must trace with conciseness the
more prominent acts and incidents in which the natives, with the French
and English, protracted and closed the strife.
When Europeans entered upon the region now known as Pennsylvania,

though its well-watered and fertile territory and its abounding game would
seem to have well adapted it to the uses of savage life, it does not appear
that it was populously occupied. The Delawares, which had held it at an
earlier period, had, previously to the coming of the whites, been subjugated
by the more warlike tribes of the Five Nations, or Iroquois. Some of the
' Mahon's England, ch. 35, and Smollett's England, Book iii. ch. 9.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
vanquished had passed to the south or west, to be merged in other bands of

the natives. Such of them as remained in their old haunts were humiliated
by their masters, despised as " women," and denied the privileges of war-
riors. While the Fiv^ Nations were thus potent in the upper portion of
Pennsylvania, around the sources of the Susquehanna, its southern region
was held by the Shawanees. The first purchase near the upper region
made by Europeans of the natives was by a colony of Swedes, under Gov-
ernor John Printz, in 1643. This colony was subdued, though allowed to
remain on its lands, by the Dutch, in 1655. In 1664, the English took
possession of all Pennsylvania, and of everything that had been held by the
Dutch. Penn founded his province in 1682, by grant from Charles II,
and in the next year made his much-lauded treaty of peace and purchase
with the Indians for lands west and north of his city. The attractions of
the province, and the easy opening of its privileges to others than the
Friends, drew to it a rapid and enterprising immigration. In 1729 there
came in, principally from the north of Ireland, 6,307 settlers. In 1750
there arrived 4,317 Germans and 1,000 English. The population of the
province in 1769 was estimated at 250,000. The Irish settlers were mostly
Presbyterians, the Germans largely Moravians. It soon appeared, espe-
cially when the ravages of the Indians on the frontiers were most exasper-
ating and disastrous, that there were 'elements of bitter discord between
these secondary parties in the province and the Friends who represented
the proprietary right. And this suggests a brief reference to the fact that,
as a very effective agent entering into the imbittered conflicts of the time
and scene, we are to take into the account some strong religious animosities.
The entailed passions and hates of the peoples of the old world, as Catholics
and Protestants, and even of sects among the latter, were transferred here to
inflame the rage of combatants in wilderness warfare.^ The zeal and heroic
fidelity of the French priests in making a Christian from a baptized and
untamed savage had realized, under rude yet easy conditions, a degree of
success. In and near the mission Stations, groups of the natives had been
trained to gather around the cross, and to engage with more or less re-
sponse in the holy rites. Some of them could repeat, after a fashion, the
Pater Noster, the Ave Maria, and the Creed. Some had substituted a
crucifix or a consecrated medal for their old pagan charm, to be worn on
the breast. When about to go forth on the war-path, their priests would
give them shrift and benediction. But, as has been said, it was no part or
purpose of this work of christianizing savages to impair their qualities as
warriors, to dull their knives or tomahawks, to quench their thirst for blood,
or to restrain the fiercest atrocities and barbarities of the fight or the vic-
tory. On the well-known experience that fresh converts are always the
^ Governor Dinwiddie, in urging the assembly, and mild Government of a Protestant King for
of Virginia, in 1756, to active war measures, the Arbitrary Exactions and heavy Oppressions
warned them of the alternative of "giving up of a Popish Tyrant." {Dittmi<idie Paperi, ii p.
your Liberty for Slavery, the purest Religion for 515.)

the grossest Idolatry and Superstition, the legal
y Google
most ardent haters of heresy, these savage neophytes were initiated into
some of the mysteries of the doctrinal strife between the creed of their
priests and the abominated infidelity and impiety of the English Protes-
tants, Some of the savages were by no means sl6w to learn the lesson.
Mr. Parkman's brilliant and graphic pages aiiord us abounding illustrations
of the part which priestly instructions and influence had in adding to savage
ferocity the simulation of religious hate for heresy. With whatever degree
of understanding or appreciation of the duty as it quickened the courage or
the ferocity of the savage, there were many scenes and occasions in which
the warrior added the charge of heretic to that of enemy, when he dealt
his blow.i
Almost as violent and exasperating were the animosities engendered

between the disciples of different Protestant fellowships. The Quakers,
backed by proprietary rights, by the prestige of an origina! peace policy
and friendly negotiations with the Indians, and for the most part secure and
unharmed in the centralized homes of Philadelphia and its neighborhood,
imagined that they might refuse all participation in the bloody work enact-
ing on their frontiers. The adventurous settlers on the borders were fargely
Presbyterians. The course of non-interference by the Quakers, who con-
trolled the legislature, seemed to those who were bearing the brunt of
savage warfare monstrously selfish* and inhuman. There was a fatuity in
this course which had to he abandoned. When a mob of survivors from
the ravaged fields and cabins of the frontiers, bringing in cartloads of the
bones gathered from the ashes of their burned dwellings, thus enforced
their remonstrances against the peace policy of the legislature, the Quakers
were compelled to yield, and to furnish the supplies of war.* But sectarian
hatred hardly ever reached an intenser glow than that exhibited between
the Pennsylvania Quakers and Presbyterians. Meanwhile, the mild and
kindly missionary efforts of the Moravians, in the same neighborhood, were
cruelly baffled. Their aim was exactly the opposite of that which guided
the Jesuit priests. They sought first to make their converts human beings,
planters of the soil, taught in various handicrafts, and weaned from the
taste of war and blood.
When the frontier war was at its wildest pitch of havoc and fury, the
Moravian settlements, which had reached a stage giving such promise of
success as to satisfy the gentle and earnest spirit of the missionaries who
had planted them, were made to bear the brunt of the rage of all the parties
engaged in the deadly turmoil. The natives timidly nestling in their
' In Mr. Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe, \. one point, — that o£ maintaining the right, and
p. 65 and on, is a lively account of the busy even obligation, ot defensive warfare. Alelterof
leal of Father Kquet in making and putting to very cogent argument to this effect was addressed
service savage converts of the sort described in by him lo (he Society of Friends in T74r, remon-
Ihe text. [See Vol. V, 571. — Ed.] stratJng with them for their opposition in the
' The excellent James Logan, who came over legislature to means for defending the colony,
as secretary to William Penn, and who always Collations of Historl.Soc. of Penns-ii-f.^d- [See
claimed to be a consistent member of the Society Vol. V. p. 243. — Ed.]

ot Friends, took an enception to a position on
y Google
settlements were regarded as an emasculated flock of nurslings, mean and

cowardly, lacking equally the manhood of the savage and the pride and
capacity of the civilized man. Worse than this, their pretended desire to
preserve a neutrality and to have no part in the broil was made the ground
of a suspicion, at once acted upon as if fully warranted, that they were
really spies, offering secret information and even covert help as guides and_^
prompters in the work of desolation among the scattered cabins of the
whites. So a maddened spirit of distrust, inflamed by false rumors and
direct charges of complicity, brought upon the Moravian settlers the hate
and fury of the leading parties in the conflict.^
It is noteworthy that the most furious havoc of savage warfare should have
been wreaked on the frontiers of Pennsylvania, the one of all the English
colonies in America whose boast was, and is, that there alone the entrance
of civilized men upon the domains of barbarism was marked and initiated by
the Christian policy of peace and righteousness. Penn and his representa-
tives claimed that they had twice paid the purchase price of the lands cov-
ered by the proprietary charter to the Indian occupants of them, — once to
the Delawares residing upon ihem, and again to the Iroquois who held
them by conquest. The famous " Walking Purchase," whether a fair or a
fraudulent transaction, was intended to follow the original policy of the
founder of the province.*
In the inroads made upon the English settlements by Frontenac and his
red allies. New York and New England furnished the victims. The middle
colonies, so far as then undertaken, escaped the fray. Trouble began for
them in 1716, when the French acted upon their resolve to occupy the
valley of the Ohio. The Ohio Land Company was formed in 1748 to
advance settlements beyond the Alleghanies, and surveys were made as
far as Louisville, This enterprise roused anew the Indians and the French.
The latter redoubled their zeal in 1753 and onward, south of Lake Erie
and on the branches of the Ohio. The English found that their delay and
dilatoriness in measures for fortifying the frontiers had given the French
an advantage which was to be recovered only with increased cost and
enterprise. In an earlier movement, had the English engaged their efforts
when it was first proposed to them, they might have lessened, at least,
their subsequent discomfiture. Governor Spotswood, of Virginia, in 1720
had urged on the British government the erection of a chain of posts be-
yond the Alleghanies, from the lakes to the Mississippi. But his urgency
had been ineffectual. The governor reported that there were then '* Seven
Tributary Tribes " in Virginia, being seven hundred in number, with two
' It was but a repetition of the passions and labors of the Apostle Eliot. The occasion of
jealousies of the colonists of Massachusetts, as this dispersion md severe watch over the Indian
maddened by the devastation indicted upon converts was a jealousy that they had been
them m King Philip's war, when they them- warmed in the bosom of a weak pity merely
selves broke up the settlements, then under for a deadly use of their fangs.
hopeful promise, of " Praying Indians," at Natick * [See Vol. V, 240, — Ed.]
and other villages, the fruits of the devoted
, Go ogle
3IO NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
hundred and fifty fighting-men, all of whom were peaceful. His only
trouble was from the Tuscaroras on the borders of Carolina.'
The erection of Fort Duquesne may be regarded as opening the decisive

struggle between the French and the English in America, which reached
its height in i/SS, and centred around the imperfect chain of stockades
and blockhouses on the line of the frontiers then reached by the English
pioneers.
About the middle of the eighteenth century the number of French sub-
jects in America, including Acadia, Canada, and Louisiana, was estimated
at about eighty thousand. The subjects of England were estimated at
about twelve hundred thousand. But, as before remarked, this vast dis-
parity of numbers by no means represented an equal difference in the
effectiveness of the two nationalities in the conduct of mihtary movements.
The French were centralized in command. They had unity of purpose
and in action. I-n most cases they held actual defensive positions at points
which the English had to reach by difficult approaches; and more than all,
till it became evident that France was to lose the game, the French re-
ceived much the larger share of aid from the Indians. Pennsylvania and
Virginia were embarrassed in any attempt for united defensive operations
on the frontiers by their own rival claims to the Ohio Valley. The Eng-
lish, however, welcomed the first signs of vacillation in the savages. When
Cdoron, in 1749, had .sent messengers to the Indians beyond the AUegha-
nies to prepare for the measures he was about to take to secure a firm foot-
hold there, he reported that the natives were " devoted entirely to the
English." This might have seemed true of the Delawares and Shawanees,
though soon afterwards these were found to be in the interest of the
French. In fact, all the tribes, except the Five Nations, may be regarded
as more or less available for French service up to the final extinction of
their power on the continent. Indeed, as we shall see, the mischievous
enmity of the natives against the English was never more vengeful than
when it was goaded on by secret French agency after France had by
treaty yielded her claims on this soil. Nor could even the presumed neu-
trality of the Five Nations be relied upon by the English, as there were
reasons for believing that many among them acted as spies and conveyed
mtelligence. Till after the year 1754 so effective had been the activity of
the French in planting their strongholds and winning over the savages
that there was not a single English post west of the Alleghanies.
At the same critical stage of this European rivalry in military operations,

the greed for the profits of the fur trade was at its highest pitch. The
beavers, as well as the red men, should be regarded as essential parties to
the struggle between the French and the English. The latter had cut very
deep into the trade which had formerly accrued wholly to the French at
Oswego, Toronto, and Niagara.
yGoDgle
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA.

311
Up to the year 17213 there had come to be established a mercantile

usage which had proved to be very prejudicial to the English, alike in their
Indian trade and in their influence over the Indians. The French had
been allowed to import goods into New York to be used for their Indian
trade. Of course this proved a very profitable business, as it facilitated
their operations and was constantly extending over a wider reach their
friendly relations with the farther tribes. Trade with Europe and the
West Indies and Canada could be maintained only by single voyages in a
year, through the perilous navigation of the St. Lawrence. With the Eng-
lish ports on the Atlantic, voyages could be made twice or thrice a year.
A few merchants in New York, having a monopoly of supplying goods to
the French in Canada, with their principals in England, had found their
business very profitable. Goods of prime value, especially "strouds," a
kind of coarse woollen cloth highly prized by the Indians, were made in
and exported from England much more cheaply than from France. The
mischief of this method of trade being realized, an act was passed by the
Assembly in New York, in 1720, which prohibited the selling of Indian
goods to the French under severe penalties, in order to the encourage-
ment of trade in general, and to the extension of the influence of the Eng-
lish over the Indians to counterbalance that of the French. Some mer-
chants in London, just referred to, petitioned the king against the ratifica-
tion of this act. By order in council the king referred the petition to the
Lords of Trade and Plantations. A hearing, with testimonies, followed, in
which those interested in the monopoly made many statements, ignorant
or false, as to the geography of the country, and the method and effects of
the advantage put into the hands of the French. But the remonstrants
failed to prevent the restricting measure. From that time New York
vastly extended its trade and intercourse with the tribes near and distant,
greatly to the injury of the French.^
The first white man's dwelling in Ohio was that of the Moravian mis-
sionary, Christian Frederic Post.^ He was a sagacious and able man, and
had acquired great influence over the Indians, which he used in conciliatory
ways, winning their respect and confidence by the boldness with which he
ventured to trust himself in their villages and lodges, as if he were under
some magical protection. He went on his first journey to the Ohio in
1758, by request of the government of Pennsylvania, on a mission to the
Delawares, Shawanees, and Mingoes. These had once been friendly to the
English, but having been won over by the French, the object was to re-
gain their confidence. The tribes had at this time come to understand, in
a thoroughly practical way, that they were restricted to certain limited con-
ditions so far as they were parties to the fierce rivalry between the Euro-
' The official papers are given in full by Col- trade of New Vork increased fivefold in twelve
den, who adds a very able memorial of his own, years.
in favor of the act, addressed to Governor Bur- ^ f See Vol. V. 530, 575. — Ed.]
net, in 1724, It was estimated that the Indian
■glc
3IZ
peans. The issue was no longer an open one as to their being able to
reclaim their territory for their own uses by driving off all these pale-faced
trespassers. It was for them merely to choose whether they would hence-
forward have the French or the English for neighbors, and, if it must be
so, for masters. Nor were they left with freedom or power to make a de-
liberate choice. But Post certainly stretched a point when he told the
Indians that the English did not wish to occupy their lands, but only to
drive off the French.
As Governor Spotswood, in the interest of Virginia, had attempted, in

1716, to break the French line of occupation by promoting settlements in
the west, Governor Keith, of Pennsylvania, followed with a similar effort
in r/ig. Both efforts could be only temporarily withstood, and if baffled
at one point were renewed at another. The English always showed a
tenacity in clinging to an advance once made, and were inclined to change
it only for a further advance. Though Fort Duquesne was blown up when
abandoned by the French, with the hope of rendering it useless to the
English, the post was too commanding a one to be neglected. After it
had been taken by General Forbes in November, 1758, and had been
strongly reconstructed by General Stanwix, though it was then two hun-
dred miles distant from the nearest settlement, the possession of it was to
a great extent the deciding fact of the advancing struggle. Colonel Arm-
strong had taken the Indian town of Kittanning in 1756,
The treaty negotiations between English and French diplomates at a

foreign court, in 1763, which covenanted for the surrender of all territory
east of the Mississippi and of all the fortified posts on lake and river to
Great Britain, was but a contract on paper, which was very long in finding
its full ratification among the parties alone interested in the result here.
There were still three of these parties : the Indians ; the French, who were
in possession of the strongholds in the north and west; and the English
colonists, supported by what was left of the British military forces, skeleton
regiments and invalided soldiers, who were to avail themselves of their ac-
quired domain. During the bloody and direful war which had thus been
closed, the Indians had come to regard themselves as holding the balance
of power between the French and the English. Often did the abler sav-
age warriors express alike their wonder and their rage that those foreign
intruders should choose these wild regions for the trial of their fighting
powers. "Why do you not settle your fierce quarrels in your own land,
or at least upon the sea, instead of involving us and our forests in your
rivalry?" was the question to the officers and the file of the European
forces. Though the natives soon came to realize that they would be the
losers, whichever of the two foreign parties should prevail, their prefer-
ences were doubtless on the side of the French ; and by force of circum-
stances easily explicable, after the English power, imperial and provincial,
had obtained the mastery of the territory, the sympathies and aid of the
natives went with the British during the rebellion of the colonies. But
iSSiii.;^.
yGooQle
before this result was reached England won its ascendency at a heavy
sacrifice of men and money, in a series of campaigns under many different
generals. The general peace between England, France, and Spain, secured
by the treaty of 1763, and involving the cession of all American territory
east of the Mississippi by France to Britain, was naturally expected to
bring a close to savage warfare against the colonists. The result was quite
the contrary, inasmuch as the sharpest and most desolating havoc was
wrought by that foe after the English were nominally left alone to meet
the encounter. The explanation of this fact was that the French, though
by covenant withdrawn from the field, were, hardly even with a pretence
of secrecy, perpetuating and even extending their influence over their
former wild allies in embarrassing and thwarting all the schemes of the
English for turning their conquests to account. General Amherst was
left in command here with only enfeebled fragments of regiments and
with slender ranks of provincials. The military duty of the hour was for
the conquerors to take formal possession of all the outposts still held by
French garrisons, announcing to those in command the absolute conditions
of the treaty, and to substitute the English for the French colors, hence-
forward to wave over them. This humUiating necessity was in itself
grievous enough, as it forced upon the commanders of posts which had
not then been reached by the war in Canada, a condition against which no
remonstrance would avail. But beyond that, it furnished the occasion for
the most formidable savage" conspiracy ever formed on this continent,
looking to the complete extinction of the English settlements here. The
French in those extreme western posts had been most successful in secur-
ing the attachment of the neighboring Indian tribes, and found strong
sympathizers among them in their discomfiture. At the same time those
tribes had the most bitter hostility towards the English with whom they
had come in contact. They complained that the English treated them
with contempt and haughtiness, being niggard of their presents and sharp
in their trade. They regarded each advanced English settlement on their
lands, if only that of a solitary trader, as the germ of a permanent colony.
Under these circumstances, the French still holding the posts, waiting only
the exasperating summons to yield them up, found the temptation strong
and easy of indulgence to inflame their recent allies, and now their sympa-
thizing friends, among the tribes, with an imbittered rage against their new
masters. Artifice and deception were availed of to reinforce the passions
of savage breasts. The French sought to relieve the astounded consterna-
tion of their red friends on finding that they were compelled to yield the
field to the subjects of the English monarch, by beguiling them with the
fancy that the concession was but a temporary one, very soon to be set
aside by a new turn in the wheel of fortune. Their French father had
only fallen asleep while his English enemies had been impudently trespass-
ing upon the lands of his red children. He would soon rouse himself to
avenge the insult, and would reclaim what he had thus lost Indeed, on the
i?^«iOQle
principle that the size and ornamentings of a lie involved no additional

wrong in the telling it, the Indians were informed that a French army was
even then preparing to ascend the Mississippi with full force, before which
the English would be crushed.
There was then in the tribe of Ottawas, settled near Detroit, a master
spirit, who, as a man and as a chief, was the most sagacious, eloquent, bold,
and every way gifted of his race that has ever risen before the white man
on this continent to contest in the hopeless struggle of barbarism with
civilization. That Pontiac was crafty, unscrupulous, relentless, finding a
revel in havoc and carnage, might disqualify him for the noblest epithets
which the white man bestows on the virtues of a. military hero. But he
had the virtues of a savage, all of them, and in their highest range of
nature and of faculty. He was a stern philosopher and moralist also, of
the type engendered by free forest life, unsophisticated and trained in the
school of the wilderness. He knew well the attractions of civilization. He
weighed and compared them, as they presented themselves before his eyes
in full contrast with savagery, in the European and in the Indian, and in
those dubious specimens of humanity in which the line of distinction was
blurred by the Indianized white man, the "Christian" convert, and the
half-breed. Deliberately and, we may say, intelligently, he preferred for his
own people the state of savagery. Intelhgently, because he gave grounds
for his preference, which, from his point of view and experience, had weight
in themselves, and cannot be denied something more than plausibility even
in the judgment of civilized men, for ideaUsts like Rousseau and the Abb^
Raynal have pleaded for them. Pontiac was older in native sagacity and
shrewdness than in years. He had evidence enough that his race had
suffered only harm from intercourse with the whites. The manners and
temptations of civilization had affected them only by demoralizing influ-
ences. All the elements of life in the white man struck at what was
noblest in the nature of the Indian, — his virility, his self-respect, his proud
and sufficing independence, his content with his former surroundings and
range of life. With an earnest eloquence Pontiac, in the lodges and at
the council fires of his people, whether of his own immediate tribe or of
representative warriors of other tribes, set before them the demonstration
that security and happiness, if not peace, depended for them on their
renouncing all reliance upon the white man's ways and goods, and revert-
ing with a stern stoicism to the former conditions of their lot. He told
his responsive listeners that the Great Spirit, in pouring the wide salt
waters between the two races of his children, meant to divide them and to
keep them forever apart, giving to each of them a country which was their
own, where they were free to live after their own method. The different
tinting of their skin indicated a variance which testified to a rooted diver-
gence of nature. For his red children the Great Spirit had provided the
forest, the meadow, the lake, and the river, with fish and game for food
and clothing. The canoe, the moccasin, the snow-shoe, the stone axe, the
tezr-':. """ "' ------ -- -; -- Hosted byGoDgle
hide or bark covered lodge, the fields of gotcien maize, the root crops, the
vines and berries, the waters of the cold crystal spring, made the inventory
of their possessions. They belonged to nature, and were of kin to all its
other creatures, which they put freely to their use, holding everything in
common. The changing moons brought round the seasons for planting
and hunting, for game, festivity, and religious rite. Their old men pre-
served the sacred traditions of their race. Their braves wore the scars and
trophies of a noble manhood, and their young men were in training to be
the warriors of their tribes in defence or conquest.
These, argued Pontiac, were the heritage which the Great Spirit had as-
signed to his red children. The spoiler had come among them from across
the salt sea,' and woe and ruin for the Indian had come with him. The
white man could scorn the children of the forest, but could not be their
friend or helper. Let the Indian be content and proud to remain an In-
dian. Let him at once renounce all use of the white man's goods and imple-
ments and his iire-water, and fall hack upon the independence of nature,
fed on the flesh and clothed with the skins secured by bow and arrow and
his skill of woodcraft.
Such was the pleading of the most gifted chieftain and the wisest patriot,
the native product of the American wilderness.. There was a nobleness in
him, even a grandeur and prescience of soul, which take a place now on the
list of protests that have poured from human breasts against the decrees of
fate. Pontiac followed up his bold scheme by all the arts and appliances
of forest diplomacy. He formed his cabinet, and sent out his ambassadors
with their credentials in the reddened hatchet and the war-belt. They
visited some of even the remoter tribes, with appeals conciliatory of all
minor feuds and quarrels. Their success was qualified only by the inveter-
acy of existing enmities among some of these tribes. It would be difficult
to estimate, even if only approximately, the number of the savages who
were more or less directly engaged in the conspiracy of Pontiac. A noted
French trader, who had resided many years aniong the Indians, and who
had had an extended intercourse with the tribes, stayed at Detroit during
the siege, having taken the oath of allegiance to the king of Great Britain.
Largely from his own personal knowledge, he drew up an elaborate list of
the tribes, with the number of warriors in each. The summing up of these
is 56,500. In the usual way of allowing one to five of a whole population
for able-bodied men, this would represent the number of the savages as
about 283,000, which slightly exceeds the number of Indians now in our
national domain.^
The lake and river posts which had been yielded up by the French, on
the summons, were occupied by slender and poorly supplied English garri-
sons, unwarned of the impending concentration. The scheme of Pontiac
involved two leading acts in the drama : one was the beleaguerment of all
• AppendixV to the Ohio Vall/y HistorUal Series, edition cHf Bmqueft ExpeditioH (Cincinnati,
3l6 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
the fortified lake and river garrisons ; the other was an extermination by
fire and carnage of all the isolated frontier settlements at harvest time,
, so as to cause general starvation. The plan was that all these assaults,
respectively assigned to bodies of the allies, should be made at the same
time, fixed by a phase of the moon. Scattered through the wilderness
were many English traders, in their cabins and with their packhorses and
■ goods. These were plundered and massacred.^ The assailed posts were
slightly reinforced by the few surviving settlers and traders who escaped
the open field slaughter. The conspiracy was so far effective as to paralyze
with dismay the occupants of the whole region which it threatened. But
pluck and endurance proved equal to the appaUing conflict. Nearly all the
posts, after various alternations of experience, succumbed to the savage foe.
Such was the fate of Venango, Le Bceuf, Presqu' Isle, La Bay, St. Joseph,
Miamis, Ouachtanon, Sandusky, and Michilimackinac. Detroit alone held
out. The fort at Niagara, being very strong, was not attacked. The
Shawanees and Delawares were active agents in this conspiracy. The
English used all their efforts and appliances to keep the Six Nations neu-
tral. The French near the Mississippi were active in plying and helping
the tribes within their reach. The last French flag that came down on our
territory was at Fort Chartres on the Mississippi.^
' It is estimated that not less Ihan two hun- being plundered of goods of more tlian 3. hun-
dred of these scattered traders, who had con- dred thousand pounds in value,
fidently ventured into the wilderness on the * [The events of the Pontiac wa.r can be fol-
e of the treaty, were massacred, after lowed in Vol. V. — Ed.]
CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION.*
By Dr. Ellis and the EdUar.
ON some few historical subjects we have vol- and many-sided are the materials which he has
umea so felicitously constructed as to com- digested for us, that we have all the benefit of
bine all that is most desirable b original mate- an attendance on a trial in a court or a debate
rials with a judicious digest of them. Of such in the forum, where by testimony and cross-ex-
a character is Francis Parkman's France and amination different witnesses are made to verify
EuglandiM North America, A Series of Hisleri- or rectify their separate assertions. The ofiicjal
lal Karralives. So abundant, authentic, and In- representatives of France, military and civil, on
telligently gathered are his citations from and ref- this continent, like their superiors and patrons
erencesrotheioutnals,letters,officialreports,and at home, were by no means all of one mind,
documents, often m the very words of the actors. They had tiieir conflicting interests to serve,
that, through the writer's luminous pages, we They made their reports to those to whom they
are, for all substanlial purposes, made lo read were responsible or sought to influence, and so
and listen lo their own narrations. Indeed, we colored them by their selfishness or rivalry,
■re even more favored than that. So compre- These communications, gathered from widely
hensive have been his researches, and so full scattered repositories, are for the first time
1 The bibliography of the subject is nowhere exLiausUvely done. The Proof-sheets of PiUing as a tentative
effort, and his later divisionary sections, devoted to the Eskimo, Siouan, and other stocks, though primarily
framed for their linguistic Iwariug, are the chief help ; and these guides can be supplemented by Field's Indian
Biblingrafhy, the references for anonymous books in Sahin's Dictionary (ii. p. 86), and sections in many
catalogues of public and private libraries, like the Brinley (iiL 5,351 etc.), devoted wholly or in part lo Ameri
cana, and the foot-notes and authorities given in Parkman, H. H. Bancroft, and many others.
KE
brought together and made to confront each Boucher,' and the later Lalitau and Charlevoix,
other in Mr. Parkman's pages. Allowing for a, Parkman' tells us that no other of these early
gap covering the first half of the eighteenth books is 30 satisfactory as Xîfitau's Moan dtt
centuty, which is yet to be filled, Mr. Parkman's Saievaga (1724) ; and Chailevoii gave similar
Ecries of volumes deals nilh the whole period of testimony regarding his predecessor." For
the enterprise of France in the new world to its original material on the French side we have
cession of all territory east of the Mississippi to nothing to surpass in interest the Mimoiru tl
Great Britain. His marvellously faithful and documents, published by. Pierre Margry, ol
skilful reproduction of the scenic features of the which an account has been given elsewhere,' as
continent, in its viild state, bears a fA relation well as of the efforts of Parkman and others in
to his elaborate study of its red denizens. His advancing their publication.' There is but little
wide and arduous exploration in the tracks of matter in these volumes relating to the military
(he iirst pioneers, and his easy social relations operations which make the subject of this chap-
withlhe modem representatives of the aborigi- ter, though jealousy and rivalry of the schemes
nal stock, put him back into the scenes and of the English, and the necessity of efforts to
compajiionship of those whose schemes and thwart Ihem in their attempts to gain influence
achievements he was to trace historically. After and to open trade with the Indians, are con-
identifying localities and lines of exploration stantly recognized. In the diplomatic and mili-
here, he followed up in foreign archives the mis- (ary movements which opened on this continent
sives written in these forests, and the official the Seven Years' War, the English, who had sub-
and confidential communications of the military stantially secured the alliance of the Iroquois,
and civic functionaries of France, revealing the or the Six Nations, insisted that they had ob-
joint or conflicting schemes and jealousies of tained by treaties with them the territory be-
mtrigue or selfishness of priests, traders, mo- tween the Alleghanies and the Ohio, which the
nopolists, and adventurers. The panorama that Six Nations on theirpart claimed to have gained
is unrolled and spread before us is full and by conquest and cession of the tribes that had
complete, lacking nothing of reality in nature previously occupied it. But when the English
or humanity, in color, variety, or action. The vindicated their entrance on the territory on the
volumes rehearse in a continuous narrative the basis of these treaties with the Six Nations, the
course of French enterprise here, the motives, Shawanees and the Delawares, having recuper-
immediateandullimate, which were had in view, ated their courage and vigor, denied this tight
the progress in realizing them, the obstacles and by conquest. The French could not claim a
resistance encountered, and the tragic failure.'- right either by conquest or by cession. Their
The references in Parkman show that he assumed occupancy and tenure through mission
depends more upon French than upon English stations and strongholds were mamtained simply
sources, and indeed he seems to give the chief and wholly on grounds of discovery and explo-
credit for his drawing of the early Indian life ration. Margry's volumes furnish the abundant
and character to the Rflalions at the French and all-sufficient evidence of the priority of the
and Italian Jesuits,^ during their missionary French in this enterprise. The official docu-
work in New France. ments interchanged with the authorities at home
We must class with these records of the are all engaged with advice and promptings and
Jesuits, though not equalling them in value, measures for making good the claim to domin-
the volumes of Champlain, Sagard, Creuxius, ion founded on discovery. These volumes also
1 Parkman's merits as a historian are elsewhere recognlied in the present history. See Vols. 11, IV., and
V. He first gave his summary of Indian character in the introductory chapter of his first historical book, hla
Ponliac. He later completed it in papeis in the North Atur. Sev., July, 1865, and July, 1866, and finally in
a This class of material, including the Lettrn Edifiantts, has been examined in our VoL IV. jgz, 296,
316, etc. Cf. Shea's Charlevo:x,\. ii \ Glorias dtl sigundo liglo di la comfania di J/sus, ibfb-ijjo {UaA-
rid, 1734).
Parkman calls BrihcEuf the best observer among the Jesuits. On their missions see JPrnm CflnarfK»«r,
Jan., 1888; DuiliaRevitw,xa.{\i6')) j-o; Mag. Amir. Hi!t.,î. iô. Margry (vol. i.) has a "Mimoiie"
on the Recollects, 1614-1884. Cf. Eevui CanadUniu, by S. Lesage, Feb., 1867, p. 30J. On the earlier
Canadian missions see N. E. Dionne in NoicvelUs Soirlis CatiaditKKes, 1. 399 ; U. S. CathoIU Monthly, viL
23;, 518, 561 ; and the Ahb< Verreau on the beginnings of the Church in Canada, in Roy. Stc. Canad«,Pr»e^
ii. 63.
» See VoL IV. 130, 290, 296, igi.
* /isuils, p. Uv.
S Shea's ed. Charlevoix, p. 91. Stefost, VoL IV. 198.
« Cf. Vol. IV. p. 24 a.
» U.S. Staiules al Largi,xvii. 1,1^

■■H^steH-^'
jle
3i8
arc of the highest value as preaenting to ua from

the first explorers, every way intelligent and
competent as observers and reporters, the scenes
and tenants of the interior of the continent.
Here we have the wilderness, its primeval for-
ests, its sea -like lês, its threading rivers,
shrunken or swollen, its cataracts and its con-
fluent streams, its marshy expanses, bluffs, and
plains, and its tesoutces, abundant or scant, for
sustaining life of beasts or men, all touched in
feature or full portrayal by the charming skill of
those lowhom the sight was novel and bewilder-
ing.i These French explorers will henceforth
serve for all time as primary authorities on the
features and resources of the interior of this
continent just before it became the prize in con-
test between rival European nationalities. That
contest undoubtedly had more to do in deciding
the fate of the savage tribes from that time to
our own. There are ihany reasons tor believing
that if the French had been able to hold alone
an undisputed dominion in the interior of the
continent, their relations with the Indian tribes,
if not wholly pacific, would have been far more
amicable than those which followed upon the
hot rivalry with the English for the possession
of their territories. The French were the wiser,
the more tolerant and friendly of the two, in
their intercourse with and treatment of the sav-
ages, with whom they found itsoeasy toaSiliate.
Under other circumstances the Indians might
have coine to hold the relation of wards to the
French in a sense far more applicable than that
in which the term has been used by the govern-
ment of the United Slates.
Of the early English material there is no

dearth, but it hardly has the same stamp of
authority. The story ot the Moravian and other
missions on (he Protestant and English side has
less of such invariable devotedness and success
than is recorded in the general summaries of the
Jesuit and RecoUet missions, like Shea's History
of the Catkidu Missions, 1529-1854 (N. Y,, 1855).'

The Indian Nations of Heckewelder,' the service
of the United Brethren, and the labors instituted
by the Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel,* are records not without significance; but
theyyield to the superior elBcacy of the French.*
Among the English administrative officers, the
lead must doubtless be given to Sir William
Johnson, for his personal influence over the In-
dian mind, winning their full confidence by fair
and generous treatment of them, by a free hospi-
tality, by assimilating with their habits even in
his array, and by mastering their language. His
deputy, Col. George Croghan.as Interpreter ^d
messenger, was kept busily employed in con-
stant tramps through the woods, and in fearless
errands to parties of vacillating or hostile tribes,
to hold or win them to the English interest.
The principal and the deputy, in this hazardous
diplomacy, were specially qualified for their of-
fice by having mastered the gift and qualities
of Indian oratory, by a familiarity with Indian
character in its strength and weakness, and by
endeavoring to keep faith with them, and to
imitate the adroit methods of the French rather
than the contemptuous hauteur of most of the
English in intercourse with them."
The reader will naturally go to the biogra-

phies of Johnson, Washington, and the other
military leaders of their time, to those of a few
civilians, hke Franklin, and to tKe general his-
tories of the French and Indian wars and of
their separate campaigns, for much light upon
the Indian in war ; and these materials have
been sufficiently explored in another volume of
(he present History.' These more general ac-
counts ate easily supplemented in the narra-
tives of adventures and sufferings by a large
class of persons who fell captive (o the Indians,
and lived to (ell their tales. ^
The earlier travellers, like P. E. Radisson,'

Richard Falconer,''' Le Beau,"^ and Jonathan
2 Cf. Travels of sev

See Vol. V. 345, ;
elings of that explorer,
r of the Society ofjtsus.
i?U)-
unt of the Ind

lhrFrinchl,U
See Vol. V. p. 169.
U>dfr
gradati
noticed In Vol. V. Brlnlon enlaiges upon

following upon all missionary efforts among them. Amir. Hero Myths, 206, aji.
' The careers of Johnson and Croghan are traced in VoL V.
" Such were the Trmiils of Alexander Henry, the Sufferings of Peter Williamson, and the long hst of
soolled " CapHviUes " (see Vol. V. 186, 490). Probably Mr. Samuel G. Drake was for many years the most
assiduous promoter of this cbss of books. This compiler's sympathetic sentiment clearly afTected his rhet-
oric and sometimes the accuracy of his sUtements. Cf. titles of his books In Pilling. SaUn, and Field. Cf
Drake's Aboriginal Races of North America, revised by H. L. Williams {N. Y., i8So|.
* Voyages: an account of Ms travels and experiences among the North Ameriian Indians, from ilisi to
. ibS4. Transcribed fôm original manascriftl in tht Bodleian Library and the British Museum. With
historical illustrations and an introduction by G. D. Scull (Boston, 188;), a publication of the Prince
• Voyages, id ed., London, 1 ;
« Vol. IV. p. I
y Goo gle
THE RED INDIAN OF NORTH AMERICA.

319
Carver,' not to name others ; the later ones, like

Frinz Maximiiian ; * the experiences of various
army officers on the frontiers, like Randolph B.
Marcy' and J. B. Fry,' — all such books fill in
the picture in some of its details.
The early life in the Ohio Valley was par-

ticularly conducive to such auxiliary helps in
this sfudy, and we owe more of this kind of
illustration to Joseph Doddridge = than to any
other. He was a physician and a missionary of
the Protestant Episcopal Church, and in both
his professions a man h^hly esteemed. He was
bom in Maryland in 1769, and in his fourth year
removed with his family to the western border
of the line between Pennsylvania and Virginia,
With abundant opportunities in his youth of
familiarity with the rudest experiences of front-
ier life near hostile Indians, he was a keen ob-
server, a skilful narrator, and a diligent galherer-
up of historical and traditional lore from the
hardy and well-scarred pioneers. He had re-
ceived a good academic and medical education,
and was a keen student of nature as well as of
humanity. His pages give us most vivid pic-
tures of life under the stern and perilous condi-
tions; not, however, without their fascinations,
of forest haunts, of rude and scattered cabins, of
domestic and social relations, of the resources
of the heroic whites, and of the qualities of In-
dian warfare in the desperate struggle with the
invaders.*
t In 176&-6S.
5 Riia in das fi
' Border Semin.
i NMtioftheni
See Vol, V. p. 581,
6 The question h
beûCifu] portion of
■s.fthi^
Another early writer in this field WM Dr. S. P.
Hildreth of Ohio, who published his Pionter
Hiiiory (Cincinnati, 1S4S) while some of the'
pioneers of the Northwest were still living, and
the papers of some of them, like Col, George
Morgan, could be put to service.' Dr. Hildreth,
in his Biegraphical and Historical Mtmoirs of
the early Pioneer Settlers of Ohio (Cincinnati,
•S52), included a Memoir of Isaac Williams,
who at the age of eighteen began a course of
service and adventure in the Indian country,
which was continued till its close at the age of
eighty-four. When eighteen years of age he
was employed by the government of Pennsylva-
nia, being already a trained hunter, as a spy aniJ
ranger among the Indians, He served in this
capacity in Braddock's campaign, and was a
guard for the first convoy of provisions, on pack-
horses, to Fort Duquesne, after its surrender to
General Forbes in 1758, Ha was one of the
first settlers on the Muskingum, after the peace
made there with the Indians, in 1765, by Bou-
quet. His subsequent life was one of daring
and heroic adventure on the frontiers,'
Passing to the more general works, the ear-

liest treatment of the North American Indians,
of more than local scope, was the work ot
James Adair, first published in 1775, a section
of whose map, showing the position of the In-
dian tribes within the present United States at
in an English tmnslallon (London).
'trnpartso/ Virginia and Pennsylvania, 1763-1783.
Hes
stritrng suggBE
horror. The explanation is as .
and onsets save in the winter,
forts, or ever at watdi in their
jubilee in caUn and farm, with
or shorter interval of warm, si
blood and mischief. So the spi

iscussed as to the origin of the title of "Indian summer," as applied to 3
season. Dr, Doddridge gives us an explanation of its original significance,
it, which would make a feeling of dread rather than of romance its mosi
ows : The white settlers on the frontiers found no peace from Indian alarms
om spring to the early part of the autumn, the settlers, cooped up in the
ds, liad no security ot comfort. The approach of winter was hailed as a
stle and hilarity. But after the first set4n of winter aspects came a longer
:y, haiy weather, which would tempt the Indians — as if a brief return of
warm open weather, of melting snows, in ■ the latter part of February —
a premature spring — was a period of dread for the frontiersmen. It was called the "pawwawing days," is
the Indians were then holding their incantations and councils for rehearsing for their spring war-parties,
I Cf. further on Hildreth and his books our Vol. VII. p. 536.
S There are notices of other books of this kind in Vols. V. and VII. of the present History, Particularly,
may be mentioned Joseph Pritt's Mirror of Oldm Timt (Chambersburg, Va., 18+8 ; 2d ed., Alangdon, Va.,
1849)1 in which the most interesting portions are the personal narratives of such captives to the Indians as
Col. James Smith, John M'CuIlough, and others, the full credibiUly of which is vouched for by those who
knew them as neighbors and associates. This class of narratives by men who for years, willingly or nnwUl-
■ ingly, affiliated with their wild captors make very intelligible to us the fact that the whiles are much more
readily Indianiied than are Indians led to conform to the ways of dviliialion. Cf . Archibald Loudon's SiUe-
lion of some of ike must inUrfsting narralivis, of outrages, committed hy the Indian!, in their -wars with
the -white people. Also, an account of their manners, customs. Iraditiorss, tic. (Carlisle, 180S-II ; Hatris-
■'■Hb^!##''B
that time, i$ given elsewhere.' This History of efforts in progress to catch the features and life
the American Indians was later included by of the Indiana as preseiving their a.boriginal
Kingaborough in Antiquities ef Mexico (vol. viii. trails. Between 183S and 1844 Thomas L. Mc-
London, 1848).^ At just about the same time Kenney and James Hall published at Philadel-
(1777)1 Df- Robertson, in his America (book phia, in three volumes folio, their History of the
iv.), gave ageneral survey, which probably rep- Indian tribes of North America,-iBitk biographical
resents the level of the best European knowl- sketches of the principal chiefs. tVith 120 portrs.
edge at that lime. from the Indian gallery ef the Department ofjvar, .
It was not till well into the present century at Washington ; * and in 1841 the public lirst got
that much effort was made to summarize the the fruits of George Catlin's wanderings among
scattered knowledge of explorers like Lewis and the Indians of the Northwest, in his Letters and
Clarke and of venturesome travellers. In 1819, notes on the manners, customs and condition of the
we find where we might not expect it about as North American Indians, written during eight
good an attempt to make a survey of the subject" years' travel among the loi/dest tribes of Indians
as was then attainable, in Ezekiel Sanford's in North America, in 1832-39 (N.Y,, 1841), in
History of the United Slates before the Revola- two volumes. The book went through various
tion, — a book, however, which was pretty roundly editions in this country and in London.' It
condemned for its general inaccuracy by Nathan was but the forerunner of various other books
Hale in the North American Review. The next illustrative of his experience among the tribes ;
year the Rev, Jedediah Morse made A report to but it remains the most important.' The suffi-
Ihe secretary of Tsar, on Indian affairs, compris- cient summary of all that Catlin did to elucidate
ing a narrative of a lour in iSso, for ascertain- the Indian character and life will be found in
ingthe actual stale of the Indian tribes in our Thomas Donaldson's George Catlin's Indian
country (New Haven, 1822), which is about the Gallery in the U. S. Nat. Museum, with memoirs
beginning of systematized knowledge, though and statistics, being part v. of the Smithsonian
the subject in its scientific aspects was too new Report iox 1885.'
for well-studied proportions. The Report, how- The great work of Schoolcraft lias been else-
ever, attracted attention and instigated other where described in the present volume."
students. De Tocqueville, in 1835, took the In- The agencies for acquiring and disseminating
dian problem within his range." Albert Galla- knowledge respecting the condition, past and
tin printed, the next year, in the second volume present, of the red race have been and are much
of the<iri:i(Eo/fl,f« i^wwi'ffl'M (Cambridge, 1836), the same as those which improve the study of
his Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the the archiological aspects of their history : such
United States east of the Rocky Mountains; and publications as the Transactions of the Amer-
though his main purpose was to explain the lin- ican Ethnological Society (i845-i848) ; the Re-
guistic differences, his introduction is still a val- ports of the governmental geological surveys,
uable summary of the knowledge then existing, and those upon transcontinental railway routes ;
There were at this time two well-dh<!cted those upon national boundaries; those of the
1 VoL VII. p. ^48. As types of successive ranges of anthropological studie- see Happel's Thesaiirus
Excticcrum (Hamburg, 168S) ; Stuart and Kuyper's De Mensch too als hij voîsml (Amsterdam, 1S02).
vol. vi., and the better known Researches of Prichard (voL v.).
» See VoL V. 6S.
8 See Vol. VII. 264.
* The original paintings for the plates are now in the Peabody Museum (Si/ort, xvi. 189). M 'Kenney also
published his Memoirs, racial and personal, with sketches of travel among the northern and southern
Indians (N. Y., 1S46), in two volumes. He had been in 1S16 the agent of the United States in dealing with
the Indians, and in 1824 had been put at the head of the Indian bureau.
t The English editions ate generally called Illustralioni of the Manners, etc.
• The best Mbliographical lecotd of CatUn's publications is in Filling's SiWiOf. Admoh ;oiijTi,êj(iS8?),
p. 15. Cf. Field, p, 63 ; Sabin, iii. p. 436.
t The volume contains three uiteresting portraits of Catlin and teimptessions of his drawings as originaily
pubUshed.
s For diversity of opinions respecting it see AUibone's Dictionary. The modern scientific historian and
elhnologjst think m conjunction in giving it a low rank compared with what such a book should be. The
, fullest account of the UbUography of this and of Schoolcraft's other books is In Filling's Proaf-sieets. What-
ever credit may accrue to Schoolcraft is kept out of sight in the title-page of a condensation of the book, wUch
has some interspersed additions from other sources, all of which are obscurely included, so that the authorship
of «iem is uncertain. The book is called The Indian Triies ef the United Stales, edited by P. S. Drake
(Phllad., iSS4),in 3 vols. There is another conglomerate and useful book, edited by W. W. Beach, The Indian
Miscellany; papers on the history, antiquities [rfe,] of the American aborigines (Albany, 1877), which Is a
collection of magazine, review, and newspaper articles by various writers, usually of good character.
y Google
Smithsonian Institution, with its larger Cotilri- Geoiê Bancroft's third volume of hU VnHtJ
butions, and of late years the Reports of the Slates, and another in Marryat's Travels, vol. U.
Bureau of Ethnology ; the reports of such insti- The govemment has from time to time published
lutiotis as the Peabody Museum of Aichxology ; maps showing Che Indian occupation of territory,
and (hose of the Indian agents of the Federal and the present reservations are shown on mapi
government, of chief importance among which in Donaldson's PuUie Domain and in the Smith-
is Miss Alice C. Fletcher's Indian Education lomati Report, ps^xt \ . (l88s).«

and Ceuilisation. published by the Bureau of The- migrations and characteristics of the E»-
Education (Washington, i8S8). To these must kimos have already been discussed,* and the
be added the great mass of current periodical journals of Che Arctic explorers will yield light
literature reached through Poole's Index, and upon their later conditions. We find chose of
the action and papers of the government, not (he Hudson Bay region depicted in all the books
always easily discoverable, through Poore's De- relating to the life of the Company's factors.'
tcriptive Catalogue. The Beothuks of Newfoundland, which are
The maps of the seventeenth and eighteenth thought to have become extinct in 1S28,' are
in addition to the reports cf traders, described in Hatton and Harvey's Nevifoand-
uid adventurers, the means which land ; by T. G. B. Lloyd in the Journal of the
we have of placing the territories of the many Anthropotogicai JnsHluie (London), 1874, p. 1\ [
Indian tribes which, since the contact of Euro- 1S75, p. 222 ; by A. S. Gatschet in the Amer-
peans, have been found in North America; but ican Fhihsophical Society's TrBnsactiam {VKiaA,,
the abiding-places of the tribes have been far i£85-S6, vols.xxii. xxiii.) ; ax>Am<^K Nineteenth
from ])ernianent. Many of these early maps are Century, Dec, 1888. Leclercq in his Nouvelle
given in other volumes of the present History.' Relation de la Gasflsie (Paris, 1691) gives us an
Geographers like Hutchins and military men account of the natives on the western side of the
like Bouquet found it incumbent on them to gulf,"
study this question.^ Benjamin Smith Barton The Micmacs of Nova Scotia are considered
surveyed the field in 1797 ; but the earliest of in Lescarbot and the later histories and in the
special map seems to have been that com| iled documentary collections of that colony; and as
by Albert Gallatin, who endeavored to place the they played a part in the French wars, the range
tribes of the Atlantic slope as they were in 1600, of that military history covers some material
and those beyond the AUeghanies as they were concerning them.'"
in 1800. The map in the American Gatetteer For the aborigines of Canada, we easilyrevert
(London, 1762) gives s<Jhie information,' and that to the older writers, like Champlain, Sagard,
of Adair in 1775 is reproduced elsewhere.' In Creuidua,Boucher,Leclercq,Lafitau; the f^ji^
1833, Catlin endeavored to give a geographical curiiuxetnouveauparmi les saavagescA'Laêi.-a

position to aJl the tribes in the United States on (Amsterdam, 1738); the Neuvelle France of
a map, given in his great work and reproduced in Charlevoii ; the Histaire de VAmMque Septen-
the Smithsonian Report, part v. (iSSj). In 1840 trianale (Paris, 1753) of Bacqueville de la
compiled maps were given on a small scale in Potherie ; " and to the later historians, like Fer-
I Particularly in Vol. IV.

s Cf. Vol. VI. 610,611,650,
« A part of it is reproduced by J. Watts de Peyster in his Miscillanies by an Officer, part ii. (N. Y., i8S8).
« VoL VII. p. 448.
s There is a map of the distribution of Indians in the eastern part of the United States in Cawino's
Standard Nat. Hisl., vi, 147.
r Paul Kane's Wanderings of an artist among the Indians is translated by Ed. Delessert In Les tndiini
de la iaie d'Hudssn (Paris, 186.).
s The truth seems to be that some were last seen in that year. It is uncertain whettier they died out, or
the final remnant crossed into Labrador.
B See Vol. IV. p. igi.
>' Cf. Account of the customs and manners of the Micmakis and Mariiheels savage nations. Prom an
original French manuscript letter, never published. Annexed, pieces relative la the savages, Nova Scotia
[etc] (London, T758) ; J. G. Shea in Hist. Mag., v. 190 ; No. Am. Rev., vol. cxii,, Jan., 1B71. For missioni
among them see Vol, IV. p. 26S,
il See Vol, IV. p, 299, The Hurons as the leading stock in Canada ate, of course, to be studied in the
fesuil Relations and in all the other accounts of the Catholic missions in Canada, as well as in the early
historical narratives, alluded to in the text, and in such special books as the Sieut Gendron's /'a,vJ des Hurons
(see Vol, IV. 305), and in the accounts of leading missionaries like Jean de Bribceuf. Cf. F61ix Martin's
Harons et Iroquois (Paris, 1877) ; J. M. Lemoine in MapU Leaves. 2d ser, {1873) ; Cayaron's Chaumont,
1639-1693, aai-ha Autobiografhie et piices i«eiff/« (Poitiers, 1869) ; B. Suite on tiie Iroqucris and Algonquin*
y Google
;cords. We have letters

the tracts which he was
Abenaki, which lay between the northeastern instrumental in publishing.' There is also a let-
settlements of the English and the French, are ter of Increase Mather to Leusden on the Indian
specially treated by Bacquevilie (vol. Iv.), in the missions (1688}.' Gookin tells us of the suffer-
Maine Hist. S/k. CollecHoni, vol. vL, and in Man- ings of the Christian Indians during the war of
rault's Histoire liei AbeHakis (1866).' 167 s,* and he gives also reports of the speeches
The rich descriptive literature of the early of the Indian converts.' The Mayhews of Mar-
days of New England gives us much help in un- tha's Vineyard, Thomas, Matthew, and Experi-
derslanding the aboriginal life. We begin with ence, have left us records equally useful.l^
John Smith, and come down through a long The principal student of the literature, mainly
aeries of writers like Governor Bradford and religious, produced in the tongue of the natives,
Edward Winslow for Plymouth ; Gorges, Mor- has been Dr. James Hammond Trumbull, of
ton, Winthrop, Hlgginson, Dudley, Johnson, Hartford, and he has given us the leading ac-
Wood, Lechford, and Roger Williams for other counts of its creation and influence.'^ It was
parts. Tdese are all characterized in another this propagandist movement that led Elaazer
place,* The authorities on the early wars with Wheelock into establishing (1754) an Indian
the Pequots and with Philip, the accounts of Charily School at Lebanon, Connecticut, which
Daniel Gookin, who knew them so well,' and tinally removed to Hanover, in New Hampshire,
chance visits like those of Rawson and Dan. and became (17691 Dartmouth College.'*
forth.* furnish the concomitants needful to the The New England tribes have produced a
recital. The story of the labors of Eliot, May- considerable local illustrative literature. The
hew, and others in urging the conversion of the Kennebecs and Penobscots in Maine are no-
natives is based upon another large range of ticed in the histories of that State, and in many
material, in which much that is merely exhorta- of the local moncâphs." For New Hamp-
tive does not wholly conceal the material for the shire, beside the state histories," the Pemige-
historian,' Here too the chief actors in this wassets are described in Wm. Little's Warren
in the Revue Canadienne (i. 6o5) ; D. Wilson on the Huron-Iroquois of Canada in Roy. Soc. Canada, Prac.
(1884, vol. ii.), and references, post. VoL IV. p. 307, W, H. Withrow has a paper on the last of the Hurons in
the Canadian Monthly (ii, 409),
I All of these books are further characterized in Vols, IV. and V, Cf, also J. Campbell in the Quebec Lit.
and Hist. Soc. Trans., 1881, and Wm. Clint in Ibid. 1877 ; and Daniel Wilson in Am. Assoc. Adv. Sei. Proc.
(188a), vol, xxxi., and in his Prehist. Man, ii. Also Vetromile's Abnakis (N. V., 1S66).
a Vol. III.
s " Hist, Coll. of the Indians of N, E." in Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., L
* Noyn' New EnglamCs Duly, Boston, 1698.
s Cf. Neat's New England, i. ch. 6; Conn. Svang. Mag., ii., iii., Iv.; Amer. Q. Reg., Iv,; Sabiath at
• Home, Apr,-July, 1868.
* Cf. his letters in Mass, Hist. Ssc. Proc, Nov., 1879 ; N. E. Hist. Gen. Reg., July, 1SS5 ; Birch's n/e of
J?<rfertfls/&,-and the lives of Eliot For the Eliot tracts see our Vol. Ill, p, 355. Marvin's reprint of Eliot's
5rJ</A'arrn/ia>i(i67o}hasalistof writers on the subject. Cf. Martin Moore on Ehot and his Converts in
the Amer. Quart. Rig., Feb., 1843, reprinted in Beach's Indian Mieellany. p. 405 ; Ellis's Red Man and
White Man in No. America; Jacob's Praying Indians ; and Bigelow's Natici,
* Arckaologia Amer., ii.
» Cf. John Gillies' ffirf. Coll. relating ts 'emarkable perils of the success of tki Goi/;/ (Glasgow, 1754].
"> Success of the gospel among the Indians of Martha's Vineyard (1694). Canquesis and Triumphs of
Grace (1696), which^s reprinted in part in Mather's Magnalia. Indian Converts of Martha's Vineyard
(1737I, and Experience, its author, appended to one of his discourses a " State of the Indians, 1694-1720."
n Origin and early progress of Indian missions in Nea England, mith a list of books in the Indian
language printed at Cambridge and Boston, iCsj-iJii (Worcester, 1S74, or Amer. Antii. Soc. Proc., Oct.,
1S73) ; a paper on the Indian tongue and its literature in the lUem. Hist. Boston, i. 465.
■» Witetloi:\i has given >a A brief narrative of tie Indian Charily School ll-oDdoo, 1766; id ed., 1767), And
a series of tracts portray its later progress. Cf. McClure and Parish's Memoir of Whetlock. Samson Occiim
and Brant were his pupils. Also see Miss Fletcher's Report, p. 94. and S. C. BartleH in The Granite
Monthly (1888). p. 177,
" See Vol. III. p, 364. There is a biWiography of the Indians in Maine in the Hist. Mag, March, i8;o, p.
164. Cf. Hanson's Gardiner, etc ; Che histories of Norridgewock by Hanson and Allen ; Sabine in the Chris-
tian Examiner, 1857 ; and Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., vols. iiL, ix. On the Maine missions, see post. Vol. IV
300 : and R. H. Eherwood in the Catholic World, xiii. 6;fi.
" See Vol. Ill, p. 367.
yC oo sle
(Concord, . 1854), and the Pemicooks in the general survey of the Indians of New England,
JV. H. Hisl. Collsctieta. i. ; Bouton'a Concord, delineates their character with much plainness
Moore's Contord, and Potter's Manchesttr. aJid discrimination, and it is perhaps as true a
The Archives of Massachusetts yield a large piece of characterization as any we have.*
amount of material respecting the relations of The Iroquois of New York have probably
the tribes to the government, particularly at the been the subject of a more sustained historical
eastward, while Maine was a part of the col- treatment than any other tribes. We have the
ony;i and the large mass of its local histories, advantage, in studying them, of the observations
as well as those of (he State,' supply even bet- of the Dutch,' as well as of the French and Eng-
ter than the other New England States material lish. The French priests give us the earliest ac-
for (he historian.' counts, particularly the relations of Jogues and
The Indians of Rhode Island are noted by Milet.'
Arnold in his Rhode Island (ch. 3), and some The Story of the French missions in New
special treatment is given to the Narragansetts York is told elsewhere;" those of the Protes-
and the Nyantics.* Those o£ Connecticut have lant English yield us less.^"
a monographic record in De Forest's Indians of We have another source in the local histo-
CoHnieticut, as well as treatment otherwise.' ries of New York." The earliest o£ the general
Palfrey {HiiL New England, i. ch. i, i), in his histories of the Iroquois is that of Cadwallader
1 Cf. Report on the Mais. Archhiis (1885). ' Vol. III. p. 362.
« Dr. Ellis has a paper on the Indians of eastern Massachusetts in the Mem. Hisl. Bosten, i. 241. Fgr the
middle regions there are Epaphras Hoyt's Antiquarian Researches (Greenfield, 1824), and Temple's North
Brookfield, not to name other books. For the Stockbridge tribe and the Housatonics, see Samuel Hopkins'
Hisl. Memoirs rilalinsio the Housatunnuk Indians {1753) ; Jones' Stockbridge; Charles Allen's Refort
on the Stockbridge Indians (Boston, 187° ; Hs. Doc. Mass, Leg., no. 13, of 1870) ; S. Orcutfs Indians of the
Housatonic and Naugatuck Valleys (Hartford, 1S82) ; Mag. Amir. Hist., Dec, 1878; and Miss Fletcher's
Refort, pp. 38, 90. For the Wampanoags on the borders of Rhode Island, see Smithsonian Refort, 1883 ;
and William J. Miller's Notes concerning the Wamfanoag tribe of Indians, with some account of a rod
ficture on tht shore of Mount ffofe Bay, in Bristol, R. I. {Providence, iSSo),
* Poller's E'lrly Hist, of Narragansett ; R. I. Hist. Coll., viiL ; Henry Bull's Memoir in R. I. Hist. Mag.,
April, [886 ; Usher Parsons on the Nyantics in Hist. Mag., Feb., 1863.
s Theo. Dwight's ConneMcut, <la. 'y-i ; Trumbull's Ca«B«rfiVuC, ch. 5,6; -EWa- Life of Ca ft. Mason : W.
L. Stone's Uncas and Miantonomoh ; S. Otcutt's Straiford and Bridgeport (1886) ; Luierne Ray in Nta
Englander, July, 1843 (reprinted in Beach's tnd. Miscellany).
On the Pequods, see Wm. Apes' San of the Forest, and other small books by this member of the tribe,
published from 1829 to 1837 ; Lossing in Scriiner's Monthly, ii., Oct., 187' {included in Beach). Cf. our
Vol III. p. 363.
8 Further modern portraitures can be found in Dwight's Travels; Barry's Massachusetts ; Felfs Bccles.
Hist. N. E. (p. 2jg); Samuel Eliot on the " Early relations with the Indians" in the volume of the Mass.
Hilt. Soc. Lectures; Zachariah Allen on The conditions of life, habits, and customs of the native Indians
of America, and their treatment by the first settlers. An address before the Rhode Island Historical
Society, Dec. 4, rSjg (Providence, i83o). Cf. on the Indians and the Puritans, Amer. Chh. Review, m. ao8,
339-
' Cf. Brodhead's New York ; the Doc. Hist. JV. Y. ; and Wm. Eliot Griifis' Arenf van Curler and his
policy offeace with the Iroquois (1884).
8 Cf. Vol. IV. 306. The best source for the story of Jogues is Felix Martin's Life of Father Isaac loguet,
missionary priest of the Society of Jesus, slain by the Mohawk Iroquois, in the present state of New York,
Oct. sB, ib4l>. With [his'\ account of the captivity and death of Rini Goupil, siai^ Sept. iq, 1641.
Translated from the French by J. G. Shea (New York, 18B5). It is accompanied by i map of the county by
Gen. John S. Clark, indicating the sites of the Indian villages and missions, which is an improvement upon
Clark's earlier map, given /oj*, Vol. IV. 293. Ci. Hist. Mag., ai. ij i Hale's Book of Rites, inttod. W. H.
Withrow has a paper on Jogues in the Prac. Roy. Soe. Canada, iii. (2) 45.
» Vol IV. 279, 3=9-
" Cf. D.iivmptutj'sHist. Ace. of the Soc. for propagating the Gospel (173a); Doc. Hist. ff.Y.,iy.\ A. G.
Hopkins in the Oneida Hist. Soc. Trans., 1885-86, p. 5 ; W. M. Beauchamp in Am. Chh. Rev., xlvL 87;
S. K. Lothrop-s Kirtland; and Miss Fletcher's Report (1888), p. 85.
11 Sylvester's Northern New York; Clark's Onondaga; Jones's Oneida Ctunty ; Sunms' Schoharie
County; Benton's Herkimer County ; C. E. Stickaey's Minisini Region ; G. H. Harris' Aboriginal occu-
pation of the lower Genesee County (Rochtsta, 1884, — taken from W. F. Peck's SimiCentennial Hist.
of Rochester); Ketchum's Buffalo; John Wentworth Sanborn's Legends, Customs, and Social Life of the
Seneca Indians (Gowanda, N. Y., i8;3). On the origin of the name Seneca, see O. H. Marshall's Hisl.
Writings, p. 231.
yG@bgIe
324 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA,
Colden, and the best edition is The history of the When the Duke of York was reptesented hete
foe Indian nations dfpending en the province of by Governor Dongan, and "Popish interests"
NevhYori. Riprinted exactly from Bradford's were allowed sway, — there being at the lime a
New York edition, 1727; with an introduction mean pretence of amity between England and
and luites by y. G. i'Aro (New York, i866).' The France, — the interests of the former were sacri-
London reprints of r747, and later, unfortu- fieed to those of the latter. This, of course, had
nately added to the title Five Indian Nations [of a bad influence on the Five Nations, as leading
Caaadal the words in brackets. This was the them to regard the French as masters The
very point denied by the English, who clamed whole of the first part of Colden's History deals
that the French had no territorial rights south with the Iroquois as merely the centre of the
of the lakes. Otherwise his title conveys two rivalry between the French and the English
significant facts r first, that the English had , with their respective savage allies. The Eng.
come to regard the Five Nations as their "de- lish had the advantage at the start, because
pendants" ; and second, that these Indians ac- from the earliest period when Champlain made
tually were a barrier between them and the a hostile incursion into the country of the Iro-
French. There was something farcical in the quois, attended by their Huron enemies, the re-
formula used by Sir Wm. Johnson in a letter lations of enmity were decided upon, and after-
to the ministry : " The combined tribes have wards were constantly imbitlercd by a series of
taken arms against his Britannic Majesty." The invasions. The French sought to undo their
Mohawks had been induced to ask that the own influence of this sort when it became neces-
Duke of York's arms should be attached to sary for them to try to win over the Iroquois to
their castles. This had been assented to, and their own interest in the fur traffic. The Con-
allowed as a security against the inroads of the federacy which existed among the Five, and
French — a sort of talismanic charm which might afterwards the Six, Nations was roughly tried
be respected by European usage. But those when there was so sharp a bidding for alliances
ducal bearings did not have their full meaning between one ot another of the tribes by their
to the Iroquois as bmding their own allegiance, European tempters. An incidenul and very
nor were the Six Nations ever the gainers by embarrassing element came in to complicate the
being thus constructively protected, relations of the parties, English, French, and In-
Colden was bom in Scotland in t638, and dians, on the grounds of the claim advanced by
died on Long Island in 1776. He was a physi. the English to hold the region beyond the Alle-
cian, botanist, scholar, and literary man, able ghanies by cession from the Iroquois in a coun-
and well qualified in each pursuit. The greater cil in 1726. The question was whether the Iro-
part of his long life was spent in this country, quois had previous to that time obtained tenable
As councillor, lieutenant-governor, and acting possession of the Ohio region, by conquest of
governor, he was in the administration of New the former occupants. It would appear that
York from 1720 till near his death. He was a after that conquest that region was for a time
most inquisitive and intelligent investigator and wellnigh deserted. When it was to some ex-
observer of Indian history and character. In tent reoccupied, the subsequent hunters and ten-
dedicating his work to General Oglethorpe, he ants of it denied the sovereignty of the Iroquois
claims to have been prompted to it by his inter- and the rights of the English intruders who re-
cst in the welfare of the Five Nations. He is lied upon the old treaty of cession,
frank and positive in expressing his judgment The rival French history while Colden was m
that they had been degraded and demoralized vogue was the third volume of Bacqueville de
by their intercourse with the whites. He says la Potherie's Hist, de rAmiriqae Septentrionate
that he wrote the former part of his history in (Paris, 1753) ; and another contemporary Eng-
New York, in 1727, to thwart the manieuvres lish view appeared in Wm. Smith's Hist, of the
fJl the French in their efforts to monopolize Prmrinct of New York (1757).^ Nothing ap-
the western fur trade. They had been allowed peared after this of much moment as a general
to import woollen goods for the Indian traffic account of the Six Nations till Henry R. School-
through New York. Governor Burnet advised craft made his Report to the New York authori-
that a stop be put to this abuse. The New ties in i84S> which was published in a more
York legislature furthered his advice, and built popular form in his Notts on the Iroquois, or
a fort at Oswego for three hundred traders. Contributions to American history, antiquities,
1 See Vol IV. 299. Shea says the only copies known of the 1717 edition are those noted in the catalogues
of H. C. Murphy, Menzies, Brinley, and T. H. Horrell. Stevens noted a copy in 18S5, at £42. The Mur-
fky Catalogue gives the various editions. Cf. Sabin and Pilling. There is an account of Colden in the Hist.
. Mag., Jan., 1865. Palfrey {New England, iv. 40) warns the student that Colden must he used with caution
and that he needs to he corrected by Charlerohi.
j by Google
and g^n^rai tiineiagy {Albany, iS47],i hook not Lenni Lenape, the main source is the native
valued overmuch.' bark record, which as Walam-Olum was given
Better work was done by J. V, II- Clark in by Squier in his Histurieat and Afylhvlogieal
what is in effect 3 good history of the Confed- Traditions of the Algoitguim? a& translated by
eracy, in his Onondaga (Syracuse, 1849). The Ra.finesque,' while a new translation is given in
series of bicîaphies by W. L. Stone, of Sir D. G. Brinton's Ltnipl and tkiir legends; with
William Johnson, Brant, and Red Jacket, form the complete text and symbols of the Walam Olum,
a continuous history for a century (1 735-1838).' a new translalion,and an injuiry into iisauthea-
The most carefully studied work of all has been ticily (Philadelphia, 1S85I, making a volume of
that of Lewis H. Mtirgan in his League of the his Ltbrary of aboriginal American literature;
Iroquois (1S51I, a book of which Parkman says and the ixiok is in effect a series of ethnological
{Jesuits, p. iiv) thai it commands a place far in studies on the Indians of Pennsylvania. New
advance of all others, and he adds, "Though Jersey, and Maryland.'
often differing widely from Mr. Morgan's conclu- In addition to some of the early tracts* on
sions, I cannot bear too emphatic testimony to the Maryland"' and Virginia and the general histories,
value of his researches." ' The latest scholarly like those of Beverly, and Stith for Viiînia, and
treatment of the Iroquois history is by Horatio particularly Bozman for Maryland, with Hen-
Hale in the mtroduction to The Iroquois Book of ning's Statutes, and some of the local histories,"
Riles (Philad., 1883), which gives the forms of we have little for these central coast regions."
commemoration on the death of a chief and upon In Carolina we must revert to such early books
the choice of a successor.* as Lawson and Brickell ; to Carroll's Hist Col-
Moving south, the material grows somewhat lections of South Carolina, and to occasional
scant. There is little distinctive about the New periodic papers."
Jersey tribes.' For the Delawares and the Farther south, we get help from the early
1 Cf. Vol. IV. 397. Schoolcraft later included in his Indian Tribes a reprint of David Cusick's /< ».«««(
Hist, of the Six Nations (1825), the work o£ a Tuscaiora chief. Brinton {Myths, 108) calls it of little value.
Elias Johnson, another Tuscarora, printed a little ffisl. of the Six Nations at Lockport in 1S81.
a See Vnl. V., VI., VII.
' This was the earliest of Morgan's important writings on the Iroquois, but the fall outcome of all his
views on the Indian character and life can only be studied by following him through his later Ancient Society,
hb Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity, and his HoHies and Housewife of the American Aborigines.
Cf. Filling's Proofshetts for a conspectus of his works. Morgan's early studies on the Iroquois sensibly
affected his judgment in his later treatment of all other North American tribes.
• Hale has also contributed to the .Mag. Atner. Hist.. 1885, liii, 131, a paper on " Chief George H. M.
Johnson, his life and work among the Sin Nations;" and to the Amer. Antiquarian. 1885, vii, 7, one on
" The Iroquois sacrifice o£ the white dog,"
A few other references on the Iroquois follow : Drake's Book of the Indians, book v. ; D. Sherman in Mag.
West. Hist., i. 46? ; W. W. Beauchamp in Amer. Antiquarian (Nov., 1886), viii. 358 ; D. Gray on the last
Indian council in the Genesee Country, in Scribner's Mag., xxy. 33S ; Penna. Mag., i. 163, 319 ; ii. 407. For
the Schaghticoke tribe, see Hist. Mag., June, 1&70; and for those of the Susquehanna Valley, Miner's Wyo-
ming and Stone's IVyoming. E. M. Ruttenber's Indian Tribes of the Hudson River (Albany, 187a) is an
Important book. Miss Fletcher's Report includes a paper on the N. Y. Indians, by F. B. Hough.
s N. Jersey Hist. Soc. Proc, vol. iv.
<■ There is a sketch of this singular character in Brinton's Lenapt, ch. 7.
r Also Amer. Whig Review, Feb., 1849 ; and in Beach's /ndian Miscitlany.
8 We may also note : D. B, Bninner's Indians of Berks county. Pa. ; being a summary of alt the tan-
gible records of the aborigines of Berks County (Reading, Pa., 1881), and W. J. Buck's " Lappawinao and
Tishcohan chiefs of the Lenni Lenape" in Ihe/'enwo. Mi^f. o/ffij*., July, 18S3, p J15. The early writers
to elucidate the condition of the Debwares soon after the white contact are Vanderdonck, Campanius,
Gabriel Thomas, and later there is something of value in Peter Kalm's Travels. The early authorities on
Pennsylvania need also to be consulted, as well as the Penna. Archives, and the Collections of the Penna.
Hist. Soc„ and its Bulletin, whose first number has Ettwein's Traditions and language of the Indians. Of
considerable historical value is Charles Thomson's Enquiry (see Vol. V. 575), and the relations of the
Quakers to the tribes are sarveytd in an Account of the Conduct of the Society 0/ Friends towards the Indian
Tribes (Lond., 1844) ; liut other references will be found post. Vol, V. 581, induding others on the Moiavtan
missions, the literature of which is of much importance in this study. Cf. Chas, Batty's Journal of a l-mi
months' lour {'London, 1 768), the works of Heckewelder and Loskiel, and Schweiniti's Ztisberger. Cf. Miss
Fletcher's Report, p. 78.
• Vol. III., under Viipnia and Maryland. Cf. Hist. Mag., March, 1857.
1" For instance, the Relatio itiniris in Marylandiam. U See Vol. III.
13 The latest summary is in Miss Fletcher's Report, ch, 2 and ].
W F. Kidder in ffij/.^/flf. (1857), i. 161. Ttoîe^ English in America. V~i'ginta.etc.{\jiniotx, 188a) gives
a brief chapter to the natives. Cf , travels of Bartrara and Smyth, and Miss Fletcher's Report, ch. 19,
jle

Spanish and French, — Ilerrera, Batcia, the bsma. Col. C. C. Jones, Jr., has given us a
chroniclers o( Florida, Davilla Padilla, Laudon- sketch (1868) of Tomo-chi-chi, the chief who
ni^re, the memorials of De Soto's match, the welcomed Oglethorpe,*
documenta in the collections of Ternaux, Buck- C. C. Royce has given us glimpses of the rela-
ingham Smith, and B. F. French, all of which tions <A the Cherokees and the whites in the
have been characterized elsewhere.' Fijih Report, Bureau of Ethnology. A recent
The later French documents in Matgry and hoa^ is Q.'E.7c^ltii'sSe-Quo-yah, the American
the works of Dumont and Du Pratz give us Cadmus and modem Mases. A biography 0/ Ike
additional help.' On the English side we find ^latest of redmen, around iiihoie life has been
something in Code's Carolana, in Timberlake, teaven the manners, customs and beliefs of the
in Lawsoii,^ in the Wormsloe quartos on Oeotgia early Cktrokees, viitk a recital of their wrongs
and South Carolina,* and in later books like and progress toward dviltsation (Philadelphia,
filso'n's Kentuche, John Haywood's Nat. and etc., 1885.)' Gatschet cites the Mlmoire of Mil-
Aborig. flist. Tennessee (down to 1768), Benja- fort, a war chief of the Creeks.' The Chippe-
min Hawkins's Sketch of the Creek Country was are commemorated in a paper in Beach's
(1799), and Jeffreys' French Dominion in Amer- Indian Miscellany? The Seminole war pro-
ica. Brinton, in lite Nalianal Legend of the doced a literature'" bearing on the Florida tribes.
Chata-Mu!-ka-kee tribes (in the Hist. Mag., Feb., Bernard Romans' Florida {1775) gave ihe com-
1870). printed a translation of " What Chekilli ments of an early English observer of the na-
the head chief of the upper and lower Creeks fives of (he southeastern parts of the United
said in a talk held at Savannah in 1735," which States. Dr. Briuton's Floridian Peninsula and
he derived from a German version preserved in the paper of Clay Maccauley on the Seminoles
Htrm Fhitipp Georg Friedericks von Reck Dia- in the Fifth Kept. Bureau of Ethnology help out
rium von seiner Reise nach Georgien im yahr ij2^ the study. The Natchez have been considered
(HaJle, 1741).' This legend is taken by Albert as allied with the races of middle America," and
S. Gatschet, in his Migration Legend of the we may go back to Garcilasso de la Vega and
Creek Indians, with a linguistic, historic, and eth- the later Du Pratz for some of the speculations
nograpkie tntraductien (Philqd., 1884), as a Cen- about them, to be aided by the accounts we get
tre round which to group the ethnography of the from the French concerning their campaigns
whole gulf water-shed of the Southern States, against Ihem.'^
wherein he has carefully analyzed the legend The placing of the tribes in the Ohio Valley is
and its language, and in this way there is formed embarrassed by their periodic migrations.'^ Brin-
what is perhaps the best survey we have of the ton follows the migrations of the Shawanees,"
southern Indians. and C. C. Royce seeks to identify them in their
This we may supplement by Pickett's Jla- wanderings." O.H.Marshall tracks other tribes
1 Vol. II.
» Vol. V. p. 65.
» Vol. V. p. 69, 344, 393.
* Vol. V. p. 401.
fi This also malces prt of the Utisperger tract, Ausfuhtliehe Nackrickt vm den Soltzburgischeti Em:-
jTanfaH (Halle, 1835). See Vol, V. p. 395.
' VoL V. p. 399. Cf. Mag. Amer. Hist., 1. 346.
' The long contested case of the Cherokees v. Georgia brought out much maleiial. Cf. Vol. Vil. p, 322,
and Poole's Index, p. 525. There is a somewhat curious presentation of the Cherokee mind in the addte^:*
of Dewi Brown in the Mass. Hist. Soc. Proc, xii. 30.
" The histories of the Creek war give some material. See Vol. VII. and Harrison's Life 0/ John Howard
Papu.lA^.^. Cf. Poole't Index, p. 314.
» Cf. Poole's Indix^
1= See Vol. VII.
11 Cf. Claiborne's .fl/wjiin>t/i, i. ; Brinlon m /firt. jWiy., 2d ser.,vol.i. p, 16; and E.L. Berthoud's A'o/cA«
Indians (Golden, 1886). a pamplilet.
W Vol. V. p. 6S. Cf. also an abridged memfflr of the missions in Louisiana by Father Francis Watrin,
Jesuit, 1764-65,10^0^. H'ert. //ij(., Feb., i8S5,p.a65; the rranf/jiBCo^r*BHJol'«Ti/afj', 1819. by Thomas
Nutta!l(PhiIad., 1B21), for other accounts of the aboriginal inhabitants of the banks of the Mississippi; tho
History of Kansas (Chicago, 1S83), p. 58 ; and the Proceedings of the Kansas Hist. Society.
" Cf. VoL IV. p. 39S ; and C. W. Butterfield in the Mag. West. Hist., Feb., 1887 ; and on the Indian
occupation of Ohio, Ibid., Nov,, 1SS4. David Jones' Ttvo Visits, 1772-73, concerns the Ohio Indians. Our
Vol. V. covers this region during the French wars. J. K. Dodge's Red Man of the Ohio Vailtf, ittsa-'TIS
(Springfield, O., 1S60), is a popular book.
M Hist. Mag.. )i. (Jan., 1S66).
IS Mag. West. Hist., a. 38.
IMl
yCoogle
along the Great Lakes.' Hiram W. Beckwith some account in the Transactiens (vol. i.) of the
places those in Illinois and Indiana.^ The Nebtaaka State Hist, Society, and a trad by
Wyandots' have been treated, as affording a Miss Fletcher on the Oftaâ tribe of Indians in
type for a short study of tribal society, by Major Nebraska (Washington, 1885). The Pawnees
VovieWm the Bureau of Elhaology, First Siferi* have been described by J. B. Dunbar in the VWo^.
G, Gale's Upper Mississippi (Chicago, 1867) gives Amer.Hisl. (vols, iv., v., viii., ix.) The Ojibways
us a condensed summary of the tribes of thai have had two native historians, — Geo.Copway's
region, and Miss Fletcher's Reporl w^ help us Traditional Hist, of tht Ojibway Nation {X'ôAon.,
for all ihis territory. Use Can be also raadeof 1850), and Peter Jones' Hisl. of the Ojibway In-
Caleb Atwater's Indiant of the Northwest, or a dians, with special reference to their coHVirsioH tQ
Tour to Prairie duChien {Colambixa.iSso). Dr. Christianity (London, i860- The Minnesota
John G. Shea and others have used the Collec- Hist. Sec. Celleetiorts (vol. v.) contain other his-
tions of the Wiscmisin NistoHial Society to make torical accounts by Wm, W. Warren and by
known their studies of the tribes of that State.* Edw. D. Nelll, — the latter touching their con-
One of the most readable studies of (he Indians nection with the fur-traders. Miss Fletcher's
in the neighborhood of Lake Superior is John Report (iSSS) will supplement all these accounts
G. Kohl's Kitchi-Gami |i86o). The authorities of the aborînes of this region,
on the Black Hawk war throw light on the Sac Our best knowledge of the southwestern In-
and Fox tribes-^ Filling's BiHiograpky of the dians, the Apaches, Navajos, Utes, Comanches,
Siouaa Languages ( 18S7} affords the readiest key and the rest, comes from such government ob-
to the mass of books about the Sioun or Daco- servers as Emory in his Military Seamaaitsanci ;
tah stocks from the time of Hennepin and the Marcy's Exploration of the Red River in iSji ;
early adventurers In the Missouri Valley. The J- H. Simpson in his Expedilien into the Navajo
travellers Carver and Catlin are of importance Country (1856) ; and E, H. Ruffner's Reeonnois-
here. U.ts.'E^'s.X'msa's Dacotah.or life and legends same in the lite Coimlry (1874). The fullest
of the Sioux ( 1849) is an excellent book that has references are given Id Bancroft's Native Races?
not yet lost its value ; and the same can be said wilh a map.
of Francis Parkman's California and the Oregon We may sfill find in Bancroft's Native Races
Trail |N. Y., 1S49), which shows that histo- (i. ch. 2, 3) the best summarized statement n'ith
[ian's earliest experience of the wild camp life, references on the tribes of the upper Pacific
Miss Alice C. Fletcher is the latest investigator coast, and follow the development of our knowl-
of their present life.' Of the Crows we have edge in the narratives of the early explorers of
some occasional accounts like Mr.<. Margaret J. that coast by water, in the account of Lewis and
Carrington's Absaraka? On the Modocs we Clark and other overland travels, and in such
have J. Miller's Life among the Modocs {'Lo-n.^xm. tales of adventures as the >arBfl/;*i/( a/ .(Veoc-fci
r873). ]. O. Dorsey has ^ven us a paper on Sound by John R.yewitt,-v\at\i has had various
the Omaha sociology in the Third Kept. Bureau forms.'"
of Ethnology (p. 205) ; and we may add to this The earliest of the better studied accounts of
1 Hist. Writings, 188;.

7 (i884). Cf. Hoik's map of the tribal districts of Indiana in his Rept. on
it's Origin and Traditional Hist, of the Wyandotts
(Milwaukee, 1879); and E. Jacker on the missions in

■t, ch, II-
e Vol. VII.
' Cf. her Report (18SS), ch, 10, and her Indian ceremonies (Salem, Mass., 1884), taken from the xvi. Report
of the Piabody Museum of Amer. Archaology and Ethnology. 1883, pp. S60-333, and confc^ning; The white
buffalo festival of the Uncpapas. — The elk mystery or festival. Ogallala Sioux. — The religious ceremony
of the four winds or quarters, as observed by the Santee Sioux. — The shadow or ghost lodge ; a ceremony of
the Ogallala Sioux, — The " Wawan," or pipe dance of the Omahaa,
The Minnesota Hist. Soc. Collections have much on the Dacotahs,
s Ab-sa-ra-ia, home of the Crows, being the experience of an /peer's wife on the plains, mith eutlines sf
the natural features of the land, tables of distances, maps [etc] (Philad,, 186S),
9 These may be supplemented by Leiheman's account of the Navajos In the Smithsonian Rept., 1855,
p. 280; and books of adventures, like RMXten's Life in the Far West; PamjnWfi Across America and Asia ;
H. C. Dorr in Overland Monthly, Apr., 1871 (also in Beach's Indian Miscellany) : James Hobbs' IVild life
in lie far West (Hartford, 187;), — not to name others, and a large mass of periodical hterature lobe reached
for the EngUsh portion through PooUs Inden. Cf. Miss Fletcher's Report (188S),
>» A Journal, kept al Noolka Sound, by John R. Jewilt, one of the surviving crew of the shif Boston, of
Fergus Hisl. Ser
ies. No
, 17 (1884),
Cf, H
the
Geology and Nat.

See Vol, IV, 298,
Hist. ,
•f Indiana (
.8S2).
Cf, Hist. Mag, Sept,, 1
861 ; and P.
■:er n
rla
(T
jronto, i8;o). Cla
rke is ;
I native Indi,
Cf, I, A, Lapham
on th
e Indians
fWi:
An
.. Calh. Quart., i.
404 ; a'
Iso Miss Fie
[Cher's
Sef.
iôsle
these Dorthwestem tribes was that of Horatio volume is still the useful general account; but
Hale in (he volume (vi.) on ethnography, of the the Federal government have published several
Wilkes' United States Exploring Expeditiatt contributions of scientific importance ; that of
(Philad., 1846), and the same philologist's paper Stephen Powers in the Contributions ta No, Amir
ia'Ai^ Amtr. ElhuQlogical Soiiity't Tranmetions Ethnology (vol. iii., 1877);^ the ethnological
(vol. ii.). Recent scientific results are found in volume (vii.) of Whteler's Survey, edited by
Tht NuT^-iVest Ceait of America, being Rerulti Putnam; and papers in the Smithsonian Se-
^ Rfcent Ethnological /{esearches, from the Col- farts, 1863-64, and in Miss Fletcher's Repert,
Itctions of the Eoy^ Museums at Berli«,pMb!ish<d l88a.»
by tht Sirtelori of the Elknologicat Department, This survey would not be complete nithouf
iy Herr E. Kra-use, and partly by Dr. Grun- some indication of the topical variety in the con-
wedel, translated from the German, tie Histor- sideralion of the native peoples, but we have
teal and Destriptive Text by Dr. Reiss (New space only to mention the kinds of special treat-
York, tSS6), and in the first volume of the Con- ment, shown in accounts of their government
tributions to North Amir. Ethnology (Powell's and society, their intellectual character, and of
Survey), in papers by George Gibbs on the tribes some of their customs and amusements.* Their
of Washinglon and Oregon, and by W. H. Dall industries, their linguistics, and their myths have
on those of Alaska.' been conddered with wider relations in the ap-
For the tribes of California, Bancroft's first pendixes of the present volume.
^^^^ jSw.
Boston, John Salter, eommander, who was massacred on 23d of March, sSoJ. Interspersed with some
account of the natives, their manners and customs (Boston, 1S07). Another account has been published
vdth the title, " A narrative of the adventures and sufferings of J. R. Jewitt," cwnpiled from Jewitt's " Oral
idationa," by Richard Alsop ; and another alteration and abridgment by S. G. Goodrich has been published
with the title, " The captive of Nootka." Cf, Sabm, Pilling, Reld, etc. Cf. abo Hid. Mag., Mar., 1863.
The French half-breeds of the Northweat are described by V. Havard in the Smithsonian Reft., 1S79.
1 Dall's Alaska and its Resources (Boston, 1S70), with its list of books, is of use in this particular field.
Cf. also Miss Fletcher's Report (1S88), ch. 19 and so.
s His map is reproduced in Petermann's Geog. Mslthetlungen, xxv. pL 13.
s The periodical literature can be reached through Poole's Index ; particularly to he mentioned, however,
are the Atlantic Monthly, Apr., 1875 ; by J. R. Browne in Harper's Mag., Aug., 1861, repeated in Beach's
Ind. Misatlany. For the missionary aspects see such books as Getonimo Boscana's Chinigckinieh : a his-
torical account of the origin, customs, and Iradilions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of Si.
Juan Capisirano, Alta California ; called the Acagehemem nation. Translated from the original Spanish
mtanuscript, by one -aiko toas many years a resident of Alta California [Alfred Robinson] (N. Y.. r846),
which is included in RoWnson's Ufe in California (N. V., 1846); and C. C. Painter's lîsit to the mission
Indians af southern California, and ether astern tribes (Philadelphia, 1886).
* See, for instance ; Maj. Powell on tribal sodely in the Third Rift. Bur. of Ethnology. On Tolcmism,
see the Fourth Rept., p. 165, and J. G, Frailer in his Tolemism (Edinburgh, 18S7)- L"™" Carr on the
nodal and poUtical condition of women among the Huron-Iroquois \riiai,\n Peabody Mus. Repi^xvi-tai.
J. M. Browne on Indian medicine in the Atlantic. July, 1S66, reprinted in Beach's Indian Miscellany. J. M.
Lemoine on then mortuary rites hi Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada, iL 85, and H. C. Yarrow on theh mortuary
customs io the Pirst Rept. Bur. Ethnol., p. 87, and on thrir mummifications in Itid. p. 130. Andrew Mac-
Farland Davis on Indian games in Uie Bullîn, Essex Institute, vols, xvil,, xviii., and separately. On their
■Btellectual and literary capacity, John Reade in the Proc. Roy. Sao. of Canada (ii. sect. 2d, p. 17) i Edward
ladKr in Amer. Catholit Quarterly la. 304; iii. 155); Btiatoa's L/nape and their legends ; W. G. SimmS
tneaii and Revims.
Goo sle
CHAPTER VI.
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA.
BY HENRY W. MAYNES,
BY the discovery of America a new continent was brought to light, in-

habited by many distinct tribes, differing in language and in customs,
but strikingly alike in physical appearance. All that can be learned in
regard to their condition, and that of their ancestors, prior to the coming of
Columbus, falls within the domain of the prehistoric archasology of Amer-
ica. This recent science of Prehistoric Archasology deals mainly with
facts, not surmises. In studying the past of forgotten races, "hid from
the world in the low-delved tomb," her chief agent is the spade, not the
pen. Her leading principles, the lamps by which her path is guided, are
superposition, association, and style. Does this new science teach us that
the tribes found in possession of the soil were the descendants of its origi-
nal occupants, or does she rather furnish reasons for inferring that these
had been preceded by some extinct race or races ? The first question,
therefore, that presents itself to us relates to the antiquity of man upon
this continent ; and in respect to this the progress of archaeological investi-
gation has brought about a marked change of opinion. Modern specula-
tion, based upon recent discoveries, inclines to favor the view that this
continent was inhabited at least as early as in the later portion of the
quaternary or pleistocene period. Whether this primitive people was au-
tochthonous or not, is a problem that probably will never be solved ; but it
is now generally held that this earliest population was intruded upon by
other races, coming either from Asia or from the Pacific Islands, from whom
were descended the various tribes which have occupied the soil down to the
present time.
The writer believes also that the majority of American archaeologists

now sees no sufficient reason for supposing that any mysterious, superior
race has ever lived in any portion of our continent. They find no archseo-
logical evidence proving that at the time of its discovery any tribe had-
reached a stage of culture that can properly be called civilization. Even if
we accept the exaggerated statements of the Spanish conquerors, the most
intelligent and advanced peoples found here were only semi-barbarians, in
lie
the stage of transition from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no writ-
ten language, or what can properly be styled an alphabet, and not yet having
even learned the use of beasts of burden.
By a large and growing school of archaeologists, moreover, it is main-

tained that all the various tribes upon this continent, notwithstanding their
different degrees of advancement, were living under substantially similar
institutions ; and that even the different forms of house construction prac-
tised by them were only stages in the development of the same general
conceptions. Without attempting to dogmatize about such difficult prob-
lems, the object of this chapter is to set forth concisely such views as
recommend themselves to the writer's judgment. He is profoundly con-
scious of the limitations of his knowledge, and fully aware that his opinions
will be at variance with those of other competent and learned investigators.
Non nostrum tantas componere lites.
The controversy in regard to the antijquity of man in the old world may
be regarded as substantially settled. Scarcely any one now denies that
man was in existence there during the close of the quaternary or pleisto-
cene period ; but there is a great difference of opinion as to the sufficiency
of the evidence thus far brought forward to prove that he had made his
appearance in Europe in the previous tertiary period, or even in the earlier
part of the quaternary. What is the present state of opinion in regard to
the correlative quastion about the antiquity of man in America ? Less than
ten years ago the latest treatise published in this country, in which this
subject came under discussion, met the question with the sweeping reply
that " no truly scientific proof of man's great antiquity in America exists." ^
But we think if the author of that thorough and " truly scientific " work
were living now his belief would be different. After a careful considera-
tion of all the former evidence that had been adduced in proof of man's
early existence upon this continent, none of which seemed to him conclu-
sive, he goes on to state that "Dr. C. C. Abbott has unquestionably discov-
ered many palaeolithic implements in the glacial drift in the valley of the
Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey."^ Now a single discovery of
this character, if it were unquestionable, or incapable of any other explana-
tion, would be sufficient to prove that man existed upon this continent in
quaternary times. The establishment, therefore, of the antiquity of man
in America, according to this latest authority, seems to rest mainly upon
the fact of the discovery by Dr. Abbott of palaeolithic implements in the
valley of the Delaware. To quote the language of an eminent European
man of science, "This gentleman appears to stand in a somewhat similar
relation to this great question in America as did Boucher de Perthes in
Europe."^ The opinion of the majority of American geologists upon this
point is clearly indicated in a very recent article by Mr. W. J. McGee, of
1 Tki North Amirkans of Antiquity, by John • Tht Antiquity of Man in America, by Al-
T. Short, p. 130. fred R. Wallace in NinHeentk Century (Novem-
s Ibid. p. 127. ber, 1887), vol. xxii, p. 673.
,<Sae>sle
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 331
the U. S. Geological Survey : " But it is in the aqueo-glacial gravels of the

Delaware River, at Trenton, which were laid down contemporaneously
with the terminal moraine one hundred miles further northward, and which
have been so thoroughly studied by Abbott, that the most conclusive proof
of the existence of glacial man is found." ^ It will accordingly be necessary
to give in considerable detail an account of the discovery of palieolithic im-
plements by Dr. Abbott in the Delaware valley, and of its confirmation by
different investigators, as well as of such other discoveries in different parts
of our country as tend to substantiate the conclusions that have been drawn
from them by archasologists.
PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENT FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS."
By the term palseolithic implements we are to understand certain rude

stone objects, of varying size, roughly fashioned into shape by a process of
chipping away fragments from a larger mass so as to produce cutting edges,
with convex sides, massive, and suited to be held at one end, and usually
pointed at the other. These have never afterwards been subjected to any
smoothing or polishing process by rubbing them against another stone.
But it is only when such rude tools have been found buried in beds of
gravel or other deposits, which have been laid down by great floods towards
the close of what is known to geologists as the quaternary or pleistocene
' PalaoUthic Man in Am.
, in Popular SHe
■I Motahly (November. 1888), p. 23.

labody Muuuni Refsrts, voL IL p. 33.
Hosted >by
byG«oQle
period, that they can be regarded as really palseolithic^ At that epoch

which immediately preceded the present period, certain rivers flowed with a
volume of water much greater than now, owing to the melting of the thick
ice-cap once covering large portions of the northern hemisphere, which was
accompanied by a climate of great humidity. Vast quantities of gravels
were washed down from the debris of the great terminal moraine of this
ice-sheet, and were accumulated in beds of great thickness, extending in
some instances as high as two hundred feet up the slopes of the river val-
leys. In such deposits, side by side with the rude products of human in-
dustry we have thus described, and deposited by the same natural forces,
are found the fossil remains of several species of animals, which have
subsequently either become extinct, like the mammoth and the tichorhine
rhinoceros, or, driven southwards by the encroaching ice, have since its
disappearance migrated to arctic regions, like the musk-sheep and the rein-
deer, or to the higher Alpine slopes, like the marmot. Such a discovery
establishes the fact that man must have been living as the contemporary of
these extinct animals, and this is the only proof of his antiquity that is at
present universally accepted.
There has been much discussion among geologists in regard to both

the duration and the conditions of the glacial period, but it is now the
settled opinion that there have been two distinct times of glacial action,
separated by a long interval of warmer climate, as is proved by the occur-
rence of intercalated fossiliferous beds ; this was followed by the final
retreat of the glacier.^ The great terminal moraine stretching across the
United States from Cape Cod to Dakota, and thence northward to the
foot of the Rocky Mountains, marks the limit of the tee invasion in the
second glacial epoch. South of this, extending in its farthest boundary
as low as the 38th degree of latitude, is a deposit which thins out as we go
west and northwest, and which is called the drift-area. The drift gradu-
ates into a peculiar mud deposit, for which the name of "loess" has been
adopted from the geologists of Europe, by whom it was given to a thick
alluvial stratum of fine sand and loam, of glacial origin. This attenuated
drift represents the first glacial invasion. From Massachusetts as far as
northern New Jersey, and in some other places, the deposits of the two
epochs seem to coalesce.*
' Sometimes the gravels in which snch imple- ' 7%c Great Ice Age and its TilaCion to the ait-
ments were originally deposited have disap- ttguity of Man, by James Geikie, p. 416.
peared through denudation or other natural ' An Inventory of mir Gliuiat Drift, by T. C.
causes, leaving the implements on the surface. Chamberlin in the Proceeding of American As-
Bui the outside of such specimens always shows soeiation for Advancement of Science, vol. uixv.
traces of decomposition, indicating their high p. 196. A general map o£ this great moraine
antiquity. Other examples of implements of and others representing portions of i( on a large
like shape, found on the surface in places where scale will be found in his " Preliminary Paper on
there haa been no glacial drift, may be palaeo- the terminal moraine of the second glacial pe-
lithic, but their form is no sufficient proof of this, riod," in the Third Annual Report of the U. S.
since they may equally well have been the work Geologic^ Survey, by J. W. Powell (Washing.
of the Indians, who are known to have fashioned ton, 1883).

•imilar objects.
y Goo gle
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 333
The interval of time that separated the two glacial periods can be best
imagined by considering the great erosions that have taken place in the
valleys of the Missouri and of the upper Ohio. "Glacial river deposits of
the earlier epoch form the capping of fragmentary terraces that stand 250
to 3CO feet above the present rivers;" while those of the second epoch
stretch down through a trough excavated to that depth by the river through
these earlier deposits and the rock below.*
As to the probable time that has elapsed since the close of the glacial
period, the tendency of recent speculation is to restrict the vast extent that
was at first suggested for it to a period of from twenty thousand to thirty
thousand years. The most conservative view maintains that it need not
have been more than ten thousand years, or even less.^ This lowest
estimate, however, can only be regarded as fixing a minimum point, and an
antiquity vastly greater than this must be assigned to man, as of necessity
he must have been in existence long before the final events occurred in
order to have left his implements buried in the beds of d6bris which they
occasioned.
In April, 1873, Dr. C. C. Abbott, who was already well known as an

investigator of the antiquities of the Indian races, which he believed had
passed from " a palaeolithic to a neolithic condition " while occupying the
Atlantic seaboard, published an article on the " Occurrence of implements in
the river-drift at Trenton, New Jersey." ^ In this he described and figured
three rude implements, which he had found buried at a depth as great in one
instance as sixteen feet in the gravels of a bluff overlooking the Delaware
River. He argued that these must be of greater antiquity than relics
found on the surface, from the fact of their occurring in place in undisturbed
deposits ; that they could not have reached such a depth by any natural
means ; and that they must be of human origin, and not accidental forma-
tions, because as many as three had been discovered of a like character,
His conclusion is that they are "true drift implements, fashioned and
used by a people far antedating the people who subsequently occupied this
same territory."
After two years of further research he returned to the subject, publishing

in the same journal, in June, 1876, an account of the discovery of seven
similar objects near the same locality. Of these he said : " My studies of
these paleeolithic specimens and of their positions in the gravel-beds and
overlying soil have led me to conclude that not long after the close of the
last glacial epoch man appeared in the valley of the Delaware."*
Most of these specimens were deposited by Dr. Abbott in the Peabody

Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts ; and the curator of that institution, Professor Frederick W,
' C\i.2XtArexVia, Prac. Amer. Assse^ u6isufi.,p. Gm/egy of Minnii,
199. Winchell and War
* The place of Niagara Fall! in geological Paul, 1888).

history, by G. K. Gilbcrl, of the U. S. Govt. » The American Naturatiit, vol. v
Surv., in the Proc. Afner. Aisoc., Ibid. p. 223 ; * Ibid. vol. i. p, 329.
Putnam, in September, 1876, visited the locality in company with Dr.

Abbptt. Together they succeeded in finding two examples in place.
Having been commissioned to continue his investigations. Dr. Abbott
presented to the trustees, in November of the same year, a detailed report
On the Discovery of Supposed Paleolithic Implements from the Glacial
Drift in the Valley of the Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey}
In this, three of the most characteristic specimens were figured, which had
been submitted to Mr. M. E. Wadsworth of Cambridge, to determine their
lithological character. He pronounced them to be made of argillite, and
declared that the chipping upon them couid not be attributed to any
natural cause, and that the weathering of their surfaces indicated their very
great antiquity. The question "how and when these implements came to
be in the gravel " is discussed by Dr. Abbott at s.ime length. He argued
that the same forces which spread the beds of gravel over the wide area
now covered carried them also ; and he predicted that they will be met with
wherever such gravels occur in other parts of the Slate. He specially dwells
upon the circumstances that the implements were found in undisturbed
portions of the freshly exposed surface of the bluff, and not in the mass of
talus accumulated at its base, into which they might have fallen from the
surface ; and that they have been found at great depths, " varying from five
to over twenty feet below the overlying soil." He also insisted upon the
marked difference between their appearance and the materials of which
they are fashioned and the customary relics of the Indians. The conditions
under which the gravel-beds were accumulated are then studied in connec-
tion with a report upon them by Professor N. S. Shaler, which concludes,
from the absence of stratification and of pebbles marked with glacial
scratches, that they were "formed in the sea near the foot of the retreating
ice-sheet, when the sub-glacial rivers were pouring out the vast quantities
of water and waste that clearly were released during the breaking up of the
great ice-time." This view regards the deposits as of glacial origin, and as
laid down during that period, but considers that they were subsequently
modified in their arrangement by the action of water. In such gravel-beds
there have also been found rolled fragments of reindeer-horns, and skulls of
the walrus, as well as the relics of man. Dr. Abbott accordingly drew the
conclusion that "man dwelt at the foot of the glacier, or at least wandered
over the open sea, during the accumulation of this mass of gravel ;" that
he was contemporary of these arctic animals ; and that this early race was
driven southward by the encroaching ice, leaving its rude implements
behind. Thus it will be seen that Dr. Abbott no longer considers man in
this country as belonging to post-glacial, but to interglacial times.
Continuing his investigations, in the following year Dr. Abbott gave a

much more elaborate account of his work and its results, in which he
1 Ttntk Annual Rtfiort ef the Trustees of the Ptaii>dy Museum of American Archadngy and
Ethtalogy, Tol. ii. p. 30.
y Google
announced his discovery of some sixty additional specimens.^ To the

objection that had been raised, that these supposed implements might have
been produced by the action of frost, he replied that a single fractured
surface might have originated in that way or from an accidental blow ; but
when we find upon the same object from twenty to forty planes of cleavage,
all equally weathered (which shows that the fragments were all detached
at or about the same time), it is impossible not to recognize in this the
result of intentional action. Four such implements are described and
figured, of shapes much more specialized than those previously published,
and resembling very closely objects which European archsologists style
stone axes of " the Chellean type," whose artificial origin cannot be
doubted.
GRAVEL BLUFF,"
As some geologists were still inclined to insist upon the post-glacial

character of the debris in which the implements were found. Dr. Abbott,
admitting that the great terminal moraine of the northern ice-sheet does
not approach nearer than forty miles to the bluff at Trenton, nevertheless
insists that the character of the deposits there much more resembles a
mass of material accumulated in the sea at the foot of the glacier than it
does beds that have been subjected to the modifying arrangement of
water He finds an explanation of this condition of things in a prolonga-
tion of the glacier down the valley of the Delaware as far as Trenton, at a
time when the lower portions of the State had suffered a considerable
' Second report on the paleolithic imple- Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey,
menis from the glacial drift, in the valley of the Ibid. p. 125.
■ From a photograph kindly furnished by Professor F. W. Putnam, showing the DeUwire and its blufi o£
i»GôgIe
depression, and before the retreat of the ice-sheet. But besides the
comparatively unmodified material of the bluff, in which the greater portion
of the palasolithic implements has been found, there also occur limited
areas of stratified drift, such as are to be seen in railway cuttings near
Trenton, in which similar implements are also occasionally found. These,
however, present a more worn appearance than the others. But it will be
found that these tracts of clearly stratified material are so very limited
in extent that they seem to imply some peculiar local condition of the
glacier. This position is illustrated by certain remarkable effects once
witnessed after a very severe rainfall, by which two palaeolithic implements
were brought into immediate contact with ordinary Indian relics such as
are common on the surface. This leads to an examination of the question
of the origin of this surface soil, and a discussion of the problem how true
palaeolithic implements sometimes occur in it. This soil is known to be a
purely sedimentary deposit, consisting almost exclusively of sand, or of
such finely comminuted gravels as would readily be transported by rapid
currents of water. But imbedded in it and making a part of it are numerous
huge boulders, too heavy to be moved by water. Dr. Abbott accounted
for their presence from their having been dropped by ice-rafts, while the
process of deposition of the soil was going on. The same sort of agency
could not have put in place both the soil and the boulders contained in it,
and the same force which transported the latter may equally well have
brought aiong such implements as occur in the beds of clearly stratified
origin. The wearing effect upon these of gravels swept along by post-
glacial floods will account for that worn appearance which sometimes
almost disguises their artificial origin.
In conclusion Dr. Abbott attempted to determine what was the early

race which preceded the Indians in the occupation of this continent.
From the peculiar nature and qualities of palasolithic implements he argues
that they are adapted to the needs of a people "living in a country of
vastly different character, and with a different fauna," from the densely
wooded regions of the Atlantic sea-board, where the red man found Ms
home. The physical conditions of the glacial times much more nearly re-
sembled those now prevailing in the extreme north. Accordingly he finds
the descendants of the early race in the Eskimos of North America, driven
northwards after contact with the invading Indian race. In this he is fol-
lowing the opinion of Professor William Boyd Dawkins, who considers that
people to be of the same blood as the palasolithic cave-dwellers of southern
France, and that of Mr. Dall and Dr. Rink, who believed that they once
occupied this continent as far south as New Jersey. In confirmation of
this view he asserts that the Eskimos "until recently used stone imple-
ments of the rudest patterns." But unfortunately for this theory the im-
plements of the Eskimos êar no greater resemblance to paleeolithic
implements than do those of any other people in the later stone age ; and
vGoosIe
subsequent discoveries of human crania in the Trenton gravels have led

Dr. Abbott to question its soundness.^
These discoveries of Dr. Abbott are not liable to the imputation of pos-
sible errors of observation or record, as would be the case if they rested
upon the testimony of a single person only. As has been already stated,
in September, 1876, Professor Putnam was present at the finding in place
of two paleolithic implements, and in all has .taken five with his own hands
from the gravel at various depths.^ Mr. Lucien Carr also visited the locality
in company with Professor J. D, Whitney, in September, 1878, and found
several in place? Since then Professors Shaler, Dawkins, Wright, Lewis,
and others, including the writer, have all succeeded in finding specimens
either in place or in the talus along the face of the bluff, from which they
had washed out from freshly exposed surfaces of the gravel.* The whole
number thus far discovered by Dr. Abbott amounts to about four hundred
specimens.^ Meanwhile, the problem of the conditions under which the
Trenton gravels had been accumulated was made the subject o£ careful
study by other competent geologists, besides Professor Shaler, to whose
opinion reference has already been made. In October, 1877, the late
Thomas Belt, F. G. S., visited the locality, and shortly afterwards pub-
lished an account of Dr. Abbott's discoveries, illustrated by several geo-
logical sections of the gravel. His conclusion is, "that after the land-ice
retired, or whilst it was retiring, and before the coast was submerged to
such a depth as to permit the flotation of icebergs from the north, the
upper pebble-beds containing the stone implements were formed." " The
geologists of the New Jersey Survey bad already recognized the distinction
between the drift gravels of Trenton and the earlier yellow marine gravels
which cover the lower part of the State. But it was the late Professor
Henry Carvill Lewis, of Philadelphia, who first accurately described the
character and limits of the Trenton gravels.' This he had carefully
mapped before he was informed of Dr. Abbott's discoveries, and it has
been found (with only one possible very recent exception) that the imple-
ments occur solely in these newer gravels of the glacial period.
Professor Lewis's matured conclusions in regard to the geological character

and the age of the Trenton gravel cliff are thus expressed : " The presence
of large boulders in the bluff at Trenton, and the extent and depth of the
I A complete account of Dr. Abbott's investi- • Proceedings of Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., IHd.
gations will be found in bis Frimitiiie Industry, p. 132.
chap. 32 (PalEeoIithic Implements) T^nthann ' Popular Science Monthly, January, 1889,
rep. of Peabody Museum, yoWi.p 30 Elexenth p. 411.
Do., Hid. p. 225 i Proceedings of Boston Soc ely * On the discovery of stone implements iit ike
of Natural History, vol. nd. p. 124 lol xxi facial drift of North America, in the Quart.
p. 424 ; Proc. of Amer. Assoc, for Ad of Sii Journ. of Science (London, January, 1878), voL
* Proceedings of Boston Society of ft at ral His ' The Trenton gravel and Us relation t» tie
tory, vol. ][xL p. 148, antiquity of man, in the Procecdingt of the
* Tmelfth annual report of Peabody Museum, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

Tol. ii. p. 489. 1880, p. 296.
XI
tfogle
gravel at this place, have led to the supposition that there was here the
extremity of a glacial moraine. Yet the absence of 'till' and of scratched
boulders, the absence of glacial striae upon the rocks of the valley, and
the stratified character of the gravel, all point to water action alone as
the agent of deposition. The depth of the gravel and the presence of the
bluff at this point are explained by the peculiar position that Trenton occu-
pies relatively to the river, ... in a position where naturally the largest
amount of a river gravel would be deposited, and where its best exposures
would be exhibited. . . . Any drift material which the flooded river swept
down its channel would here, upon meeting tide-water, be in great part
deposited. Boulders which had been rolled down the inclined floor of the
upper valley would here stop in their course, and all be heaped up with the
coarser gravel in the more slowly flowing water, except such as cakes of
floating ice could carry oceanward. . . . Having heaped up a mass of detri-
tus in the old river channel as an obstruction at the mouth of the gorge,
the river, so soon as its volume diminished, would immediately begin wear-
ing away a new channel for itself down to ocean level. This would be
readily accomplished through the loose material, and would be stopped only
when rock was reached. ... It has been thought that to account for the
high bank at Trenton an elevation of the land must have occurred. . . .
An increase in- the volume of the river will explain all the facts. The
accompanying diagram will render this more clear.
Section of bluff two miles south of Trentoi

fine gray sand (bouldet) ; *, coarse sandy gravel
<Wealden); /fine yellow aand (Hastings f);^, gneiss; A, alluvial mud; i, Delaware River.*
"The Trenton gravel, now confined to the sandy flat borders of the river,
corresponds to the ' intervale ' of New England rivers, . . . and exhibits
a topography peculiar to a true river gravel. Frequently instead of form-
ing a flat plain it forms higher ground close to the present river channel
than it does near its ancient bank. Moreover, not only does the ground
thus slope downward on retreating from the river, but the boulders become
smaller and less abundant. Both of these facts are in accordance with the
facts of river deposits. In time of flood the rapidly flowing water in the
main channel, bearing detritus, is checked by the more quiet waters at
• From a cut in Primilive Industry, p. 535.
y Google
the side of the river, and is forced to deposit its gravel and boulders as a
kind of bank. . . . Having shown .that the Trenton gravel is a true river
gravel of comparatively recent age, it remains to point out the relation it
bears to the glacial epoch. . . . TwO hypotheses only can be applied to the
Trenton gravel. It is either ôjAglacial, or it belongs to the very last por-
tion of the glacial period. The view held by the late Thomas Belt can no
longer be maintained. ... He fails to recognize any distinction between
the gravels. As we have seen, the Trenton gravel is truly post-glacial. It
only remains to define more strictly the meaning of that term. There is
evidence to support 'both of these hypotheses."^
After discussing them both at considerable length, he concludes as fol-

lows : " A second glacial period in Europe, known as the ' Reindeer Period,'
has long been recognized. It appears to have followed that in which the
clays were deposited and the terraces formed, and may therefore corre-
spond with the period of the Trenton gravel. If there have been two glacial
epochs in this country, the Trenton gravel cannot be earlier than the close
of the later one. If there has been but one, traces of the glacier must
have continued into comparatively recent times, or long after the period of
submergence. The Trenton gravel, whether made by long-continued floods
which followed a first or second glacial epoch, — whether separated from all
true glacial action or the result of the glacier's final melting, — is truly a
post-glacial deposit, but still a phenomenon of essentially glacial times, —
times more nearly related to the Great Ice Age than to the present."
He then goes on to consider the hearings of the age of this gravel upon
the question of the antiquity of man. "When we find that the Trenton
gravel contains implements of human workmanship so placed with refer-
ence to it that it is evident that at or soon after the time of its deposition
man had appeared on its borders, and when the question of the antiquity
of man in America is thus before us, we are tempted to inquire still further
into the age of the deposit under discussion. It has been clearly shown
by several competent archaeologists that the implements that have been
found are a constituent part of the gravel, and not intrusive objects. It
was of peculiar interest to find that' it has been only within the limits of
the Trenton gravel, precisely traced out by the writer, that Dr. Abbott,
Professor F. W. Putnam, Mr. Lucien Carr, and others, have discovered
these implements in situ. ... At the localities on the Pennsylvania Rail-
road, where extensive exposures of these gravels have been made, the de-
posit is undoubtedly undisturbed. No implements could have come into
this gravel except at a time when the river flowed upon it, and when they
might have sunk through the loose and shifting material. All the evidence
points to the conclusion that at the time of the Trenton gravel flood man
. . . hved upon the banks of the ancient Delaware, and lost his stone im-
plements in the shifting sands and gravel of the bed of that stream. . . .
The actual age of the Trenton gravel, and the consequent date to which
1 Primitive Industry, p. 533 it seg.
JîM)sIe
the antiquity of man on the Delaware should be assigned, is a question

■which geological data alone are insufficient to solve. The only clew, and
that a most unsatisfactory one, is afforded by calculations based upon the
amount of erosion. This, like all geological considerations, is relative
rather than absolute, yet several calculations have been made, which, based
either upon the rate of erosion of river channels or the rate of accumula-
tion of sediment, have attempted to fix the date of the close of the glacial
epoch. By assuming that the Trenton gravel was deposited immediately
after the close of this epoch, an account of such calculations may be of
interest. If the Trenton gravel is /oji'-glacial in the widest acceptation of
the term, a yet later date must be assigned to it."
After going carefully through them all, he concludes : " Thus we find
that if any reliance is to be placed upon such calculations, even if we
assume that the Trenton gravel is of glacial age, it is not necessary to
make it more than ten thousand years old. The time necessary for the
Delaware to cut through the gravel down to the rock is by no means great.
When it is noted that the gravel cliff at Trenton was made by a side wear-
ing away at a bank, and when it is remembered that the erosive power of
the Delaware River was formerly greater than at present, it will be conceded
that the presence of the cliff at Trenton will not necessarily infer its high
antiquity ; nor in the character of the gravel is there any evidence that the
time of its deposition need have been long. It may be that, as investiga-
tions are carried further, it will result not so much in proving man of very
great antiquity as in showing how much more recent than usually supposed
was the final disappearance of the glacier."
Professor Lewis's studies of the great terminal moraine of the northern

ice-sheet were still further prosecuted in conjunction with Professor George
Frederick Wright, of Oberlin, Ohio, whose labors have been of the highest
importance in shedding light upon the question of the antiquity of man in
America.! Together they traced the southern boundary of the glacial re-
gion across the State of Pennsylvania, and subsequently Professor Wright
has continued his researches through the States of Ohio, Indiana, and
Kentucky, as far as the Mississippi River and even beyond. He has found
that glacial floods similar to those of the Delaware valley have deposited
similar beds of drift gravel in the valleys of all the southerly flowing rivers,
and he has called attention to the importance of searching in them for
paleolithic implements. As early as March, 1883, he predicted that traces
of early man would be found in the extensive terraces and gravel deposits
of the southern portion of Ohio,^ This prediction was speedily fulfilled,
and upon November 4, 1885, Professor Putnam reported to the Boston
Society of Natural History that Dr. C. L. Metz, of Madisonville, Ohio, had
found in the gravels of the valley of the Little Miami River, at that place,
• The bibliography of Professor Wright's publications upon this subject will be found in Prtc
Boston Sac. of Nat. Hist, vol. ixiii. p. 427,
vGoDsIe
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 34I
eight feet below the surface, a rude implement made of black flirit, of about
the same size and shape as one of the same material found by Dr. Abbott
in the Trenton gravels. This was followed by the announcement from Dr.
Metz that he had discovered another specimen (a chipped pebble) in the
gravels at Loveland, in the same valley, at a depth of nearly thirty feet
from the surface. Professor Wright has visited both localities, and given
a detailed description of them, illustrated by a map. He finds that the
deposit at Madisonville clearly belongs to the glacial -terrace epoch, and is
underlain by "till," while in that at Loveland it is known that the bones
of the mastodon have been discovered. He closes his account with these
words : " In the light of the exposition just given, these implements will
at once be recognized as among the most important archasological discov-
eries yet made in America, ranking on a par with those of Dr. Abbott at
Trenton, New Jersey. They show that in Ohio, as well as on the Atlantic
coast, man was an inhabitant before the close of the glacial period."^
Further confirmation of these predictions was received at the meeting of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Cleveland,
Ohio, in August, i888, when Mr. Hiiborne T. Cresson reported his dis-
covery of a large flint implement in the glacial gravels of Jackson County,
Indiana, as well as of two chipped implements made of argillite, which he
had found in place at a depth of several feet in the ancient terrace of the
Delaware River, in Claymont, Newcastle County, Delaware.^
This discovery of Mr. Cresson's has assumed a great geological impor-

tance, and it is thus reported by him : "Toward midday of July 13, 1887,
while lying upon the edge of the railroad cut, sketching the boulder line,
my eye chanced to notice a piece of steel-gray substance, strongly relieved
in the sunlight against the red-colored gravel, just above where it joined
the lower grayish-red portion. It seemed to me like argillite, and being
firmly imbedded in the gravel was decidedly interesting. Descending the
steep hank as rapidly as possible, the specimen was secured. . , . Upon
examining my specimen I found that it was unquestionably a chipped imple-
ment. There is no doubt about its being firmly imbedded in the gravel, for
the delay I made in extricating it with my pocket-knife nearly caused me
the unpleasant position of being covered by several tons of gravel. . . .
Having duly reported my find to Professor Putnam, I began, at his request,
a thorough examination of the locality, and on May 25, 1888, the year
following, discovered another implement four feet below the surface, at a
place about one eighth of a mile from the first discovery. . . . The geo-
logical formation in which the implement was found seems to be a reddish
gravel mixed with schist." ^
Professor Wright thus comments upon these discoveries and their geo-
1 Proc. BoIton Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. jt.
> Google
logical situation : "The discovery o£ palasolithic implements, as described

by Mr. Cresson, near Claymont, Del, unfolds a new chapter in the history
of man in America, It was my privilege in November last to visit the spot
with him, and to spend a day examining the various features of the locality.
, . . The cut in the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in which this implement
was found is about one mile and a half west of the Delaware River, and
about one hundred and fifty feet above it. The river is here quite broad.
Indeed, it has ceased to be a river, and is already merging into Delaware
Bay; the New Jersey shore being about three miles distant from the Dela-
ware side. The ascent from the bay at Claymont to the locality under con-
sideration is by three or four well-marked benches. These probably are
not terraces in the strict sense of the word, but shelves marking different
periods of erosion when the land stood at these several levels, but now
thinly covered with old river deposits. Upon reaching the locality of Mr.
Cresson's recent discovery, we find a well-marked superficial water deposit
containing pebbles and small boulders up to two or three feet in diameter,
and resting unconformably upon other deposits, different in character, and
in some places directly upon the decomposed schists which characterize the
locality. This is without question the Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick
Clay of Lewis. The implement submitted to us was found near the bot-
tom of this upper deposit, and eight feet below the surface. . . . As Mr.
Cresson was on the ground when the implement was uncovered, and took
it out with his own hands, there would seem to be no reasonable doubt that
it was originally a part of the deposit ; for Mr. Cresson is no novice in these
matters, but has had unusual opportunities, both in this country and in the
old world, to study the localities where similar discoveries have heretofore
been made. The absorbing question concerning the age of this deposit is
therefore forced upon our attention as archteologists. . . . The determina-
tion of the age of these particular deposits at Claymont involves a dis-
cussion of the whole question of the Ice Age in North America, and espe-
cially that of the duality of the glacial epoch. At a meeting of this society
on January 19, 1881, I discussed the age of the Trenton gravel, in which
Dr. Abbott has found so many palKOliths, and was led also incidentally at
the same time to discuss the relative age of what Professor Lewis called the
Philadelphia Red Gravel. I had at that time recently made repeated trips
to Trenton, and with Professor Lewis had been over considerable portions of
the Delaware valleyforthe express purpose of determining these questions.
The conclusions to which we — that is. Professor Lewis and myself — came
were thus expressed in the paper above referred to (Proc. Boston Soc. of
Nat. Hist., vol. xxi. pp. 137-145), namely, that the Philadelphia Brick Clay
and Red Gravel (which are essentially one formation) marked the period
when the ice had its greatest extension, and when there was a considerable
depression of the land in that vicinity ; perhaps, however, less than a hun-
dred feet in the neighborhood of the moraine, though increasing towards
the northwest. During this period of greatest extension and depression.
■ Hosted by VjOOQIC
the Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick Clay were deposited by the ice-laden
floods which annually poured down the valley in the summer seasons. As
the ice retreated towards the headwaters of the valley, the period was
marked also by a reelevation of the land to about its present height, when
the later deposits of gravel at Trenton took place. Dr. Abbott's dis-
coveries at Trenton prove the presence of man on the continent at that
stage of the glacia! epoch. Mr. Cresson's discoveries prove the presence
of man at a far earlier stage. How much earlier, will depend upon our in-
terpretation of the genera! facts bearing on the question of the duality of
the glacial epoch.
" Mr. McGee, of the United States Geological Survey, has recently pub-
lished the results of extensive investigations carried on by him respecting
the superficial deposits of the Atlantic coast. {SetAmer. Jour, of Science,
vol. XXXV., 1888.) He finds that on all the rivers south of the Delaware
there are deposits corresponding in character to what Professor Lewis had
denominated Philadelphia Red Gravel and Brick Clay. . . . From the ex-
tent to which this deposit is developed at Washington, in the District of
Columbia, Mr. McGee prefers to designate it the Columbia formation. But
the period is regarded by him as identical with that of the Philadelphia Red
Gravel and Brick Clay, which Professor Lewis had attributed to the period
of maximum glacial development on the Atlantic coast.
" It is observable that the boulders in this Columbia formation belong, so

far as we know, in every case, to the valleys in which they are now found.
... It is observable also that it is not necessary in any case to suppose
that these deposits were the direct result of glacia! ice. Mr. McGee does
not suppose that glaciers extended down these valleys to any great distance.
Indeed, so far as we are aware, there is no evidence of even local glaciers
in the Alleghany Mountains south of Hanrisburg. But it is easy to see
that an incidental result of the glacial pericfd was a great increase of ice
and snow in the headwaters of all these streams, so as to add greatly to
the extent of the deposits in which floating ice is concerned. And this
Columbia formation is, as we understand it, supposed by Mr. McGee to
be the result of this incidental effect of the glacial period in increasing the
accumulations of snow and ice along the headwaters of all the streams that
rise in the Alleghanies. fn this we are probably agreed. But Mr. McGee
differs from the interpretation of the facts given by Professor Lewis and
myself, in that he postulates, largely, however, on the basis of facts outside
of this region, two distinct glacial epochs, and attributes the Columbia for-
mation to the first epoch, which he believes to be from three to ten times as
remote as the period in which the Trenton gravels were deposited. If, there-
fore. Dr. Abbott's implements are, as from the lowest estimate would seem
to be the case, from ten thousand to fifteen thousand years old, the imple-
ments discovered by Mr. Cresson in the Baltimore and Ohio cut at Clay-
mont, which is certainly in Mr. McGee's Columbia formation, would be
from thirty thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand years old.
*' But as I review the evidence which has come to my knowledge since
writing the paper in 1881, I do not yet see the necessity of making so
complete a separation between the glacial epochs as Mr. McGee and others
feel compelled to do. But, on the other hand, the unity of the epoch (with,
however, a marked period of amelioration in climate accompanied by ex-
tensive recession of the ice, and followed by a subsequent re-advance over
a portion of the territory) seems more and more evident. All the facts
which Mr. McGee adduces from the eastern side of the AUeghanies com-
port, apparently, as readily with the idea of one glacial period as with that
of two. . . . Until further examination of the district with these sugges-
tions in view, or until a more specific statement of facts than we find in
Mr. McGee's papers, it would therefore seem unnecessary to postulate a
distinct glacial period to account for the Columbia formation, . . . But no
matter which view prevails, whether that of two distinct glacial epochs, or
of one prolonged epoch with a mild period intervening, the Columbia de-
posits at Claymont, in which these discoveries of Mr. Cresson have been
made, long antedate (perhaps by many thousand years) the deposits at
Trenton, N. J„ at Loveland and Madison, Ohio, at Little Falls, Minn., . . .
and at Medora, Ind. . . , Those alt belong to the later portion of the
glacial period, while these at Claymont belong to the earlier portion of that
period, if they are not to be classed, according to Mr. McGee, as belonging
to an entirely distinct epoch." ^
The objects discovered by both Dr. Metz and Mr. Cresson have been
deposited in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, and their artificial char-
acter cannot be disputed.
At nearly the same date at which Dr. Abbott published the account of
his discoveries. Col. Charles C. Jones, of Augusta, Georgia, recorded the
finding of "some rudely-chipped, triangular-shaped implements in Nacoo-
chee valley under circumstances which seemingly assign to them very re-
mote antiquity. In material, manner of construction, and in general ap-
pearance, so nearly do they resemble some of the rough, so-called flint
hatchets belonging to the drift type, as described by M. Boucher de Per-
thes, that they might very readily be mistaken the one for the other." ^
They were met with in the course of mining operations, in which a cutting
had been made through the soil and the underlying sands, gravels, and
boulders down to the bed-rock. Resting upon this, at a depth of some nine
feet from the surface, were the three implements described. But it is plain
that this deposit can scarcely be regarded as a true glacial drift, since the
great terminal moraine lies more than four hundred miles away to the
north, and the region where it occurs does not fall within the drift area.
It must be of local origin, and few geologists would be willing to admit the
' The Age of the Philadelphia Red Gravel, North American Review for January, 1874 (vol.
Ptoc. Baslon Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv. cxviii. p. 70), on "The Antiquity of the North
s Antiquities of thi Southern Indians, p. 293. American Indians," he traces that race back to
The preface of this volume is dated " New palteolilhic times.

York, April 10, 1873." In an article in the
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 34S
existence of local glaciers in the AUeghanies so far to the south during the
glacial period. Consequently these objects do not fall within our definition
of true palseolithic implements.
The same thing may be said in a less degree of the implements discov-
ered by C. M. Wallace, in 1876, in the gravels and clays of the valley of
the James River.'
A different character attaches to certain objects discovered in 1877 by

Professor N. H. Winchell, at Little Falls, Minnesota, in the valley of the
Mississippi River.^ These consisted mainly of pieces of chipped white
quartz, perfectly sharp, although occurring in a water-worn deposit, and
they were found to extend over quite a large area. Their artificial char-
acter has been vouched for by Professor Putnam, and among them were a
few rude implements which are well represented in an accompanying plate.
A geological section given in the report shows that they occur in the terrace
some sixty feet above the bank of the river, and were found to extend about
four feet below the surface. In the words of Professor Winchel! : " The
interest that centres in these chips . . . involves the question of the age of
man and his work in the Mississippi Valley. . , . The chipping race .■ . .
preceded the spreading of the material of the plain, and must have been
preglacial, since the plain was spread out by that flood stage of the Missis-
sippi River that existed during the prevalence of the ice-period, or resulted
from the dissolution of the glacial winter. . . . The wonderful abundance
of these chips indicates an astonishing amount of work done, as if there
had been a great manufactory in the neighborhood, or an enormous lapse
of time for its performance."
This discovery of Professor Winchell was followed up by researches

prosecuted in 1879 in the vicinity of Little Falls by Miss F. E. Babbit, of
that place.* She discovered a similar stratum of chipped quartz in the
ancient terrace, of a mile or more in width, about forty rods to the east of
the river, and elevated some twenty-five feet above it. This had been ^
brought to light by the wearing of a wagon track, leading down a natural
drainage channel, which had cut through the quartz stratum down to a
level below it. The result of her prolonged investigations showed that " the
stratum of quartz chips lay at a level some twelve or fifteen feet lower than
the plane of the terrace top."^ While the quartz chips discovered by Pro-
fessor Winchell were contained in the upper surface of the terrace plain,
» mini imfUmmts frem the stratified drift cf was reprinted in The American Antiguarian,
the vicinity of Richmond, Va., m the Amer- vol. iii. p. 18.
icau yournal of Science (3d series), vol. xi. * Vesligii ef Glacial Man in Centra! Minnf
p. 195; quoted in Dana's Manual of Geoiogy, sotaM'^tProc. Amer. Asmc. for Aiiv. of Science,
P- 578- vol. umi. p. 385. A more entended account o£
* Sixth annual report of the Geological and her researches will be found under the same
Natural History Survey of Minnesota, 1877, p. title in the American Naturalist for June and
54- July, 1884 (vol. iviii. pp. 594 and 69?). On p.
' Her paper on " Ancient quartz-workers and 705 the writer has given al some length his
their quarries in Minnesota," read before the opinion in regard to the artificial character of
Minnesota Historical Sodety, February, 1880, these quarti objects.
O'
jle
these were strictly confined to a lower level, and cannot be synchronous

with them. They must be older "by at least the lapse of time required
for the deposition of the twelve or fifteen feet of modified drift forming
the upper part of the terrace plain above the quartz-bearing stratum."
This conclusion is abundantly confirmed by Mr. Warren Upham, of the

U. S, Geological Survey, in his study of "The recession of the ice-sheet
in Minnesota in its relation to the gravel deposits overlying the quartz im-
plements found by Miss Babbit at Little Falls, Minnesota." ' The great
ice-sheet of the latest glacial epoch at its maximum extension pushed out
vast lobes of ice, one of which crossed western and central Minnesota and
extended into Iowa. Different stages of its retreat are marked by eleven
distinct marginal moraines, and this deposit of modified drift at Little Falls
Mr. Upham believes occurred in the interval between the formation of the
eighth and the ninth. " It is," he says, " upon the till, or direct deposit of
the ice, and forms a surface over which the ice never re-advanced." An
examination of the terraces and plains of the Mississippi Valley from St.
Paul to twenty-five miles above Little Falls shows them to be similar in
composition and origin to the terraces of modified drift in the river valleys
of New England. In his judgment, "the rude implements and fragments
of quartz discovered at Little Falls were overspread by the glacial flood-
plain of the Mississippi River, while most of the northern half of Minne-
sota was still covered by the ice. ... It may be that the chief cause
leading men to occupy this locality so soon after it was uncovered from
the ice was their discovery of the quartz veins in the slate there, . . . afford-
ing suitable material for making sharp-edged stone implements of the best
quality. Quartz veins are absent, or very rare and unsuitable for this, in
all the rock outcrops of the south half of Minnesota, that had become un-
covered from the ice, as well as of the whole Mississippi basin southward,
and this was the first spot accessible whence quartz for implement-making
could be obtained."
According to this view the upper deposit at Little Falls would appear to
be more recent than those laid down by the immediate wasting of the
great terminal moraine at Trenton and in Ohio ; but the occupation of
the spot by man upon the lower terrace may well have been at a much
earlier time.
Many of the objects discovered by Miss Babbitt have been placed in the
Peabody Museum, and as their artificial character has been questioned, the
writer wishes to repeat his opinion, formed upon the study of numerous
specimens that have been submitted to him, but not the same as those upon
which Professor Putnam based his similar conclusions, that they are un-
doubtedly of human origin.
Implements of palteoUthic form have been discovered in several other

localities, but as none of them have been found in place, in undisturbed
gravel-beds, either those which have been derived from the terminal
1 Proc. B/Bosloi 5w. o/Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii. p. 436.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 347
ne of the second extension of the great northern ice-sheet, or those

which are included within the drift area, they cannot be considered as
proved to be true paleolithic implements, although it is highly probable
that many of them are such.*
We have now to consider the claim to high antiquity of objects which

have been discovered in several places in certain deposits, equally regarded
as of glacial origin, which occur in the central and western portipns of the
United States. These are the so-called "lacustrine deposits," which are
believed to have had their origin from the former presence of vast lakes,
now either extinct or represented by comparatively small bodies of water.
The largest of such lakes occupied a great depression which once existed
between the Rocky Mountains and the chain of the Sierra Nevada during
the quaternary period. The existing lakes represent the lowest part of two
basins, into which this depression was divided ; of these, the western one,
represented by certain smaller lakes, has received the name of Lake Lahon-
tan. This never had any communication with the sea, and its deposits
consequently register the greater or less amount of rain and snow during
the period of its existence. To the eastern the name of Lake Bonneville
has been given, and it is at present represented by the Great Salt Lake in
Utah. This formerly had an outlet through the valley of the Columbia
River. These lakes are believed to have been produced by the melting of
local glaciers existing during the quaternary times in the above-named
mountains ; and similar consequences seem to have followed from the like
presence of ancient glaciers in the Wahsatch and Uintah mountains, where
no lake now exists.
In the ancient deposits of such an immense fresh-water lake, derived

from the melting of glaciers in the last-mentioned mountains, which once
existed in southern Wyoming, Professor Joseph Leidy first reported, in
1872, the discovery near Fort Bridger of " mingled implements of the rudest
construction, together with a few of the highest finish. . . . Some of the
specimens are as sharp and fresh in appearance as if they had been but
recently broken from the parent block. Others are worn and have their
sharpness removed, and are so deeply altered in color as to look exceedingly
ancient."^ ■ The plates accompanying the report show that some of these
objects are of palaeolithic form, but as no further information is given in
regard to the conditions under which they were discovered, we cannot pro-
nounce them to be really palEeoUthic,
1 In 1877, by Professor S. S. Hildeman on an ity, reported by S. V. Proudfit in Thr American
island in the Susquehanna River, in Lancaster Antkropolegist, vol. i. p. 337. By David Dodge
Co., Penn- (£/m-ntt Rip. Peabody Mus.,\a\.\\. at Wakefield, Mass., and by Mr, FrazeratMarsh-
p. 355). In 1878, by A. F. Berlin in the Schuyl- tield, Mass. (/Vof. of Boston Sac. of Nat. Hist.,
kill Valley, at Reading, Penn. (Amtrican Anti- vol. xxL pp. 123 and 450). By the writer, in sev-
quariati, vol. i. p. 10). In 1879, by Dr. W. J. era! localities in New England [Ibid. p. 382),
Hoffman in the valley of the Potomac, near * Sixth annua! report of the U. S. Geological
Washington [American Naturalist, vol. xiii. p. Survey of the Territories, by F. V. Hayden
loS). Subsequently by others in the same vicin- (1873), p. 652.
O'
jle
In 1874, Dr. Samue! Aughey made known the existence in Nebraska of

" hundreds of miles of similar lacustrine deposits, almost level or gently
rolling," 1 To these the name of " loess " has also been given, as well as to
the mud deposits derived from the northern drift. Aughey states that
these beds are perfectly homogeneous throughout, and of almost uniform
color, ranging in thickness from five to one hundred and fifty feet. Gener-
ally they lie above a true drift formation derived from glaciers in the Black
Hills, and represent "the final retreat of the glaciers, and that era of de-
pression of the surface of the State when the greater part of it constituted
a great fresh-water lake, into which the Missouri, the Platte, and the Re-
publican rivers poured their waters." The Missouri and its tributaries,
flowing for more than one thousand miles through these deposits, gradu-
ally filled up this great lake with sediment. The rising of the land by
degrees converted the lake-bottom into marshes, through which the rivers
began to cut new channels, and to form the bluffs which now bound them.
"The Missouri, during the closing centuries of the lacustrine age, must
have been from five to thirty miles in breadth, forming a stream which for
size and majesty rivalled the Amazon." Many remains of mastodons and
elephants are found in this so-called loess, as well as those of the animals
now living in that region, together with the fresh-water and land shells
peculiar to it. In it Aughey has also discovered an arrow-point and a
spear-head, of which he gives well-executed figures. Both are excellent
examples of those well-chipped implements which are regarded as typical
of the Neolithic age or the age of polished stone, and are absolutely differ-
ent from the palaeolithic implements of which we have hitherto spoken.
They were both found in railroad cuttings on the Iowa side of the Missouri
River, and within three miles of it. The first lay at a depth of fifteen feet
below the top of the deposit. Of the second he says it was "twenty feet
below the top of the loess, and at least six inches from the edge of the cut,
so that it could not have slid into that place. . , . Thirteen inches above
the point where it was found, and within three inches of being on a line
with it, in undisturbed loess, there was a lumbar vertebra of an elephant." ^
This intermingling in these deposits of the bones of extinct and living

animals appears to have been brought about by the shifting of the beds of
the vast rivers he has described, which have been flowing for ages through
the slight and easily moved material. It seems to be analogous to what
has taken place in recent times in the valley of the Mississippi and in its
delta. The finding, therefore, of arrow-heads of recent Indian type, even in
place under twenty feet of loess and below a fossil elephant -bone, cannot
be considered as affording any stronger proof of the antiquity of man than
the oft-cited instances of the discovery of basket-work and pottery under-
neath similar fossils at Petit Anse Island in Louisiana, or of pottery and
mastodon-bones on the banks of the Ashley River in South Carolina. No
such discovery can be considered of consequence as bearing upon the
question of palasolithic man.
1 Ibid. (1874}, p. 247. = Ibid. p. 254.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
The late Thomas Belt wrote to Professor Putnam, in 1878, that he had
discovered " a small human skull in an undisturbed loess in a railway cutting
about two miles from Denver (Colorado). All the plains are covered with
a drift deposit of granitic and quartzose pebbles overlaid by a sandy and
calcareous ioam closely resembling the diluvial clay and the loess of
Europe. It was in the upper part of the drift series that I found the akull
Just the tip of it was visible in the cutting about three and one half feet
below the surface."^ Not long after this Mr. Belt died, and we are without
further information in regard to the locality. It would seem, however,
that the loess in which the skull occurred belongs to the latest in the
lacustrine series, and consequently does not imply any very great antiquity
for it.
In 1882 Mr. W. J. McGee, of the U. S. Geological Survey, obtained

from the upper lacustral clays of the basin of the ancient Lake Lahontan,
where they are exposed in the walls of Walker River Cafion, a spear-head,
made of obsidian, beautifully chipped, and perfectly resembling those found
OBSIDIAN SPEAR-HEAD.*
on the surface throughout the southwest, "It was discovered projecting

point outwards from a vertical scarp of lacustral clays twenty-five feet below
the top of the section, at a locality where there were no signs of recent
disturbance."^ This is said to have been "associated in such a manner
with the bones of an elephant or mastodon as to leave no doubt of their
having been buried at approximately the same time." But we are also told
that these lakes are of very recent date, and that they have " left the very
latest of all the complete geological records to be observed in the Great
Basin." 3 The fossil shells obtained from these deposits all belong to
living species ; while the mammalian remains, which have been found in
only very Umited numbers, and all, with a single exception, in the upper
beds, " are the same as occur elsewhere in tertiary or quaternary strata."
Mr, McGee says : " If the obsidian implement . . . was really in situ {as
all appearances indicated), it must have been dropped in a shallow and
1 Elfvmtk Repsri of Ptab0dy Museum, p. 157. Russell, being Mansg. No. xi. U. S. Gtol. Sum.
5 Geological History of Lake Lahontan. a qua- under J. W. Powell, p. 247 (Washington, 1885).
ternary lake of northiiiestern Nevada, by I. C. ' Ibid. p. 269.
* Found in the Lahontan sediments, — from a cut In Russell's Lake Lahontan, mou^pvph xL of Powdl'i
quiet bay of the saline and alkaline Lake Lahontan, and gradually buried
beneath its fine mechanical deposits and chemical precipitates," ^
In Mr. Russell's opinion, this single implement, although' supported by

no other finds of a similar character, is sufficient to prove that "man
inhabited this continent during the last great rise of the former lake."
But if this last great rise otjcurred in recent times, the presence of the
bones of tertiary mammals in the upper beds shows that great natural
forces must have been in operation at that time to have washed these out
of their original place of deposit. The principal organic remains found, we
are told, are those of living shells, and the intermingling of these with
the bones of tertiary mammals could scarcely have taken place in "shallow
and quiet bays." To the writer this discovery seems rather to prove that
an Indian spear-head was in some manner washed down and buried in the
clays of the Walker River Cafton than that man was the contemporary
there of the tertiary or quaternary mammalia. This fairly seems to be a
case where, in the language of Dr. Brinton, " Archseology may at times
correct Geology." ^
It is almost paralleled by the discovery made by Mr P. A. Scott, in

Kansas, of a broken knife or lance-head, measuring in its present condition
two inches and one eighth in length. Sir Daniel Wilson, who reports it,
says: "The spot where the discovery was made is in the Blue Range of the
Rocky Mountains, in an alluvial bottom, and distant several hundred feet
from a small stream called Clear Creek. A shaft was sunk, passing through
four feet of rich, black soil, and below this through upward of ten feet of
gravel, reddish clay, and rounded quartz. Here the flint was found, . . .
The actual object corresponds more to the small and slighter productions
of the modern Indian tool-maker than to the rude and massive drift imple-
ment." But this most careful and conscientious observer goes on to
remark, "Under any circumstances it would be rash to build up compre-
hensive theories on a solitary case like this." ^
If the discovery by Mr. McGee of this spear-head be insisted upon as

establishing that man inhabited this continent during the last great rise
of the lake, it would be easier to believe that that event occurred in
recent and not in quaternary times, than to admit that the distinction
between palseolitbic and neolithic implements, established by so many
discoveries in this country and in Europe, is thereby utterly overthrown.
The only alternative left is to believe that neolithic man was the contem-
porary of the tertiary mammals. To this conclusion we are asked to come
by Professor Josiah D. Whitney, on account of the discovery of the remains
of man and of his works in the auriferous gravels of California. The
famous "Calaveras skull" is figured upon another page of this volume,
' Fop. Science Monthly, November, 1888, p. 27. ' Smithsonian Report, 1863, p. 297, where it is
* Article in t\ie Iionogtaphic Bneydopadta, on figifred; and repeated in his Frekistoric Man,
Prehistoric Archieology, by Daniel G, Brinton, vol. i. p. 45.
vol. ii. p. 63 (Philadelphia, 1886I.
vGoosIe
where the circumstances attending its discovery are briefly referred to.'
It is astonishing to see how frail is the foundation upon which such a
surprising superstructure has been raised, as it is found set forth in detail
in the section entitled Human remains and works of art of tke gravel series,
in the third chapter of Professor Whitney's memoir on The auriferotis
gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California,'^ All is hearsay testimony, and
entirely uncontrolled by any such careful scrutiny as marks the work of
the British Association in the explorations carried on for fifteen years at
Kent's Hole, near Torquay. There can be no question that human bones
and human implements have often been discovered in these gravels, but
according to the accounts as given these are mingled in them in inextricable
confusion. What is the character of these objects of human workmanship?
So far are they from being, as Professor Whitney describes them, " always
the same kind of implements, . , . namely, the coarsest and the least
finished which one would suppose could be made and still be implements,"
One account speaks of " a spear or lance head of obsidian, five inches long
and one and a half broad, quite regularly formed." Others mention "spear
and arrow heads made of obsidian;" or "certain discoidal stones from
three to four inches in diameter, and about an inch and a half thick, con-
cave on both sides, with perforated centre." Still another witness speaks
of -" a large stone bead, made perhaps of alabaster, about one and a half
inches long and about one and one fourth inches in diameter, with a hole
through it one fourth of an inch in size." We are also told of a "stone
hatchet of a triangular shape, with a hole through it for a handle, near the
middle. Its size was four inches across the edge, and length about six
inches." So also oval stones with continuous "grooves cut around them,"
and "grooved oval disks," are more than once mentioned. We think these
quotations will be sufiicient to convince the archaeologist that here is no
question of palaaotithic implements, hut that we have to^do simply with the
common Indian objects found on the surface all over our country. Besides
the rude cuts in Bancroft,^ I know of only one example of these California
discoveries which has been figured. This is the " beautiful relic " described
by Mr. J. W. Foster, of which he says : "When we consider its symmetry
of form . . . and the delicate drilling of the hole through a material so
liable to fracture, we are free to say it affords an exhibition of the lapidary's
skill superior to anything yet furnished by the Stone age of either conti-
nent."* Mr. Foster doubtfully suggests that this object was "used as a
plummet for the purpose of determining the perpendicular to the horizon.''
It has been shown, however, by Mr. W. H. Henshaw, that among the
Indians of Southern California similar objects have long been used by
their medicine-men as "medicine or sorcery stones."^ Whichever may
1 See p. 385 of this volume. * Tramactiont of the Chicago Academy of
^ Memoirs of Mus. of Comp. Zoology at Harv. Scietices, vol. i. p. 232, pi. inii, fig. 3.
Co//c^, vol. vi. pp. 258-288 (fambridge, 1880). ' The aboriginal relics called "sinkers" or
' The Natioe Races of tkt Poiific States of "plummets" in Amer. yeumal of Arckaotogy,
North America, hy H. H. Bancrofl, vol. itf. pp. vol. i. p. 105.
699-707.
O'
jle
be held to be the true explanation of its use, either is more hkely to be a

characteristic of the Indian race than of primitive man.
But the objects whose presence in the gravels is most repeatedly spoken
of are stone mortars, which Professor Whitney supposes were "used by
the race inhabiting this region in prehistoric times . , . for providing food."
One of these is stated to have been "found standing upright, and the
pestle was in it, in its proper place, apparently just as it had been left by
the owner." It was taken out of a shaft, according to the testimony,
twelve feet underneath undisturbed strata. This was certainly a very
marvellous thing to have happened if all the objects found in the gravels
are supposed to have been brought there by the action of floods of water.
But it is a very simple matter, if the supposition of Mr. Southall be correct,
who thinks that "these mortars have been left in these positions by the
ancient inhabitants in their search for ô/i/."! The Spaniards found gold
in abundance in Mexico, and the locality from which it came is believed by
Mr. Southall to be indicated by a discovery made in 1849 by some gold-
diggers at one of the mountain diggings called Murphy's, in the region in
which Professor Whitney's discoveries have taken place. In examining a
high barren district of mountain, they were surprised to come upon the
abandoned site of an ancient mine. At the bottom of a shaft two hundred
and ten feet deep a human skeleton was found, with an altar for worship
and other evidences of ancient labor by the aborigines.^ Mr. Southall
believes that these mortars were used " for crushing the cemented gravel
. of the auriferous beds," Some corroboration is afforded for this suggestion
by the fact that stone mortars of a like character are found in the ancient
gold mines, worked by the early Egyptian monarchs, in the Gebel Ailakee
Mountains near the Red Sea, which were used in pulverizing the gold-
bearing quartz.
As to the autheaticity of the "Calaveras skull,"
" Great contest followed and much learned dust."

The probabilities seem in favor of its being a genuine human fossil, and the
question recurs as to its character and the presumable age of the deposits
from which it came. The latest geologist who has studied the locality, so
far as the writer is aware, says of these deposits : " Even before visiting
California I had suspected these old river gravels might be contemporaneous
with the glacial epoch, and I still think this possible. This area was not
glaciated, and these old gravels, hundreds of feet in thickness, may very
well represent that great interval of time occupied in other regions by the
glacial periods."^ In discussing this question from the point of view of the
character of the fossil animal remains contained in the gravels, we must
■ The Epoch of the Mammoth and the Appari- = Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes of the United
Hon of Man upon the Earth, by James C. iiafrj, vol. i. p. lOi (Philadelphia, 1851).
Southall, p. 399 (Philadelphia, 1878). ' S. B. J. Skertchly in the yaiirna! Anthrop.
Inst., vol. xvii. p. 335 (Jan. 10, 18SS).
Hosted by VjOOQIC
continually bear in mind what Professor E. D. Cope says of the MesosoU

and Cceiiosoic of North America : " The faunae of these periods have not yet
been discriminated. . . . Many questions of the exact contemporaneity of
these different beds are as yet unsettled."^ Professor Cope has previously
pointed out how marked a difference there is between the quaternary fauna
of North America and that of Europe ; we have no Hippopotamus or
Rhinoceros Tichoriniis, and they no Megatherium, Megalonyx, and other
species. Under the varying conditions of animal existence thus implied,
to assail established ideas upon the sequence in man's development, or to
maintain that he has had a long career on the Pacific slope of our continent
before he had made his appearance in Western Europe, seems to the writer
to be an attempt to explain " igmtitm per ignotiiis"
What is really to be understood by the assumption that man existed in

tertiary times ? So profound a patjeontologist as Professor William Boyd
Dawkins thinks " it is impossible to believe that man should have been an
exception to the law of change. In the Pliocene age we cannot expect to
find traces of man upon the earth. The living placental mammals had only
then begun to appear, and seeing that the higher animals have invariably
appeared in the rocks according to their place in the zoological scale, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, placental mammals, it is hardly reasonable to suppose
that the highest of all should then have been upon the earth. "^ When,
therefore, some of the geologists of our country support Professor Whit-
ney's claim that these discoveries of human fossils have actually proved
man's existence in the Pliocene period, by arguments mainly based upon the •
effects of erosion and the immense periods of time which these imply, or
favor his inference from the animal fossils contained in these deposits that
there has been "a total change in the fauna and flora of the region," and
that "the fauna of the gravel deposits is almost exclusively made up of
extinct specie^/' we may well insist, with Dawkins, that the human remains
should not be regarded as standing upon a different basis from those of
the horse, since both occur under similar conditions. Dr. Leidy reports
the finding of remains of four different species of fossil Equus. But among
them *' we may note the skull of a mustang, identical with that of Mexico
and California, which could not have been buried in the gravels of Sierra
County before the time of the Spanish Conquest, when the living race of
horses was introduced." Professor Jeffries Wyman says of the Calaveras
skull: "Any conclusions based upon a single skull are liable to prove erro-
neous, unless we have sufficient grounds for the belief that such a skull is
'a representative one of the race to which it belongs. . . . We have no suf-
ficient reason for assuming in the present instance that the skull is a repre-
sentative one. . . . The skull presents no signs of having belonged to an
inferior race. In its breadth it agrees with the other crania from Califor-
nia, except those of the Diggers, but surpasses them in the other particulars
' The American Naturalist, vol, TlX\. p. ^59 ^ Early Man in Amirita, in the North Amer-
(18S7). ican /'m™, Oct., 1883, p. 340.
in which comparisons have been made." ^ As, therefore, what appear to be

the skulls of a California Indian and that of a Mexican mustang have been
found to occur in the same deposits, this circumstance, instead of proving
that man was an inhabitant of pliocene America, would seem to the writer
to imply either that these deposits are comparatively recent, or that the
fossil bones found in them are so commingled that arguments based upon
purely palasontological considerations can be regarded as entitled to very
little weight.
But although some American palasontologists are inclined to argue that

these deposits belong to the Pliocene, on account of the character of the
vertebrate fossils found in them, it must not be forgotten that geologists
generally prefer to refer them to the Pleistocene. They believe that even
the superimposition of lava beds upon the gravels does not estabUsh a very
high antiquity for them, and question whether the time that has elapsed
since the outflow of the lava, as measured by the amount of erosion that has
taken place in the gravels, is to be regarded as much greater than can prop-
erly be assigned to the Pleistocene period elsewhere. Professor Whitney
himself admits the difficulty of distinguishing whether "deposits have been
accumulated in the place where we find them previous to the cessation of
the period of volcanic activity. The gravels which have not been protected
by a capping of basalt, or only thinly or not at all covered by erupted ma.
terials, may in some places have been overlain by recent deposits in such a
way that the hne between volcanic and post-volcanic cannot be distinctly
■drawn. , . . It must not unfrequently have happened that fossils have been
washed out of the less coherent detrital beds belonging to the volcanic
series, carried far from their original, resting-place, and deposited in such a
position that they seem to belong to the present epoch. "^ In one of the
reports of Hayden's survey can be seen a plate representing "Modern
Lake Deposits capped with Basalt."^ There is sufficient ground for be-
lieving that the volcanic activity of the regions of the Sierras has continued
down to very recent times, geologically speaking, and that there is no such
great difference of age between the lava-cappings and the other beds as
Professor Whitney supposes. Hayden thinks "the*main portion of the
volcanic material of the West has been thrown out at a comparatively
modern date."^ Undoubtedly the amount of erosion that has taken place
in these river gravels implies a great lapse of time, but so do the other facts
of physical geography which have been employed as chronometers by which
to measure the time since the close of the quaternary period. To carry
this erosion back to the tertiary times, and to assign man his place in the
world then on that ground, in face of the arguments to the contrary drawn
from archaeology, paleontology, and geology, in view of the essential weak-
ness of the testimony upon which the arguments in its favor are based,
» The Auriftrous Graveh, etc., p. 273. " Sixlk annua! report of the U. S. Geol. Surv
* Ibid. p. *42. of the Tfrritaries, p. 29.
* Ibid. p. 44.
vGoosIe
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 3S5
would seem to be a most hazardous assumption. It is only equalled by the

statement that " the discoveries made in Europe, which have already ob-
tained general credence, carry man close to the verge of the tertiary ; if not,
indeed, a little the other side o£ the line." ^ ' In the writer's opinion, this is
the belief of only a small number of the most e:ftreme evolutionists in
Europe, while the great body of cautious and critical observers think that
it has not been proved, and a few are willing to hold their judgment in
suspense.
Professor Whitney's conclusions, however, are supported by Mr. Wallace

in the article quoted at the beginning of this chapter, in his character as
an evolutionist of the most advanced school. He says: "Believing that
the whole bearing of the comparative anatomy of man and of the anthropoid
apes, together with the absence of indications of any essential change in
his structure during the quaternary period, lead to the conclusion that he
must have existed, as man, in pliocene times, and that the intermediate
forms connecting him with the higher apes probably lived during the early
pliocene or the miocene period, it is urged that all such discoveries , . .
are in themselves probable and such as we have a right to expect."^ In
such a frame of mind it is very easy for him to wave aside every objection
raised by the archseologist to the character of the evidence brought forward
to sustain the alleged discoveries. To the objection that the objects ac-
companying the human remains, for which such a great antiquity is claimed,
are too similar to those of comparatively recent times, he has a ready an-
swer: "The same maybe said of the most ancient bow and spear-heads
and those made by modern Indians. The use of the articles has in both
cases been continuous, and the objects themselves are so necessary and so
comparatively simple that there is no room for any great modification of
form." The writer can only state here that no archaeologist holds this
opinion, and will refer for a detailed statement of his reasons for the con-
trary view to an article by him upon The Bow and Arrow unknown to
Palmolithic -Man?
It is not easy to believe that so vast a difference in age can be attributed

to the deposits upon the opposite sides of the chain of the Sierra Nevada,
as would follow if we are to hold that the auriferous gravels belong to the
tertiary, while the Lahontan deposits belong to the quaternary period.
Far more reasonable does it seem to suppose that they both fall within the
two divisions into which we have seen that the pleistocene has been divided.
To the writer it appears, from what study he has made of the evidences
alleged of man's existence in North America in early times, that proof is
wanting that he made his appearance here earlier than in interglacial times.
Dr. Abbott's discoveries seem to be worthy of all the importance which has
been assigned to them, and the more so from the fact that they are in
I Tkt Aurifirom Gravdi, etc., p. iSr. » Proc. of Boston Soe. of Nat. Hiit., vol. zxiii
a ITit Antiquity of Man in North. America, p. p. 269.

679.
y Google
3S6 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
accord with similar discoveries made in the Old World. The evidence
adduced appears to be altogether too fragmentary and strained to warrant
the conclusion that has been drawn that there is no proper correlation
between the geological calendars of the two hemispheres.
Besides the numerofls palseolithic implements which the Trenton gravels

have yielded, there have been found in them three human crania, more
or less complete, and portions of others.' Professor Putnam is inclined
to the opinion that these may be veritable remains of the makers of the
palaeolithic implements. But it is difficult to conceive how such fragile
objects as human skulls, in this period and at this locality, could have
survived tjie destructive forces to which they must have been subjected.
We must recollect that the bones of man are very seldom met with in
the river gravels of the Old Worid, and such crania as are accepted
as belonging to these deposits are dolichocephalic, and not, like these,
brachycephalic,^ The circumstances under which these three have been
found are not reported with sufficient detail to enable us to account satis-
factorily for their presence, nor can we admit that the fact that they
"are not of the Delaware Indian type" affords any adequate criterion for
our judgment. It is well established that "in America we find extreme
brachycephaly, as well among the prehistoric as among the historic peoples
from British America to Patagonia, At the same time, dolichocephaly is
found, besides among the Eskimos, throughout the American Indian tribes
from north to south ; but it cannot be considered an American craniologic
characteristic." ^ The various forms of skulls, moreover, are found to be so
intermingled that they have been compared to " what might be looked for
in a collection made from the potter's field of 'London or New York."*
The problem is still further complicated by the widespread custom among
the American tribes of altering the natural shape of the skull, sometimes
by flattening it, sometimes by making it as round as possible.^ Taking all
these matters into consideration, we are compelled to regard craniology by
itself as an insufficient guide.
We have now passed in review such evidences of man's early existence

in North America as seem to be sufficiently substantiated by satisfactory
proof, and have intentionally left out of consideration many former exam-
ples, which were accustomed to be cited before the science of prehistoric
archaeology had formulated her laws and established her general conclu-
sions, as well as some more recent ones in which the evidence seems to be
weak.
It only remains for the writer to express his own conclusions on the
question. But first let him draw attention to the state of public opinion
> Reports of Peabody Museum, vol. iii. pp. 177, * AW« on the Crania of tke N. E. Indians,
408; iv. p. 33. by Lucien Can, p. 9 {Anniversary Memoirs of
2 Early Man in Britain, by W. Boyd Daw- Bastsn Soc. of mt. Mst.), 18S0.
kins, p. 167. t 7Sj Standard Natural History, ed. by J. S.
» Dr. H, Ten Kate in Science, vol, xii. p, 228 Kingsley, vol. vi. p. 143.
(November g, iSSS).
vGoosIe
Upon this subject as it is well expressed by an English writer : "The evi-

dence for the existence of paleolithic man in America has been more fiercely
contested even than in Europe, and the problem there is certainly more
complicated. In Europe we can test the age of the remains not merely by
their actual character, but also by the presence or absence of associated
domestic animals. In America this test is absent, for there were virtually
no domestic animals save the dog known to the pre-European inhabitants.
We are therefore remitted to less direct evidence, namely, the provenance
of the remains from beds of distinctly Pleistocene age, the fabric of the
remains, and their association with animals, we have reason to believe,
become extinct at the termination of that period."*
As an example of the spirit in which this " fierce contest " is waged in
America, it will be sufficient to quote a few passages from a work by one
of her most eminent men of science. He is speaking of "what seems to
be a village site in Europe, of far greater antiquity than the Swiss lake-
villages, and which may be a veritable ' Paleolithic ' antediluvian town. It
occurs at ôlutre, near M^con, in eastern France, and has given rise to
much discussion and controversy, as described by Messrs. De Ferry and
Arcelin. ... It destroys utterly the pretension that the men of the mam-
moth age were an inferior race, or ruder than their successors in the later
stone age. . . . Lastly, many of the flint weapons of Solutrd are of the
palaeolithic type characteristic of the river gravels, . . . while other imple-
ments and weapons are as well worked as those of the later stone age.
Thus this singular deposit connects these two so-called ages, and fuses
them into one."^ The only comment the writer will make upon this state-
ment is to say that he has twice visited the station at Solutr^ in company
with M. Arcelin ; that he has examined the collection of the late M. De
Ferry at his house ; and that he has before him the work which is sup-
posed to be quoted from,^ and he accordingly feels warranted in asserting
with confidence that not one "flint implement of the paljeolithic type char-
acteristic of the river gravels" was ever found at Solutr^. A note ap-
pended to Sir J. W. Dawson's rash statement adds : " Recent discoveries
by M. Prunieres, in caves at Beaumes Chaudes, seem to show that the
older cave-men were in contact with more advanced tribes, as arrow-heads
of the so-caited neolithic type are foimd sticking in their bones, or asso-
ciated with them. This would form another evidence of the little value to
be attached to the distinction of the two ages of stone." The writer has
already indicated his conviction that palasolithic man had not advanced
sufficiently to invent the how and arrow, and he wishes to add here that
"arrow-heads of the so-called neolithic type" continued to be ordinary
weapons employed during the Age of Bronze. He is only surprised that
' The Mammoth and the Flood, by Henry H. * Lt Macontiais Prihiitarique, . . . otairage
Howorth, p. 316 (London, 1S87). postkumi far H.Dt Ferrji . . . auec noUs et itt.
* Fossil Mtn and their modim Represenlatives, par A. Arcelin, MScou, 187O.
by J. W. Dawson, p. \c6etieq. (London, i83o).
Hosted by-XiS
Cdosle
Dr. Prunieres' discoveries are not quoted to prove that there is no distinc-
tion between the Age of Stone and the Age of Bronze.
Tested by the canons of prehistoric archa;oIogy, superposition, associa-

tion, and style, in the judgment of the writer the fact of the existence of
palteolithic man upon this continent, and the distinction between the rude
paleolithic implement and the skilfully chipped obsidian objects which be-
long to what is called in Europe the Solutre type (a development of the
later period in the early stone age, which cannot be overlooked in discuss-
ing the question of the antiquity of man), are truths as firmly established
as any taught by modern science. The small minority who refuse to ad-
mit the last stated proposition are laggards in her march, and the few
doubters who still question the genuineness of the palasolithic implements
from the Trenton gravels are not entitled by their knowledge of the pro-
cesses of manufacturing stone implements to have much weight attached
to their opinions.
Regarding, then, the existence of palaeolithic man as established by the

finding of four hundred of his relics in the Delaware valley near Trenton,
we have next to inquire whether there is evidence that in that region man
made any progress towards the neolithic condition. For an answer to this
question we have only to study the immense collection of objects gathered
by Dr. Abbott, and now deposited in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge.
This seems to warrant a conclusion exactly the opposite to Professor Whit-
ney's, who states that " so far as California is concerned , . . the imple-
ments, tools, and works of art obtained are throughout in harmony with
each other, all being the simplest and least artistic of which it is possible
to conceive ; " and his further statement that the " rude tools required but
little more skill than is indicated by the chipped obsidian implements which
are now, and have been from all time, in use among the aborigines of this
continent." '
We have already seen that Professor Whitney's inferences about the

relics of man occurring in the gravels of California are not at all justified
by the facts relating to their discovery as reported by him ; and as he
offers no proof of his other assertion that "chipped obsidian implements
have been /^^ a// /me in use among the aborigines of this continent," we
will venture to question its accuracy, even should he argue that his loose
statement was intended to apply only to the aborigines of California. Con-
sequently we are somewhat at a loss to understand why Dr. Abbott should
feel called upon to refute his conclusions. He does this, however, success-
fully in his Primitive Industry^ which is so largely based upon this great
collection as to answer satisfactorily as a catalogue for it. In his own
words, " the careful and systematic examination of the surface geology of
New Jersey, of itself, it is believed, shows as abundant and unmistakable
evidence of the transition from a true paleeotithic to a neolithic condition as
is exhibited in the traces of human handiwork found in the valley of any
' Thi Auti/erous Gravel!, etc., p. 287.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
European river." ^ The arguments upon which this conclusion is based are
drawn from each of the three canons of prehistoric archaeology. A certain
class of objects, superior in form and finish to the rude palasolithic im-
plement, but decidedly inferior in every respect to the common types of
Indian manufacture, with which collectors of such objects all over our
country are perfectly familiar, is found occurring principally in deposits
which occupy a position intermediate between the drift gravels, from which
come the palasolithic implements, and the cultivable surface-soil, in which
the former implements of the Indians are constantly brought to light by the
ordinary operations of agriculture. In other instances, where these pecu-
liar objects are found on or near the surface, not only do they not always
occur there in association with the common Indian relics, but the material
of which they are made, argillite, is the same as that out of which all the
four hundred pateollthic implements are fabricated, with the exception of
" two of quartz, one of quartzite, and one made from a black chert pebble." '
This peculiar material occurs in place only a few miles north of Trenton,
and as the ice-sheet withdrew it afforded " the first available mineral for
effective implements other than pebbles, and these were largely covered
with water, and not so readily obtained as at present ; while the dry land
of that day, the Columbia gravel, contained almost exclusively in this
region small quartzite pebbles an inch or two in length."* The objects
thus referred to exhibit only a few simple types. There is a rudely chipped
spear-head, about three or four inches in length and from one to two in
breadth, characterized by the same kind of decomposition of the surface
which is* seen upon the palasolithic implements. These occur in large
numbers; "as many as a thousand have been found in an area of fifty
acres. .■ . . A peculiarity ... is their frequent occurrence ... at a depth
that suggests that they were lost when the face of the country was dif-
ferent from what it now is."* An implement is often found which was
probably" used as a knife, also very rudely chipped, and shaped somewhat
like a spear-head, but never having a sharp point. The argillite, of which
these are made, " is very hard and susceptible of being brought to a very
sharp edge," but they are now all much decomposed upon the surface, and
" are frequently brought to light through land-slides and the uprooting of
trees from depths greater than it is usual to find jasper implements" ' of
the Indians.
The most ^common object of all, however, and one that occurs in very
large numbers, is a slender argillite spear-point, about three inches in
length, of nearly uniform size, and having little or no finish at the base.
These are found at various depths up to five feet, principally in the allu-
' Primitive Tadustry ; or lUustralions of the * Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., vol. KxUi. p,
Handivnrrb in Stone, Bene, and Clay ef Ike Ma- 422.
tive Races of the Northern Atlantic Seaioard of . • /Viv. of Am. Assoe./ar Adv. ef Sciena, vot
America, by Charles C. Abbott ( Salem and Bos- joxvii.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
vial mud that has accumulated upon the meadows skirting the Delaware
River, that are liable to be overflowed occasionally by the tide. From this
circumstance, in addition to their shape. Dr. Abbott has conjectured that ■
they were used as fish-spears.^ " This deposit of mud is of a deep blue-
black color, stiff in consistency, and almost wholly free from pebbles. It
is composed of decompo_sed vegetable matter and a large percentage of
very fine sand. It varies in depth from four to twenty feet, and rests on an
old gravel of an origin antedating the river gravels that contain palaeolithic
implements. This mud is the geological formation next succeeding the
paleolithic implement-bearing gravels. ... A careful survey of this mud
deposit, made at several distant points, leads to the conclusion that its for-
mation dates from the exposure of the older gravel upon which it rests,
through the gradual lessening of the bulk of the river, until it occupied only
its present channel. . . . The indications are that the present volume and
channel of the river have been essentially as they now are for a very long
period ; and the character of the deposit is such that its accumulation, if
principally from decomposition of vegetable matter, must necessarily be
very gradual. Since its accumulation to a depth sufficient to sustain tree
growth, forests have grown, decayed, and been replaced by a growth of
other timber. While so recent in origin that it seems scarcely to warrant
the attention of the geologist, its years of growth are nevertheless to be
numbered by centuries, and the traces of man found at all depths through
it hint of a distant, shadowy past that is difficult to realize.
" The same objection, it may be, will be urged in this instance as in others
where the comparative antiquity of man is based upon the depth at which
stone implements are found, — that all these traces have been left upon the
present surface of the ground, and subsequently have gotten, by unex-
plained means, to the various depths at which they now occur. It is, in-
deed, difficult to realize how some of these argillite spear-points have
finally sunk through a compact peaty mass until they have reached the very
base of the deposit. For those who urge that this sinking process explains
the occurrence of implements at great depths, it remains to demonstrate
that the people who made these argillite fish-spears either made only these,
or were careful to take no other evidences of their handicraft with them
when they wandered about these meadows; for certainly nothing else ap-
pears to have shared the fate of sinking deeply into the mud. In fact, the
objection mentioned is met in this case, as in that of the palEeolithic imple-
ments, that if these fish-spears are of the same age and origin as the ordinary
Indian relics of the surface, then all alike should be found at great depths.
This, we know, is not the case. Furthermore, the character of the deposit
is not that of a loose mud or quicksand, but more like that of peat. It has
a close texture, is tough and unyielding to a degree, and offers decided
resistance to the sinking of comparatively light objects deeply into it. This
is, of course, lessened when the deposit is subject to tidal overflows, and in
^ Primilive Industry, ^.2f(i ft scq.
yGoogle
THE PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY OF NORTH AMER4CA. 361
the immediate vicinity of springs, wiiich, bubbling through it, have caused
a deposit of quicksand. While here an object sinks instantly out of sight,
it is not here that we must judge of the character of the formation as a
whole ; and over the greater portion of its area wi? find no evidence of
objects disappearing beneath the surface at a more rapid rate than the
accumulation of decomposing vegetable matter would explain. Efforts
have been made to determine the rate of progress of this growth of mould,
but they are not wholly satisfactory ; nevertheless the indications are suffi-
cient to warrant our belief that the rate is so gradual as to invest with great
archaeological interest the characteristic traces of man found in these allu-
vial deposits,"
Although these argillite spear-points seem principally to occur, as has

been stated, in the alluvial mud along the banks of the Delaware, yet they
are often found upon the surface, and associated with objects of Indian
origin. This circumstance Dr. Abbott attempts to explain by the following
considerations : *' One marked result of the deforesting of the country and
its constant cultivation has been to remove in great part the many inequal-
ities of the surface and to dry up many of the smaller brooks. The hillocka
have been worn down, the valleys filled up, and this of course has resulted
in bringing to the surface, on the higher ground, the argillite implements
which were at considerable depths, and in burying in the valleys the more
recent jasper and quartz implements of Indian origin that were left upon
the soil when lost or discarded by the red man. In the remnants of forests
still remaining, where no such disturbance of the soil has occurred, the
relative depths at which argillite and jasper respectively occur indicate the
greater age of the former." ^
He recurs to this subject in another place : ^ " The telling fact with refer-
ence to these argillite spear-points is that they are not, in the same sense
as jasper arrow-heads; surface-found implements. They occur also, and
even more abundantly, beneath the surface-soil. The celebrated Swedish
naturalist, Peter Kalm, travelled throughout central and southern New
Jersey in 1748-50, and in his description of the country remarks; 'We
find great woods here, but when the trees in them have stood a hundred
and fifty or a hundred and eighty years, they are either rotting within or
losing their crown, or their wood becomes quite soft, or their roots are no
longer able to draw in sufficient nourishment, or they die from some other
cause. Therefore, when storms blow, which sometimes happens here, the
trees are broken off either just above the roots, or in the middle, or at the
summit. Several trees are likewise torn out with their roots by the power
of the winds. ... In this manner the old trees die away continually, and
are succeeded by a younger generation. .Those which are thrown down lie
on the ground and putrefy, sooner or later, and by that means increase the
black soil, into which the leaves are likewise finally changed, which drop
abundantly in autumn, are blown about by the winds for some time, but are
• Ibid. p. ji;, nBle. ^ Free, of Am. Assoc, for Adv. ef Scienct, vo!. Xxxvji
Hosted by VjOOQIC
heaped up and lie on both sides of the trees which are fallen down. It
requires several years before a tree is entirely reduced to dust,' ^ This
quotation has a direct bearing on that which follows. It is clear that the
surface-soil was forming during the occupancy of the country by the In-
dians. The entire area of the State was covered with a dense forest, which
century after century was increasing the black soil to which Kalm refers.
li, now, an opportunity occurs to examine a section of virgin soil and. un-
derlying strata, as occasionally happens on the bluffs facing the river, the
limit in depth of this black soil may be approximately determined. An
average derived from several such sections leads me to infer that the depth
is not much over one foot, and the proportion of vegetable matter increases
as the surface is approached. Of this depth of superficial soil probably not
over one half has been derived from decomposition of vegetable growths.
While no positive data are determinable in this matter beyond the naked
fact that rotting trees increase the bulk of top-soil, one archceological
fact that we do derive is that Jlint implements known as Indian relics
belong to this superficial or ' black soil,' as Kalm terms it. Abundantly
are they found on the surface ; more sparingly are they found near the
surface ; more sparingly still the deeper we go ; while at the base of this
deposit of soil the argillite implements occur in greatest abundance. Here,
then, we have the whole matter in a nut-shell. The two forms were disso-
ciated until by the deforesting of the country and subsequent cultivation of
the soil, except in a few instances, they became commingled,"
A further argument in respect to the relation which argillite implements

bear to those made of jasper and quartz is derived from the relative propor-
tion in which they occur in localities which are believed to have been oc-
cupied first by the users of argillite, and subsequently by the Indians. " Of
a series of twenty thousand objects gathered in Mercer County, New Jersey,
forty-four hundred were of argillite, and of such rude forms and in such
limited varieties as would be expected of the productions of a less cultured
people than the Indian of the stone age. Of this series of forty-four hun-
dred, two hundred and thirty-three are well-designed drills or perforators and
scrapers ; the others being spear-points, fishing-spears, arrow-heads, and
knife-like implements." ^ This is supplemented by negative evidence drawn
from " the character of the sites of arrow-makers' open-air workshops, or
those spots whereon the professional chipper of flint pursued his calling.
In the locality where I have pursued my studies several such sites have
been discovered and carefully examined. In no one of these workshop
sites has there been found any trace of argillite mingled with the flint-chips
that form the characteristic feature of such spots. On the other hand, no
similar sites have been discovered, to my knowledge, where argillite was
used exclusively. The absence of this mineral cannot be explained on the
ground that it was difficult to procure, for such is not the case. It con-
1 Peter Kalm, Travih inta North America, Irauslatid by J. R. Forsler (London, 1 770-7 1 }, v, ii, p, 1 7,
* Primitive Industry, p. 462.
Hosted by VJ OOQ IC
THE PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. 363
stitutes, in fact, a considerable percentage of the pebbles and boulders of

the drift from which the Indians gathered their jasper and quartz pebbles
for working into implements and weapons. If the absence of argillite from
such heaps of selected stones is explained by the assertion that 'the Indians
had recognized the superiority of jasper, then the belief that argillite was
used prior to jasper receives tacit assent. If, however, it was the earlier
Indians who used argillite, and gradually discarded it for the various forms
of flint, then we ought to find workshop sites older than the time oi fiint-
chipping, and others where the two minerals are associated. This, as has
been stated, has not been done." ^
Professor Putnam has found a confirmation of these views of Dr. Abbott

in the contents of a great shell-heap at Keyport, in New Jersey, inves-
tigated over thirty years ago by Rev. Samuel Lockwood, and now placed
in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, " As the shell-heap at Keyport,
once covering a mile or more in length along a narrow strip bordered upon
one side by the ocean and on the other by Raritan Bay, is entirely oblit-
erated, it is of importance that the materials obtained from it are now in
the museum for comparison with our very extensive collections from the
shell-heaps of New England. The fact that at certain places on this
narrow strip between the bay and the sea the prevaiiing implements
were of argillite and of great antiquity has a peculiar significance in con-
nection with those from Trenton, and again points to an intermediate
period between the paiasolithic and the late Indian occupation of New
Jersey," ^
To these various arguments the writer wishes to add the statement that
to his personal knowledge argillite spear-points, and especially those ot
the fish-spear type, are occasionally found in other parts of our country
besides New Jersey. In his own researches, which have been principally
carried on upon the seacoast of New England, he has never found an
example of them in the shell-heaps proper, which are universally recog-
nized by archsologists as relics of the Indians. The few which he has
found, himself, or has obtained from others, have come from meadows by
the side of rivers or ponds, where they might very well have been used as
fish-spears.
A further confirmation of Dr. Abbott's opinions in regard to the descend-

ants of palaeolithic man is derived from certain discoveries made by Mr.
Hilborne T. Cresson in the alluvial deposits at Naaman's Creek, in Dela-
ware. These were first made known in November, 1887, by a letter to the
editor of the American Antiquarian. "In 1870, a fisherman living in the
village of Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania, gave me some spear and arrow heads
flaked from a dense argillite, as well as other rude implements of a pre-
historic people, which he bad found on some extensive mud flats near the
mouth of Naaman's Creek, a small tributary of the Delaware. The finder
1 Proc. of Amcr. Aascfor Aik/. of Scit>tce,yo\. ' Rep. of Peabedy Museum, vol. iv. p. 43.
Hosted by VjQOQIC
3^4 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
stated thai while fishing ... he had noticed here and there the ends of logs
or stakes protruding from the mud, and that they seemed to him to have
been placed in rows. ... A visit made a few days afterward to the place
. . , disclosed the ends of much-decayed stakes or piles protruding here
and there above the mud. ... On my return from France in 1880 I again
visited the spot. . . . While abroad I studied in spare moments many
archaeological collections, especially those from the Swiss Lake Dwellings,
and visited the various lake stations of Switzerland. The rude dressings of
the ends of the piles in some places were evidently made with blunt stone
implements, and recalled those I had seen on the ends of the posts in the
Delaware River marshes. Since 1880 I have quietly examined the remains,
excavating what pile ends remained in situ (preserving a few that did not
crumble to pieces), preserving careful notes of the dredging and excavations
(at low tides), carried on principally by myself, aided at times by interested
friends. The- results so far seem to indicate that the ends of the piles im-
bedded in the mud, judging from the implements and other debris scattered
around them, once supported shelters of early man that were erected a few
feet above the water, — the upper portion of the piles having disappeared
in the long lapse of time that must have ensued since they were placed
there. {The fiataare covered by four and one half feet of water on the flood
tide ; on the ebb the marsh is dry, and covered with slimy ooze several feet
in depth, varying in different places.) Three different dwellings have been
located, all that exist in the flats referred to, after a careful examination
within the last four years of nearly every inch of ground carefully laid off
and examined in sections. The implements found in two of ' the supposed
river dwelling sites ' are very rude in type, and generally made of dense ar-
gillite, not unlike the palreoliths found by my friend Dr. C. C. Abbott in the
Trenton gravels. The character of the implements from the other or third
supposed river dwelhng on the Delaware marshes is better finished objects
made of argillite." ^
The greater portion of the objects obtained by Mr. Cresson has been
placed in the Peabody Museum, to which he is at present attached as a spe-
cial assistant ; but he has also kindly sent to the writer a small illustrative
collection from each site, for his study.
The writer would hesitate to draw the inference from this single dis-
covery that the custom of living in pile-dweUings ever prevailed in North
America, although there is evidence that such a practice was not unknown
in South America. This is to be found in the account of the voyage of
Alonso de Ojcda along the north coast o£ that country, in the year 1499,
in which he was accompanied by Vespucius,^ I will quote the language of
Washington Irving : " Proceeding along the coast, he arrived at a vast,
deep gulf resembling a tranquil lake, entering which he beheld on the
eastern side a village whose construction struck him with surprise. It
consisted of twenty large houses, shaped like bells, and built on piles driven
• Vol. ix. p. 363. 2 See Vol. II. pp. 144 and 187.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
into the bottom of the lake, which in this part was limpid and of but little
depth. Each house was provided with a drawbridge, and with canoes by
which the communication was carried on. From these resemblances to the
Italian city, Ojeda gave to the bay the name of the Gulf of Venice, and it is
called at the present day Venezuela, or Little Venice." ^ There is no inhe-
rent improbability that such a custom may have prevailed upon the shores
of Delaware Bay, and for the same reason that has caused it to be followed
elsewhere. " It has been stated that the natives living near Lake Maracaybo,
in South America, erect pile dwellings over the lake, to which they resort
in order to escape from the mosquitoes which infest the shore. Lord also
mentions that the Indians of the Suman prairie, British Columbia, on the
subsidence of the annual floods in May and June, build pile dwellings over
a lake there, to which they retire to escape from the mosquitoes which at
that period infest the prairie in dense clouds, but will not cross the
water." ^
But it would be safer, probably, to consider these discoveries of Mr, Cres-

son's as marking the site o£ ancient aboriginal iish-weirs, such as are de-
scribed by Captain Ribault and other early explorers as made by the na-
tives.^ The writer agrees with Professor Putnam in thinking that " the
fact that at only one station pottery occurs, and, also, that at this station
the stone implements are largely of jasper and quartz, with few of argillite,
while at the two other stations many rude stone implements are associated
with chipped points of argillite, with few of Jasper and other flint-like
material, is of great interest." *
Still further confirmation of the progress of the palasolithic man in this

region is afforded by discoveries made in a rock-shelter near the head -waters
of Naaman's Creek, as early as 1866, for an account of which, and the
preservation of the objects then found, we are also indebted to Mr. Cresson :
"The remains of the Naaman's Creek rock-shelter luckily fell into hands
that have preserved them. . . . To give a detailed account of ôw the rock-
shelter was discovered would consume too much time. Let us rather con-
sider briefly the . . . contents of the shelter's various layers. . , . Fortu-
nately careful drawings of the shelter were made during its excavation
between the years 1866 and 1867. ... A glance shows the outcrop of the
rock as it appeared before the excavations were begun in 1866. The trees
show that the ground was then covered by a thick wood. . . . From the
point that marks the innermost edge of the outcrop, overhanging the
hollow, a perpendicular line dropped to the ground would measure five and
one eighth feet, the height of the projection of the rock above the ground
before the excavations were commenced.
"Twenty-two feet eight inchesfrom the outcrop, measured from its inner
face, there is still another outcrop. . . . This marks the opposite side of
1 Companions of Columbus, p. 28. ' Antiqialiit oftht Simthern Indians, by C. C.
^ Flint Chips, a Cuidt to Frehiitoric Arehaal' Jones, p. 320.

(g7,by Edw. T. Stevens, p. 123. ' Sep. of Peatody Muiaim, vol. iv. p. 45.
yGetogle
the hollow. ... It is evident how admirably the place was adapted to the
wants of the early hunters of the Delaware valley, whether it be as a
shelter, or as a place of defence against their enemies. . . . Let us look at
the layers of earth that filled it, these being intermingled with rude imple-
ments, broken bones, and charcoal, indicating tbat man at times had resorted
to the spot.
" Layer C [the lowest]. This was composed of schist, resting on the bed-
rock of the shelter, A layer of aqueous gravel, of the same type as that
underlying Philadelphia, rested on the decomposed schist. The greatest
depth of the red gravel layer was four feet two and one fourth inches,
measured from the layer of decomposed schist. Least depth of gravel ob-
served, one foot three inches. . . .
" Layer A [next above]. This was a layer of grayish-white brick clay
mixed with yellow clay, similar to that underlying Philadelphia, on top of
which was a layer mixed with sand. . . . Stone implements were discovered
in this layer. They were but few in number and very rude, exclusively of
argillite, and palaeolithic in type. Greatest depth of layer, two feet one and
one half inches. No implements of bone were found. . . .
" Layer T [next above]. This was of reddish gravel, intermingled with
decomposed schist, cinders, and broken bones of animals. Fragments of a
human skull were found ... in this layer. A fragment of a human rib
was also preserved. The fragments of the skull are covered here and there
by dendritic incrustations. Rude spears and implements of argillite were
found in this layer. Depth of layer, thirteen to eighteen inches.
"Layer D [next above]. Composed of reddish-yellow clay. Depth, two

feet three inches. No implements.
" Layer M [next above]. In this layer were numerous implements of

argillite and some of bone, intermingled with rude implements of quartzite
and jasper and fragments of rude pottery, with charcoal. Greatest depth,
one foot one and one half inches. Least depth, three inches.
" Layer R [next above]. Yellow clay. Greatest depth, two feet one and
one half inches ; least depth, eight inches. No implements.
" Layer W [next above]. This contained chipped implements ; those made
of jasper and quartzite predominating over those of argillite. In the lowest
part of this layer were fragments of rude pottery. In the upper portion of
the layer were potsherds decidedly superior in decoration and technique to
those from the lower portion. Geological composition of this layer, yellow
clay loam. Greatest depth, three feet four inches. Least depth, two and
one half inches.
" Layer L [top]. This consists of leaf mould seven inches thick, converted
into swamp muck by decomposing action of water from springs. No im-
plements. . . . No remains of extinct animals were found." ^
Professor Putnam thus proceeded to comment upon these discoveries :

"We have a series of objects, taken from the several layers of the shelter,
' " Early Man in the Delaware Valley," in the Prac. Boston Soc, of Nat. Hist., vol. xiciv.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
giving us a chronology o£ the utmost importance, as each period of occupa-

tion of the shelter was followed by a natural deposition, separating the dif-
ferent periods of occupation. The stone implements . . . are taken from
the lowest layer, indicating the earliest period of occupation of the rock-
shelter; and . . . they correspond in shape and rudeness of execution with
those taken from the gravel-hed at Trenton ; and like most of the latter
they are all of argillite. The specimens from the second period are of
argillite, and while many are chipped into slender points, they are still of
very rude forms ; and these in turn correspond with the argillite points
found by Dr. Abbott deep down in the black soil, or resting upon the
gravel, at Trenton. In the upper layers of the cave we observe , . . the
gradual introduction of implements chipped from jasper and quartz, and
corresponding in form with those found upon the surface throughout the
valley. And as a further indication of this later development, it was only
in the upper layers that pottery, bone implements, and ornaments were
found ; the three distinct periods of occupation of the Delaware valley are
thus distinctly shown ; and this cave-shelter is a perfect exempUfication of
the results which Dr. Abbott had obtained from a study of the specimens
which he has collected upon the surface, deep in the black soil, and in the
gravel, at Trenton."
From the accumulative force of these various lines of reasoning, the

writer thinks that there is a strong probability that here, on the waters of
the Delaware, man developed from the palaeolithic to the neolithic stage of
culture. But we cannot follow Dr. Abbott in his further conclusion (if,
indeed, he still holds to it) that we are to seek the descendants of this
primitive population in the Eskimos, driven north after contact with the
Indians. We have failed to discover the slightest evidence to sustain
this position. The hereditary enmity existing between the Eskimos and
the Indians may be equally well explained upon the theory that the former
are' later comers to this continent, and are therefore hated by the Indian
races as intruders. The two races are certainly markedly unlike.
In the absence of any evidence tending to show the development of

the argillite-using people into the Indian races, with their perfected Im-
plements and weapons of the age of polished stone, it seems more reason-
able to hold with Professor Dawkins that the earlier and ruder race perished
before or were absorbed by a people furnished with a better equipment in
the struggle for the " survival of the fittest." The palaeolithic man of the
river gravels of Trenton and his argillite-using posterity the writer believes
to be completely extinct.^
It only remains for the writer to express his regret that he has been pre-
vented from setting forth in detail, at the present time, the grounds upon
which he has come to other conclusions which were briefly indicated at the
beginning of this chapter. He can only repeat here his belief that the
1 Early Man in Britam, p. 173.
jGaosIe
so-called Indians, with their many divisions into numerous linguistic fam-
ilies, were later comers to our shores than the primitive population, whose
development he has attempted to trace ; that the so-called " moundbuilders "
were the ancestors of tribes found in the occupation of the soil ; and that
the Pueblos and the Aztecs were only peoples relatively farther advanced
than the others.
The writer further thinks that these are propositions capable, if not of
being demonstrated, at least of being made to appear in a very high degree
probable by means of authorities which will be found amply referred to in
other chapters of this volume.
^&
^fti^^- <^^X.fr/:>iW^
vGoosIe
THE PROGRESS OF OPINION RESPECTING THE ORIGIN
AND ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA.
BV THE EDITOR.
The literature respecting the origin and early condition of the American aborigines is very extensive ;
and, as a rule, especially in the earlier period, it is not characterized by much reserve in connecting races by
historical analogies.! Few before Dr. Robertson, in discussing the problem, could say : " I have ventured to
inquire without presuming to decide."
The question was one that allured many of the earlier Spanish writers like Herrera and Torquemada.
Among the earlier Ei^lish discussions b that of Wm. Bourne in his Books called thi Trcasuri for Trmiil-
&« (London, 1578), where a section is given to "The Peopling of America." The most famous of the early
discussions of the various theories was that of Gregorio Garcii, a mbsionary tor twenty years In South
America, who reviewed the question in his Origin dc los Indioi dt el Nttew Mundo (Valencia, 1607).* He
goes over the supposed navigations 0/ the Phcenidans, the identity of Peru with Solomon's Ophlt, and the
chances of African, Roman, and Jewish migrations, — only to reject them all, and to favor a coming of Tar-
tars and Chinese. Clavigero thinks his evidences the merest conjectures. E. Brerewood, in his Enquiries
touching the diversUy of languages and religions (London, 1 63J, 163;), claimed a Tartar origin. In New
England, where many were believers in the Jewish analogies, it is somewhat amusing to find not long after
this the quizzical Thomas Morton, with what seems like mock gravity, finding the aboriginal source in " the
scattered Trojans, after such time as Brutus departed from Latium." The reader, however, is referred to
other sections of the present volume for the literature bearing upon the distinct ethnical connections of the
early American peoples.
Tha chief literary controversy over the question began in 1641, when Hugo Grotlus pubUstied his De
Origins GenUum Americanarum Disiertatio (Paris and Amsterdam, 1642).* He argued that all North
i., p. 3SS. Originesde! feufUi dt VAmiriqiH,'i'a\\K Nancy Com/W-

research. rmJa, Congrii dts A •niricanisla. \. *jq.
Amgng German wriieis perhipi Ihe moil weighty are

the origrn Thcodor Wiiti in hii A nthrirtohgii der NaUtrvUker
oology of (1862-66), and Cari Yogi's V-rrUsungmUier dtn Metucltn,
iii., ilibV, translaled as Licluris on Man ixibf).
ShDil, ch. American wrilen ; Diake's Book of Ike Indiani. ch. i, 1 ;
1.637, and Doddndgc't /ô/i! on rHe SetHetHml and Iirdam Wars of
lndiiais, Virginia and PtKKB., lAi. y. Ceo. Cat\ia'i Life amangil
lie Induaa (iWi), and his Lasl Ramitti {1867), wllh
nentiimoE (XtracO in Smilbonion Ann. Reft., tSS^ ill. 749 1
the esMnlial books lalcr 10 be indicaled, some miscellaneaus Isaac McCoy's /fist, of Bafliil Indian Miaieni
(Waih-
ing Ihem. B. H. 'coile's A nmal Diuroum before the Penxa. Hiit.
Among Engi:^ wrilera: Hyde aaike's Reiearetes J'«-.(FhlJad.,i834).reviewin8;thevBriou»lhi!Otieiiilioln
on prehiitorie and frotokitlorie comparative pkitalogy, their Memein, liu pan i ; John Y. Smith in Wiicentin
mylkclogy,nnd archaotoST in connection •miO. Ou origin Hill. Sec. Ann. Ref., iv. II71 Dednii'. PoHfolit, uH.
ofctdluri » America (London, 1875). Robert Knoi-i 13". 5i9i ""■ )! A. R. Grole in Amer. NaturaliH, a.
ffBWj «/'«■« (London, iS63)i J, Kennedy in \i^ Prob- an (April, 1877} 1 C. C. Abbott in /*ia. i. 65.
able origin of the American /biKhii (London, iSm). an'' Some Canadian wiilers; J. Campbell in îre £fl. b»/
in \ai Essays, ethnological and lingni3tic\X.Baioa, 1S61); Hist. Sor. rraniBrtKWi (i8So-!il ; NapoWon
Legendre'i
J. C Belttami'j Pilgrimage in Europe and America "Races indigines de TAinirique devant I'hiiloire" In
(London, 181S} ; C. H. Smith in Edinlmrgh New PkU- Proc. Royal Soc. of Canada, li. Jj.
osophicalJaia-nal,r.ixna.i. ' The book U a rare one. Field, No. sS6. Sibin, viL '
Some French authorities: Nadaillic, Lis premiers p. i;?. Quaritch in iMj had not known of a copy being
kommes,a. 93, and his L'Amlriûe frihlstori}ue,<iA. 10, tor sale in twenty yean. He lhciihadtwo(No>. 18,355-
56).
and 10 tiie English lians]atit>n W. H. Dall adds a chapter There is one in Harvard College Library. Garcia drew
on this lubjecl ; Brasseur de Bourijourg's iniroduclton to somewhat from a manuscript of Juin de Vnanioi, a
com-
his Poful fB* (section 4I 1 Dabiy de Thienanfs De Pori- panion of Piiairo, and he gives the native accounts of
their
gine des indienidu mmoeaa monde el de leur cinaisalieK origin. There wis 1 second edition, with Barcia'i
Annota-
(Piris, 1883) ; M. A. Baguel's " Les races primitives des tiana, Madrid, 1719 (Carter-Brown, iii, 431).
Aâi Aaiiruvits' in Bull, de !a Sec- de Giog. d'Anvers, 'New English Canaan (Amsterdam, 1637— C F.
nil. 440; Domenech io Reeue Contemforaim. iJt Mr., Adams* ed, iSSj, pp. 115, 119).
iniii. j33 ; x«iv. j, ill, \ id ser., iv. ; Baron de Bretlon's ' There Is an English Iranslalion in the BiHialheea
' Waia, Introd. t
Anihrofology, Eng. Irani
poimsouithe
: danger
C£ also J. H
,nfr:4.j(.Si<)}.
The best in
soflhetp
of the Amerii
1 be found
in Haven's ^>-c^
Ike United S.
tales {S
Bincroifslo.
3, on the div
! opinions
■,FooWi Index, i
ch. I,
p. >74.
Cf. Dr:
Ike's Book of (fc

uacteriiationandr
yGeubsIe
37° NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
Amaltsi eicept Yucatan (which had an Ethiopian stoclf) was peopled from the Scandinavian North ; that the
Peruvians were from China, and that the Moluccans peopled the regions below Peru. Grotlus aroused an
antagonist in Johannes de Laet, whose challenge appeared the next year : Joannii de Lael Aiitwerfiani
noiat ad dissertatiunem Hvgonis GmtU de ori^ne gtntium Americanamm : ct observatiaties aliqusl ad
miliorim indaginim digiciilima illitis gnxstionii (Amsterdam, 16+3).! He combated his brother Dutch-
man at all points, and contended that the Scythian race furnished the predominant population of America.
The Spaniards went to the Canaries, and thence some of their vessels drifted to Brazil He is inclined to
accept the story of Madoc's Webhmen, and think it not unlikely that the people of the Pacific islands niay
have floated to the western coast of South America, and that minor migrations may have come from other
lands. He supports his views by comparisons of the Irish, GalUc, Icelandic, Huron, Iroquois, and Mexican
tongues.
To all this Grotius replied in a second Dissertaliit, and De Lael again renewed the attack : iDnnnis de Laet
Antaerfiani responsio ad diiiertalionem secundam HvgoKis Grata, de originc gentium Americanarum.
Cumindice ad Htrumque liiellHm (Amsterdam, 1644).^
De Laet, not content with his own onset, Incited another to take part in the controversy, and so George
Horn (Homius) published I»s De Origbiiius Americanis, libH quatuoT (Hags Comitis, i. e. The Hague,
1651; again, Hemipoli, i. e. Halberstadt, i569).o His view was the Scythian one, but he held to later additions
from the PhcEniiâns and Carthaginians on the Atlantic side, and from the Chinese on the Pacific.
For the ne<t fifty years there were a niunber of writers on the subject, who are barely names to the present
generation ; * but towards the middle of the eighteenth century the question was considered in The Ameriian
Traveller (London, 1741), and by Charlevoix in his Nsuvelh France (1744). The author of an Enquiry inii,
the Origin of the Cherokees (Oxford, 1762) makes them the descendants of Meshek, son of Japhet. In 1767,
however, the quesdon was again brought into the range of a learned and disputatious discussion, reviving all
the arguments of Grotius, De Laet, and Horn, when E. Bailli d'pngel published hb Eisaisur celte question :
Quand et comment VAmtrica a-t-clle ite feuplie d'hommcs et d'Ammaux 7 (5 vols., Amsterdam, 1767, ad
ed., 176a). He argues for an antediluvian origin.^ The controversy which now followed was aroused by C. De
PauWs characteriiation of all American products, man, animals, vegetation, as degraded and inferior to
nature in the old world, in an essay which passed through various editions, and was attacked and defended in
turn.* An Italian, Count Carli, some years later, controverted De Pauw, and using every resouree of mythol-
ogy, tradition, geology, and astronomy, claimed for the Americans a descent from the Atlantides.' It was not
CBTiBia. [Edited by Edmund Goldsmidi.] (Edinbuieh, defence aod Pemeily-s attack, WHS issued at London in
.aSj-Sj.) No. li. OntiK origin of IhtKiliver^
latldfremUuLrUis. The translation is unfonunj

its blunders, a, H. W. Haynes in The Nation, Mi
iSSa. Croliin was b. 1583 ; d, 1&45.
■ Carter-Brown, ii. S22, 513, 543.
■ This book Is scarcer than the lirsl (Briuley, iii.

ij). There Is a letter addressed to De Laet, touching
tlus, in Claudius Moiiaolus'i EpiiUIarum Cenluria
Grolim el Jok. Laiulius de origine ginlium Peruviana
Comtzus Vortia!iaas,Deiiriginegi!iliiimAmeriea<airam
(AioBlerdani, 1664), an academic diseertatiou adopting the
Phtenician view; A, Mil, De origine aHimalitim el mi
gratione fioptdantni (Geneva, 1667) ; Erasmus Franctscus
Lmt-»nd J'raBj!«-'"*™(Ntlrnb*i^ 1668), wilhalhird part
on the abori^nal iuhabilams {Miiller, rS77,nD. 1150) Gott
fried [Godofredus] Wagner, De Originibm Americana
(LeipEig, l66g); J.D. Waor, Disfiti/atio Aistoria de 4me
ricaijaa, 1670); E.P. 14-00^, Diesertalio de origine e't
/oinf n<i'ii'rû/ri»u[Str«gnis[Svteden)ie76). An essay
n the Mtmsiri, Anthrof. Sec. of Lon
" -m-OoitTartaryiddcd.,
i?«.
iqves sur let A mtrimim, im Mf-
moire.
ie TAmiriqus. — De la compleiion
alliri.
■ de ses habitants.
Mond
e. -De la variety
-De la cooleur da A
miirieaina. — Des anthropophages.

. Esklmau.; des
Patagons. — Des Blafards el dei
Nesre
le la Florid.. -D,
— Du
g^nie abruti des
Am^ricains. — De quelquea usages.
fiich^
;s, communs au>
liricaiuB, — Sur le grand Lama. —
--D^'
la religion des An,
Difen
sur let Amiricains. — D. Pemetlv.

Dissertation sur TAmirlque el 1e> Amiricains contre le»
The
re was anedidon
in French at Berlin in 1770, in z
vols
7anneied,iui;74, Insvoli. The
Definus was piialed al
so at Berlin in 1770. These were
hêd
alPan3"M»,
r^" An English translation by J.
London, 179). Daniel Webb pob-
n English at Bath, ,789, 17M, and

Bcrln
n 1769. Then
= is another Hltle Iractate of this
lloiea
:lty, DerAmtripxetdesAmiri-
' a. Alex. Catcfflt's Trtaliie on the Dih

enlarged, London, 176S), and A. de Ulloa's Nolicias Ame- Bonneville (cf. Knf
rKa»Bi (Madrid, 177J, 1791), for speculaticais. ' DelleLelUrtAi
K beat edition, with De Pau'
caint (Beriin. 1771). in whose humor De Pauw fares r

better; but Rich has a note on the questionable altribnlii
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 371
till after reports lad come from the Ohio Valley of the extensive earthworks in that region that the question
spicuous spokesman was President Stiles of Yale College, in an address which he delivered before the General
Assembly of Connecticut, in ijSj, on the future of the new republic.' In this, while arguing for the unity of
the American trilies and for their affinity with the Tartars, be held to their being in the main the descendants
of the Canaanites eipelled by Joshua, whether finding their way hither by the Asiatic route and establishing
the northern Sachemdoms, or coming in Phtenician ships across the Atlantic to settle Mexico and Peru.'
lafitau in 1 7H (Maurs de Sauvages) had contended for a Tartar origin. We have examples of the reason-
ing of a missionary in the views of the Moravian Loskiel, and of a learned controversialist in the treatise of
Fritsch, in 1794 and 1796 respectively.*
Thee;
arliest
: American with a se.
ientilic training
of Penn
sylvar
lia, Benjamin Smith
Barton, a man
who acq
uired
one of the best re[
dayamo
nericans for studies ii
1 this and other
latura] history. His
father was an
English
clergyman settled in Ai
nerica, and his
while he
1 student of medicini
; in Edinburgh
[hat he first a
ct of the origin
Df the A
ans, in a little treati;
Antiquit
ies, which he never completed.' His
Papers relatiagla certain American Ant

(Philad., 1796} consists of those read to tht
Phitos. See, and printed in their Tram
(vol. iv.). They were published as the eai
le direction. He believed his own gal
ly other student had collected in America,

rnsiveness of his material, and he could not feel that he could point
to any one special source of the indigenous population.
During the early years of the present century old theories and new were abundant. The powerful intellect
and vast knowledge of Alexander von Humboldt were applied to the problem as he found it in Middle America,
He announced some views on the primitive peoples in 1S06, in the Neui Berliniscke Monalsschrift (voL
XV.) i but his ripened opmions found record in his Vuei de Cordillires it msnuntexs des feufles indigines de
rAmlrijue (Paris, 1816), and the Asiatic theory got a conservative yet definite advocate.
Hugh Williamson^ thought he found traces of the Hindoo in the higher arts o£ the Mexicans, and marks of
the ruder Asiatics in the more northern American peoples. A conspicuous litterateur of tiie day, Samuel L.
Mitchell, veered somewhat wildly about in his notions of a Malay, Tartar, and Scandinavian origin.' Mean-
while something like organijed efforts were making. The American Antiquarian Society was formed in
1812.8 Silliman began his Journal of Arts and Sciencii in 1S19, and both sodety and periodical proved
PidpUnftk,!
nilid Slalc! elrâ/ed to Glorj: and Hmsr. gionraphka

■ - -< included in J. W. Thomlon'a .mtrinl -u,
iird BrithrcH among

:1 by La Trabi (Lon.
y Google
instruioenls of wider inquiry. In tlie first volume published by the Antiquarian Society, Caleb Atwater, in
his treatise on the Western Antiquities, gave the earliest sustained study of the subject, and "believed in a
gjnetal rather than in a particular Asiatic source. The man first to attract attention for his grouping of ascer-
tained results, unaided by personal explorations, however, was Dr. James H. McCulloh, who published his
RtttaTches en America M Baltimore in rBi6. The book passed to a second edition the next year, but received
its final shape in the Researches, fhilosophical and antiquarian, concerning the aboriginal history of
.,4mmVB(jSi9), abooltwhichPrescottl praised for its accumulated enidition, and Haven^ ranked high for
its manifestations o£ industry and research, calling it encyclopedic in character. McCulloh ejiajnines the
native traditions, but can evolve no satisfactory conclusion from them as to the origin of the Americans.
The public mind, however, was not ripe for scholarly inquuy, and there was not that in McCulloh's style to
invite attention; and greater popularity follovied upon the fanciful and dogmatic confidence of John Hay-
wood,' upon the somewhat vivid if unsteady speculations of C. S. Kafinesque,* and even upon the itinerant
Josiah Priest, who boasted of the circulation of thousands of copies of his popular hooks." John Delafield's
Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of America (K. Y., 1839) revived the theory, never quite dormant,
of the descent of the Mexicans from the riper peoples of Hindostan and Egypt | while the more barbarous
red men came of the Mongol stock. The author ran through the whole range of philology, mythology, and
many of the customs of the races, in reaching this conclusion. A little book by John Mcintosh, Discovery
0/ America and Origin of the Nerth Amtriian Indiani, published in Toronto, 18 j6, was reissued in N. Y.
in 1S43, and with enlargements in 1846, Origin of the North American Indians, continued down to 1S59 to
be repeatedly issued, or to have a seeming success by new dates."
When Columbus, approaching the main land of South America, imagined it a large island, he associated it
wilh.thatbeliefsolongcurrent in the Old World, which placed the cradle of the race in the Indian Ocean, —
a belief which in our day has been advocated by Haeckel, Caspari and Winchell, — and imagined he was on '
the coasts, skirtu^ an interior, where lay the Garden of Eden.' No one had then ventured on the belief that
the doctrine of Genesis must be recondled with any supposed counter-testimony by holding it to be but the
record of the Jewish race. Columbus was not long in his grave when Têophrastus Paracelsus, in r 520, and
before the belief in the continuity of North America with Asia was r^spelled, and consequently before the
question of how man and animals could have reached the New World was raised, first broached the heterodox
view of the plurality of the human race. All the early disputants on the question of the origin of the Amer-
connection between the arguments for an autochthonous American man and a diversity of race, when Fabri-
cius, in t;2i, pubhshed his Diiseriatio Critica » oB the opinions of those who held that different races had
been created. From that day the old orthodox interpretation of the record in Genesis found no contestant
for the inferiority or other distinguishing characteristics of race by assigning them to the influence of climate
and physical causes."
The strongest presentation of the case, in considering the American man a distinct product of the American
ii»l, with no connection with the Old World "> except in the ca
in 1839, printed his Crania Americana, or a co.
North and South America, of which there was i
very likely, in ignorance of the fact that Govemi
suggested it,i2 Dr. Morton had gathered a collection of nea]
and based his deductions on these, — a proce^
* Introd. to Marshall's /f(n«^;^,. 824; The Akc

<,/!/. i^ S. America, 2Ai^., 1838, ere.
* Amer.Anti^. and Discoveries iKthelViil,ii3i,iiWLA, "Cardinal Wiaeipsn'a Lecturei, jch ed., London, p.
RafiuESqne thought laiBcl; taken from him. CL Haven 153.
•n the« writers, pp. j8-4ii SaWn, iv. 65, 484. ''aw:TixAiitTra<a.Amer.Elhnal.Soe.,u. Thecol-
* Pilling, Biiliog. Suman LzHpiage!, pp. 47, 4^. I^clion went to the Acad. Di Natural Sciences in Philad.,
' pMChel, ffawJc''^'"(I-oiidon, 1876I, p. 31. and i! eiamined by Dr. J, AnadnMeigainit3/'ô.:,,.S6o.
■ Eng. transl. in Memoirs, Anihrspological Sacieiji of Cf. Meigs's Calaloffsc of haanan crama u> thi Acad.
LotuLm, i. 3;i. Not. Sri. (Philad., iSs?}.
■ There is a lummary of the progressive conilici on the >* Morton'slalest resullsare given Inapaper, "The pbys-
uontoTopinard'i,4»/*ro/Wi!rv. Cf, Peschel's Kacei of completed by John S. Phillips, and printed in Schookiafl's
.Wa«(Eng. tiansl., H. V., 1876), p. 6. /•nfian TVi&i. il. He also primed .4>i Inquiry into tie
'" The idea in ^neral was not wholly new. Capt. Ber- distinciivt characteristics of the Aboriginal Ran of
ninl \ViaAm,\ii\\aConcUt Nat. Hist, of East and Ifesl America (Veaum, 1841; Philad., 18441; aud Same Oiier-
Plurida (N. Y,, '776). had expressed the opinion " lha| valiiins in Ihi Elhturgrafhy and Archaslogll cftke Amrr-
God created in original man and woman in ibis part of the ican Aborigines {V. Haven, 1846,— from the
^nrcr./iwr.
globe of difierenl species from any in Ihe other parts" e'' -^"'""i "d ser., ii.). Cf. Tram. Amir. Etknal. Sac.
(p. jS), Chivigero, in 17S0, belitved thai the distinct lin- ii. 114, Cf. Allibone's Diclimiary, ii, 1376, Ii is cenainly
1 case of the
i Eskimos, w
as made wh
en S. G. Morton,
view of ihe
■ skulls of VI.
trious ahori
ginal nations cf
lition m .844-" Here
est, and applied.
in r 766, in
Knox's Ne^
V Cotledion
of yoyngis, hid
land skulls fi
torn all part
s of the world,i8
iafe, as ma
ny of his sn
i«ic trails o
if the Americ
ans pointed
to something like
■ origin, Cf.
.eyonlhe"Bear-
i of Languaf
.i.y of Man,'
«£™,cv, !,,
■ Ci, Jeffrie
s \7yman In .
/ô.Am.Re
o„li.
vGoosIe
The views of Morton respi

Agassii, taking the broadei
Lgin of the Indian found an able upholder
: adhesion
iHB.iB(r,July, 1850, voLxlix.p, no). These views got mote exlen-

ication which appeared in Philidelphia in 1S54, in which some unpublished papers of
Morton are accompanied by a contribution from Agasali, and all are grouped together and augmented by
material of the editors, Dr. Joaah Clark Nott ^ of Mobile, and Mr. George R. Gliddon, long a resident in
Cairo. The Ty/tj ef Mankind, or Eiknahgical RiiiarctCes (Philad., i8;,. 1S59, i37l), met with a divided
detraction in seme rather jejune expositions of the Hebrew Scriptures contained in the book. The phyiiolo.
LOUIS AGASSI2."
dicalioa:
loims,"
prrkisf., lit; L. A. Gou

lis (bi inTiu(Paris,i3;;); ]
of Ancient Customs suggested bf ce
(1863)1
'. F. Whi
eases of the bon«9 of the n:
in Pia/miiji Mm. Xtfl.. iviLi, 43J. On the difficulties of
the study see Luden Can- in liid. xi. 361 ; Flower in the
irofolttgkal Iruliluir, M»y, iS8s ; Dawson,
" The Preseni State of Ethnology in telation to llie form

of the huDian skull," in Smilhim. Rifi., iB;9; Waitz'a
Intrvd. iff AviArepetngy, £ng- trans]., pp- 333, 361 ^ Carl
Vogi's Liiturts on Man Heel, j) ; A Qualrdfages and E. T.
Ham;, Crmia Elhica (Paris, 1873-7;); Notl and Glid-
don. Tyfti sf Mankind; Nadiillic's L'Amtri^m pri-
hiit., ch. 9, and Lufrintiin luntmts, I ch. 3.
< An inonymous book, Tht Grntta sf Earth and

MiH (EdinbuTKh, 1S5&), places ttie negro as the primal
I the higher races by variation-
Dr. Noll
ir of the Jew
run/ Men, chap. ;
• After a photograph, bad,
dera Rail
el Club, Bosion iiSuggesled to the editor by H
y Google
gists thought it brought new vigor to a question which properly belonged to science.i Other fresh material,
with some discussions, made up a new book by the same editors, published three years lutei, /rtdigeuous
Races cfthe Earth, or New Chaftirs of Elknahgical Inquiry (Philad, and London, 1857 ; 2d ed., iSs?).^
The theological attacks were not always void of a contempt that ill befitted the work of refutation. The
most important of them were John Bachman's Doctrine of the UnUy gf the Human Race (Charleston, S. C,
1850), with his iVD(Be of the Tyfii of Mankind (Charleston, 1834-55); and Thomas Smyth's Unity of the
Human Sace proved by Scripture, Reason and Science (N. ¥., iSso).a
The scientific attack on Morton and Agaasiz, and the views they represented, was an active one, and em-
braced such writers as Wilson, Latham, Pickering, and Qualrefages.^ The same collection of skulls which
oslte evidence to Dr. J. A. Meigs in his Otej-™-
5AMUEL FOSTER HAVEN.*
796. many others. See Ponls'i Indii, 1073.
' The editor's collaborateurs were Alfred Maury, Fran- • WilBon'a first criiiciam was in Ihe Canadiat Jourxal
cbPakiky, J. AiltenMeiga, J, Leidy, andLomsAgaasii. (1857); U»o tn the Ediniwgh Philosofhiad Jourial
Na(t had in Ihe interval since his previous book furnished (Jan., i3;S)i lathe SmlthsaxiaK Rrft. [iS&i), p. 240,
on
English tiiinsl. ol Gobineau's Moral Dh'iriHy of Raca |ii. ch. io|. Latham's Nat. Hist, cflkt Variilies of Mat.
(Philad., 1836}. Charles Pickering-! ffa«jÂftii( 1848). The orthodoi
3 Haven gives a summary of the argnments of each moncqienisni of A. de Quatrelages is expressed in his Dr
(p. 90, etc.). For various views on this side see Soulhall's funai de Pisfice kutnaine {^m, 1S64, 1S69) ; io hia
#iif .
Ricenl Origin 0/ Man, ch ii. 36. 57. and hia Efcch of the gtxfrali des RiKis tmmaimi (Paris, iS«j) ; in his mimo»
ibmmolk, ch. 9, when he allows thai the pruofs from Sfrcies(1ti. V., 1379), and in papers in Stvue drs Coars
traditions and customs are not conclusive; Geoige Palmer's Scie«lifi}ues, 1864-5, 1867-8; in his I'al. Hist, of
Mm
Mitratiim from SkiKitr ; nr, Ike Earliest Links Betwetn (Eng. Itansl., N. Y., 1875); in Calhulie World, vil, 67;
tke Old aad Ntv, CoHlimnU {Xanirsa, 1S79); Edvi'ard 3.iA\r Po/adar Scieme Montkly,\. (,x.
Tanaine'iHrnithtlfarld wai Peofled{'S.W.,tt,tby.TI-r. Ct, further, Rtaiosm A rckives des Scir«cii NatttreOts
Samuel Forrey in,4m<r. Biilica! Refosilory, }aly, 1841; (Genive, 1845-51)! Col. Chas. Hamilton Smith's
A'ai!, //■«(,
Mcaintock and Stmog's Cyclopadia, under " Adaui " ; HvmoK Sfecits (1848) ; Dawson in Ltisurt Hoar, xiiil.
• Alter a photograph. A heliolvpe of a porlrait by Cusler is in the Amir. Aniiq. Soc. Froc, Ap., 1S79. Haven's
Avrntat Kefiorts, as Hbtaiian ol the Amer Anliq. Soc, furnish a good chronoli^cal conspectus of the progresfi of
anlhropological discovery.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA,
375
'0 of the most celebrated of

id Haeckel'3 Hist, of Cna-
et way the late may haie
tionl U/VH tin Cranial F0rn,s of the Anttrican Aborigines (Philad.. lS6
the evolutionists reject the autochthonous view, for Darwin's Dtsctnl of
tion consider the American man an emigraot from the old world, ii:
developed.!
Of the leading historians of the early American peoples, Prescott, dealing with the Meiicans, is inclined
to ^tee with Humboldt's arguments as to their primitive connection with Asia.* Geo, Bancroft, in the third
volume of his Hi^. of thi Unilid States (iSô), surveying the field, found little in the linguistic affinities.
Utile in what Humboldt gathered from the Mexican calendars and from other developments, nothing from
the Western mounds, which he w-as sure were natural earth-knobs and water-worn passages,' and decides upon
some transmission by the Pacific route from Asia, but so remote as to make the American tribes practically
in*genous, so far as their character Is concerned.
\ste varieCes of skulls in America : the tCAeiler'
iwxphalic), the ahon-headed fbrachy- of Ameri
nd Ihe medium Imeaocephalic), He found the ag;e afl o
10 predoiniiiate. e«cepl in Peni. Me;£i had probably
[ed the subiect in his Obiervaiiims m thfForm English
ifvl (Philad,, iS6o). Cf, Busk in Jmr. An- tums up
., April, rSjj; WymMi, in Feai. Mm. Ri^l., Dabry di
iHkimiaH Reft, iS66! Bollasrt's "Contribution to an

roduction lo Lhe Anlhropology of the New World" in
( Elknegrafhit ,- and Simonin, L'lamme

\ (Paris, iSjo), F, W. Putnam (Reftri in
Survey, vii. p. i8) says : " The primitive tace
1 wag as likely aulDchlhonoui and of Pliocew
ground. Dill, in
>, appended to the

hulBric AnwriCa,
linn It, CI. alio
'.iem in Mmvemi
iRofI, Hat. Raa
ii.^ves
' Cf. a)
376
NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA
'e appeared In Alexander Vk Bradford in his AinerhaH

history of the Red Race His views were oen He con
nects the higher organized life of middle America with tlie correspojiding culture of Southern Asia the
Polynesian islands probably furnishing the avenue of migrations; while the ruder and more northern peoples
of both shores of the Pacific represent the same stock degraded by northern migrations
In 1S45 the American Ethnological Society began its publications, and in Albert Gallatin it had a rigorous
helper In unravelling some of these mysteries. A few years later (1853) the United States government lent
its patronage and prestige to the huge conglomerate publication of Schoolcraft, hb Indian Tribes of the
Uniitd Staies,wii.Kb leaves the bewildered reader in a puizlmg maze, — the inevitable result of a work under-
taken beyond the ambitious powers of an untrained mind. The work is not without value if the user of it has
mora systematic knowledge than its compiler, to select, discard, and arrange, and if he can weigh the impor-
tance of the separate papers.!
In 1S36 Samuel F. Haven, the librarian and guiding spirit of the American Antiquarian Society, summed
up, as it had never been done before, for comprehensiveness, and with a striking prescience, the progress and
results of studies in thb field, In his Archeology of tki Uniltd States (SmillnoKiaH Omlriiulioni, viii.,
Washington, 1856).
In 1S51 Professor Daniel Wilson, in his Prehiitorie Annals of Scotland, first brought mto use the designa-
tion " prehistoric " as eitptessing " the whole period disclosed to us by means of archaeological evidence, as
distinguished from what is known through written records ; and in this sense the term was speedily adopted
by the arehiologists of Europe." ^ Eleven years later he published his Prehistoric Man : Risearches into ih»
EDWARD B. TYLOR."
> HiTen n the n
'or Hbliogr^hy si
' Again he uy>
iric whrrever hii chtonid
nd hi> hiHoiJ i> wholly
Man m
1 I. 8s, 557.
his independem di
.16) lays : ■' For I
m ihe borders of h
I chroDologieal significance {
geological periods.'^ Of
'm to furnish the best guar-
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA.
177
origin of cwilizatiott m tie old and new -w.

but it 19 the result of long study, partly in tl
is in the maLn concerned with the western
himian period subsequent to that of the ok
thus in effect a study of early man in Ameri
B/O'w/iidîflM of Lubbock. .
The comparative study of ethnological

society, owes a special indebtedness to Edw
years since he first published his Resiarcki
Civilhatisn? Ihe work almost, if not quite
reader with all the ref
how he has Titalized liis vast accumulation of

oppressive burden by simple aggregati
*htr
the a
3. Tylor, amolig "
tkt Early Hiit,
1 pioneer in this
It well fortified with references,

A judgment. It
nies with Uttle hesitation "began its
' in the race of civilization." While
d degree a complement to the Origin
English. It is nearly twenty-five
0/ Mankind and tie Dsstlsfrntnl o/
eresting field, and he has supplied the
Milller (Chip!, ii. 162) has pointed out
id of leaving tl
ploytd are! Forth
eoldBt,!!
6r>l termed it, wh
ch, wilh a
g, covenn
the piim
fiint-chippera; and
butaiing
munilyof li™.gis
knovmto
Solulr^, in Easlem
France, b
this earl
Tb;s none period
Mriier and lat« p.
iiod,repr(
uf Ihc river drift
nd of Ihe
alof Ihe
.illel Ihe Chellean
period, w
h. One of Lubbock'
^nce 1855, when he introduced

\A stones vw £nt find dgns of >
* A from view of a Hochelagan bk
L. P. Gr
riam, iv. ; and W. J. McGee, in Pe,
1888, for condensed viewji but the !
more enlarged views of Riu, Abbott
' Caiubriê, Eng., 1862; revia

rewritten, Undon, 1876. Cf,
Man," in the Roy. So ~
and his "Unwritten Hijloiy " in Smilh,^
■ London, 186s, 1S70; N. V., 1878.

> Tylor ipeakB of Klemm'i A Ugrmtiiu CtilfiirgrKkickli
dir ifimokitil hdA bit ABgiwiiu Cf- - '
as containing *' invaluable coUecttonB of facts beariag

the history of cinliiaUon.*
be outline, on a latjEr scale, of the Cromngnon skull.
Rtpl.iiifa).
ichtt
■ha/t
rG^gle
had done; and it is remarked that while thus classifying, he has not been lured into pronpunced theory,
which future accession of matetiai might serve lo modify or change. He shortly afterwajils touched a
phase of the subject which he had not developed in his book in a paper on " Traces of the Early Mental
Condition of Man,"landillustiated the methodshe was puisuingin another on " The Condition of Prehistoric
Races as inferred from observations of modern tribes." *
The postulate of which he has been a distinguished expounder, that man has progressed from barbarism to
ialathidevildfiaento/ mythology, phihiopky.relisian, art, and cuslom.l The chief points of this further
study of the thought, belief, art, and custom of the prunitive man bad been advanced tentatively in various
! aheady mentioned,' and in this new work he further acknowledges his obligations
■ ■ ■ " ■ ■ ' and Theodor WaiU's Anlhi-ofohgU der NaiuruBlkerfi He
nute evidence from the writers on ethnography and kindred
IS his foot-notes abundajitiy testify.
THEODOK WAITZ,'
These studies of Professor Tylor abundantly qualified him to give a condensed exposition of the science of
anthropology, which he had done so much to place within the range of scienrilic studies, by a primary search
for facts and laws; and having contributed the article on that subject to the ninth edition of the £aij''^|'/«i''''
Briiannica, he published in iSSi his Anthrofohgy : an Introduction la the study of man and civiliiatien
(London and N. Y., 1881 and 1888). He maps out the new science, which has now received of late years
so many new students in the scientific method, without references, but with the authority of a teacher, trac-
ing what man has been and Is under the differences of sex, race, beliefs, habits, and society.^ Again, at the
' R^yal Inil. of at. BrU. Proc, repriiiled in SmU^

ences in ihai part of his great work which in the English
' Inttmai, Cong. Prikisl. ATckacl. Trant-, 1868.
translation is called an IidroAMtim to AtHkrotsligy.
> LoDdon, 1S71 ; li ed., 1S74, somewhst aiupUfied;
Wallace and other observers contend that the direct efficacy
Boston, .874; N. Y., 1877-
• See preface to Primitwe CvtUm, ist ed.
• Vol), iii. and iv. of this treatise (Leipiig, iS£>-64) are
given to"Die Amerifcaner," and are provided with a lis! of
^«Wi Ann. R,lt. Bur. tf Elhnal., p. 479-
books on th= subject, and ethnological maps of Nwth and
South America. Brinlon {Myth., p. .,0) thhiks it the best
(Paris, i96S), and Paul Totinard'j ^-M«/<JBi:> (English
work yet written on the American Indians, though he

thinks Ihit Wail. ™ on the religious aspects. Waiw has
fully discussed tht question of climate as affecting the
translation, London. igjS). Qualrefagei {H^nan Rt,ci,

(p. »?).
• After a likeness in Olio Caspari's Urgaihkh,
■, dcr M,mcki,il, tA ed. , voL i, (Leipiis, 1877)-
Hosted by VjOOQIC
379
Montreai meeting (Auguat, 1884) of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, hi
an ^ddr«ss tiie Iwunds of the " American Aspects of Anthropology." '
Closely following upon Tylor in this field, and gathering his material with much the same assiduity, and
presenting it with similar beliefs, though with enough individuality to mark a distinction, was another Ei^
lishman, who probably shares witli Tylor the leading position in this department of study. Sir John Lubbock,
in his PrekisloTK Times ai illustrated by sJicitnt rimains. and the manners and cHitums of modern
savages? gathered the evidence which exists of the primitive condition of man, embracing some chapters on
modem savages so far as they are ignorant of the use of metals, as the bcist study we can follow, to fill out
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK*
1 Given in Pi>p«li:r Science Mwlhly, Dec, 1884, p. iji;
Ihem with readers less sttdioua. The English reader nu.
nd in the same periodical p, 16,, is an acwunt and portiail
1 Tylor.
WiM>/Hirod.iBA»tiro/^,rgr(p. 184), etc.; much that

S&i ( and later. Pan of thia work had appeared earlier in
Lubbock in Wilson's PrtkiHsric Max ; some Tigorous and
lie MtiliomU Hi.f. Review, .86,-6,. Including a paper (ch.
perhaps sweeping chsraclerialioni in Lesley's Origin and
) OD No. Amer. Archeology in Jan., .S63, which Wis re-
Deslirv of Man (ch. 61 ; and other aspects in Winchell'a
lied in the Rnue Arehiologivue, 186s.
U. S. (ch. <,}, F. A. Allen in Com/te Rendu, Cimnii del
This book of Lubbock's and Tylor'scorrelalive work
A mh-icanitiei. iSj?, vol. i. 79- Homboldl points out the
non-pastoral chaniclet of the American tribes ( Vieva ej
Unglish; and some such book as Jaa. A. Farrer's Primi-
Nal«r.:i.AA Helps' ^*fl/«*i deal, with the prehiUoric
fve m-ners and Custom.- fN. Y,. .8«,) will lead up to

* After a photograph.
ijGdosIe
the picture of races only archsologieally known to us. This study of modern savage life, in arts, manias
and relationships, morals, religion, and laws, is, as he holds, a necessary avenue to the knowledge of a c
dition of Che early maji, from which by various influences the race has advanced to what is called civlliiati
His result in this comparative study — not indeed coveiing all the phases of savage life— he made known
his Origin cf Civi/aaliini and the Primiiivt Condition 0/ ManA While referring to Tylor's Early H
cf Mankind as more nearly like his own than any existing treatise, hut showing, as compared with his o
book, "that no two minds would view the subject in the same manner," he instanced previous treatments
certain phases of the subject, like Mullet's Gischiehti dcr Amerikaniscken Urrelisionen, J. F. M'Lenna
Primitive Martiagi? and J. J. Backofen's Das Mutterrukt (Stuttgart, 1S61) ; and even Lord Kames' h
tory of Man, and Montesquieu's Esprit des Lois, notwithstanding the absence in them of much of the mini
SIR JOHN WILLIAM DAWSON.*
s, food, dreE
itisfactory ei
mplements of s:
" Travellers," he
lers and missionaries, and Lubbock complait

adds, " find it easier to describe the houses, 1
nndetitand their thoughts and feelings."
The main controverMal point arising out of all this study is the one already adverted to, — whether man has
advanced from savagery to his present condition, or has preserved, with occasional retrogressions, his original
modern
endant
" There
;e which would justify us," says Lubbock {Pni
' London, N. Y., 1870! id ed. ; jd ed., ig?5 ; «th ed., praclic* of c
1S81, — Mch with additions and teviiions. Ancirnt Soci
t CLhnStudiaiHAnc.Hiit. He elucidates the early June. 1 Mo.
vGoiosIe
TiBUS, 417), "in asserting that this kind of degtadation applies to savages in general."' The most distin-
guished advocate of the affirmative of this proposition is Ridiard Whately, Arclibishop of Dublin, both in his
Political Mcunomy and. in his lecture on the Origin 0/ Civi/iialion (li^^), in which he undertook to affirm
that no nation, unaided by a superior race, ever succeeded in raising itself out of savagery, and that nations
can become degraded, Lubbock, who, with Tylor, holds the converse of this proposition, answered Whately in
an appendix to his Origin df Civitiiation, which was originally given as a paper at the Dundee meeting of
the British Association." The Duke of Argyle, while not prepared to go to the extent of Whately's views,
attacked, in his Primtvat Man, Lubbock's argument,' and was in turn reviewed adversely by LuMiock, in a
paper read at the Exeter meeting of the same association (1&69), which is also included in the appendix of
his Origin of Civilisation. Lubbock seems to show, in some instances at least, that the duke did not possess
himself correctly of some of the views of his opponents-
In the researches of Tylor and Lubbock, and of all the others cited above, the American ladian is the source
> Cf. also

si., ii. *Ss';
Sii). Cf.EUchnei'siKn.Eng.traiiil.,
67, iTi. Rawlinson lAnlifiiiljr of man kiitaricatly cc»-
be a digraded r
edi and a siod
mnant of a society originally
• N. Y.,
S65, originally in 0^
Words. M«.-Juae,
map given in D
wBon's Foail Ml-, p. 48, lb
wing his vie.
of the probable lines of n,
gratSonanddistribu-
Morgan {,A ncitnl Sitclely) m
calls three centres of su
psistence, whence the
iaxs.li America. CF. Hellwal
in SmiOi^
Max and his migratiam

London, .85
); Chas, Pickerii^s Min
ii?id their geog. diS'
nd Oscar Pesch
\\ Races if a&m (Eng. Irausl.. London,
8j5). On the passage from the vafley of the
that of the Missouri, see Humboldt's Vitw
S- Morgan(A'D. ^H.. Jfp
[■..di.) supposes Ihe
Columbia Rivei
to be the ori^nal centre »
here the stie
ms diveiêd, and [System
. of CoHsangu«ity.
e migntion
L-as the last which left *e
Columbia valley, and

Morgan's, ps
Oct. .868 and Jan.
Tinted in Beach'
Indian MiKtilanji, p. tjS, Onageneral belief iu 9 mifcrationfroni tb
e north, see Congrle
mdricain, not
lique tur lei indieu
m,"give>araa
of the tribes of North Anwn.
a in the Bui
*ri..S«.AGA.f. Feb.
Sto.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
of many of (heir illustrations. Of all writers on this continent, Sir John Wm. Dawson in his Fossil Men, and
Southall in his Ru/nf Origin of Man, are probably the most eminent advocates of the views of Whately
and Argyle, however modified, and both have declared it an unfounded assumption that the primitive man
was a lavage.i Morgan, in his Artcitrtt Sociity (N. Y., 1S77), has, on the other hand, sketched the Imes of
human progress from savagery through batharism to civiliiation.
One of the defenders of the supposed Bible iiroits best equipped by reading, if not in the scientific spirit,
has been a Virginian, James C. Southall, who published a large octavo in 1875, The Receal Origin of Man
as illastrattd 6y geology and ike modem idenci of frchisioric archxelogy (Philad., 18^5). Three years
detail, sparing the men of science an attack for wliat in his earlier volume he called (heir fickleness, and some-
what veiling his set purpose of sustaining the Bible record, — he published a more effective little book, The
Efock of the Mammoth and Ue ApparitisB of Man upon Earth (Philad., 1S7S). Barring its essentially
controversial character, and waiving judgment on its scientific decisions, it is one of the best condensed
accumulations of data which has been made. His belief in the literal worth of the Bible narrative is emphatic.
He thinks that man, abruptly and fully civiUzed, appeared in the East, and gave rise to the Egyptian and
Babylonian civilization, while the estrays that wandered westward are known lo us by their remains, as the
early savage denizens of Europe. To maintain this existence of the hunter-man of Europe within historic
times, he rejects the prevailing opinions of the geologists and archsologists. He reverses the jui^ment that
Lyell expresses (Student's Elemints of Geology, Am. cd., i6i) of the historical period as not affortKngany
appreciable measure ios -calculating the number of centuries necessary to produce so many extinct animals,
to deepen and widen valleys, and to lay so deep stalagmite floors, and says it does. He contends that the
stone age is not divided into the earlier and later periods with an interval, but that the mingling of the
retreated from the now temperate regions he holdi to have been about 3000 B. c, and he looks to the proofs
of the action of which traces are left along the North American great lakes, as observed by Professor Ed-
mund Andrews! of Chicago, to confirm his judgment of the Glacial age being from 5,300 to 7,500 years ago.'
He claims that force has not been sufRciently recognized as an element in geological action, and that a great
lapse of time was not necessary to effect geological changes {Ef. of the M., 194).* He thinks the present
drift of opinion, carrying back the appearance of man anywhere from ao,ooo to 9,000,000 years, a mere
fashion. The gravel of the Somme has been, he holds, a rapid deposit m valleys already formed and not
necessarily old. The peat beds were a deposit from the flood that followed the glacial period, and accumu-
lated rajadly (£/. oftht M., cb. 10). The eictmct animals found with the tools of roan in the caves simply
when found in America. The stalagmites of the caves are of unequal growth, and it is an assumption to
give them uniformly great age. The finely worked flints found among those called palieolithic; the skilfully
free drawings of the cave-men ; the bits of pottery discovered with the rude flints, and the great similarity of
the implements to Uiose in use to-day among thj Eskimos ; the finding of Roman coin in the Danish shell
heaps and an English one in those of America {Proe. Philad. Aead. Nat. Sei., 1866, p. 291), — are all parts
of the argument which satisfies him that the archieologists have been hasty and inconclusive in their deduc-
tions. They in turn will dispute both his facts and conclusions.'
' Dawson's Possil Men aid Ihtir msdim representa- Snelling. Edw. Fontaine's How tke World was ftofUd
/B«i (London, iSSo, tSSs) is " an aliempl lo illustrate the (N. v., 1871I is another expression of this recent-
origin
characters and condidona oJ prehistoric men in Europe by belief. ^
the biblical record, as long underslood, eharacleriies Daw- gradual unifoimily theory ol Lyell, finds eipoundera
in
■ wn's usual ^Teclllaliol.^. Cf- his Nat«ri and Ike Bi^le. Huiley and Prestwich, and is Ihe burden of H. H. Ho-
lui Story o/fhe Earth, his Origin of the Werld, and his worth's Mammoth and Iki Flood (London, iSSj) in iH
AddrtH a* president of the geological section of the pal*onlolopcal and archieologieal aspects, its geological
Amet. Awociation in .St*- He confronts his opponents' aspects having been touched by him so far only in some
views of the long periods necessary 10 effect geographical papers in the Geological Maf. This great overthrow
of
changes by telling them that m hisloric tbnes " the Hyr. the gigantic animals, during which the man intermediate
canian ocean has dried op and Atlantis has gone down." between the paUeolithk and neolithic age lived, was
not
• Dawson (FoiiiJ Men, iiS)siyii: "I think that Amerw universal, so that the less unwieldy species largely saved
■can archieologistB and geologists mvsl refuse to accept the themselves ; and il was in effect Ihe scriptural
Hood, of
distinction of a paleolithic from a neolithic period until which traditions were widely preserved among the
North
further evidence can be obtained," American tribes (Mammnlh aitd Ike Flood, 307, 444).
) These are very nearly the views of Winchell in bis ' Southall answered his detractors in the Metisdia
Preadamiles. p. 410, Qvarlerly, XKvii. 125. Geo. Rawlinson [Antif. of Man
* CI. Yh papers in Melkodilt Quarlerly, mri. 5S1 ; kiltorlcally considered, Preient Day Trad, No. ft or
mvii. 19. - Jouma! of Christian PkUosofhy. April, iSS3> speaks of
■ This 'a also considered important evidence by Dawson, the antiquity of prehistoric man as involving
con^deralions
as well as Winchell's estimate, in his ^liSe/flrt.^mmja/B " to a laiê eitent speculative " as to limits, "that are to
GeoL Survey (iBj*), of the 8,000 or 9^00 years necessary be measured not so much by centuries as by
minenia."
ior iha falls of St. Anthony to have worked back from Fort Me condenses the arguments for a recent origin of
man.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Southall's arraignment of the opinions generally held may introduce ua to a classification of the data
upon which archôlogists rely to teach conclusions upon the antiquity 0! man, and over soma of which there
is certainly no prevailing consensus of opinion. We may find a condensed summary of beliefs and data
respectii^ the antiquity of man in J. P. Maclean's Manual of the Antiquity of Man (Cincinnati, revised
ed., 187?; again, i8So).> The independent view and conservative spirit are placed respectively In juxta-
position in J. P. Lesley's Origin and Decline of Man (ch. 3), and In Dawson's Fmiil Mm (ch. 8).* The
opinions of leading English archieologists are found in Lubbock's /'rt:4i\«tffK Times {cb. i a), Wallace's Tref-
ical Nature <ch. 7), and Huxley's " Distribution of Races in Relation to the Antiquity of Man," in Intsrnat.
Cong, of Prihiit. Archaol. Trans. (1S6H). Dawklns has given some recent views in Tht Nation, xxvL 434,
and in Kansas City Revieai, vlL 344." Not to refer to special phases, the French school will be found repre-
sented in Nadaillac's Les Premiers Hommes (ii. ch. 13) ; In Gabriel da Mortillet's La prihistoriqui anti-
quit! de ehomme (Paris, 18S3) ; Hamy's Prids de faleontclogie humaine ; Le Hen's Uhommefossile (1867) ;
Victor Meunier'a Les AncUres d'Adam (Paris, 1875) ; Joiy's L'liomme avant milaux (Eng. transL Man
before Metals, N, Y., 1SS3) ; Rtvue del Questions historiques (vol. xvi.). The German school is represented
in Haeckel's NatHrliche SihSffungsgischichle ; Waltz's Anthropologie ; Carl Vogt's Lectures oa Man (Eng.
tiansL, Lond., 1864) ; and L. Buchner's Der MmSik und seine Stellung in der Nalur (id ed., Leipilg, 1872 ;
or W. S. Dallas's Eng. translation, Lond, 1871). The history of the growth of geotogical antagonism to the
biblical record as once understood, and the several methods proposed for reconciling their respective teaching,
is traced concisely in the article on geology in- M'Clintoclt and Strong's Cyclopcedia, with references for fur-
ther examination. The views there given are those propounded by Chalmers in 1S04, that the geological
record, ignored In the account of Genesis, finds its place in that book between the first and second verses,*
which have no dependence on one another, and that the biblical account of creation followed in six literal
days. What may be considered the present theological attitude of churchmen may be noted in The Speaker's
Commentary (N. Y, ed., i8;i, p. 61).
The question of the territorial connection of America with Asia under earlier geological conditions is
necessarily considered in some of the discussions on the transplanting of the American man from the side
Otto Caspar! in his Urgisikiihte der MenschheU (Leipzig, 1873), vol I,, gives a map of Asia and America,
in the posl-lettiary period, as he understands it, which stretches the Asiatic and African continents over a
large part of the Indian Ocean ; and In this region, now beneath the sea, he places the home of the primeval
man, and marks the lines of migration east, north, and west. This view Is accepted by Winchell in his Pre-
orfaiH/(^j(seehismap). Haeckel (A'a/. Sc!i3pfuiigsgesehickti,it(&, 1873; Eng. ttansL 1876) calls this region
^ Lemuria " In his map. Caspari places large continental Isbnds between this region and South America,
which rendered migration to South America easy. The eastern shore of the present Asia is extended beyond
the Japanese blands, and similar convenient islands render the passage by other lines of immigration easy
to the regions of British Columbia and of Mexico. (Cf. Short, 507 ; Baldwin. App.) Howorth, Mammoth and
the Flood, supposes a connection at Behring*3 Straits. The supposed similarity of the flora of the two shores
of the Padfic has been used to support this theory, but botanists say that the language of Hooker and Gray
has been given a meaning they did not intend, ft b opposed by many eminent geologists. A. R. Wallace
{Journal Amer. Geog. Soc., xlx.) finds no ground to believe that any of the oceans contain sunken continents*
(Cf. his Geographical Distribution of Animals and his Malay Archipelago.) James Ctoll In his Climalt
and Cosmology (p. 6) says': " There is no geological evidence to show that at least since Silurian times the
Atlantic and Pacific were ever in their broad features otherwise than they now are."" Hyde Clarke has
examined the legend of Atlantis in reference to ptotohistoric communication with America, In Royal Hist.
The arguments for the great antiquity of man ' are deduced in the main from the testimony of the rivet
' There Is a cursory survey in John Scoffern's Stn^ to eleven. The ocean's averasf depth is variously estimated
The views of the coamogoniats, runnine back lo the be-
seeanW, ch. I.
ginning of the sixteenth century, are followed down 10 the
' It is enou^ to Indicate Ihe necessary correlation
lkeW,rrd (Lond,, iSsSI, and condensed in M'amlock&
marck as enuDciated in his Philosophie Zoologiipa (Pari

Strong'! Cyclofadia (ill. 79S).
1809 i again, 1873). which Cuvier opposed; and with il
• Vcrse I. In >he beginning God created the heaven
new phase of il in what i. called Darwin™, a theoiy
and ihe eanh.
Vltse I. And the earth wa. without fonn and void, etc.
Lyell {Pri«cifl., 0/ Oeology, nth el. li, 4,5) presen
» Cf. also J. D. Whitney's Climctic Changes. The
the diverse sides of the question, which is one hardly gi
Hosted by VjOOQIC
gravels, the bone caves, the peat deposits, the shell heaps, and the Lacustrine villages, for the mounds and
other reUcs of defence, habitation, and worship are very likely not the records of a great antiquity. The whole
lield is surveyed with more fullness than anywhere else, and with a faith in the geological antiquity of the
race, in Sir Charles Lyell's Ginlogical Evideniis of the Antiquity of Man.' With as firm a heUef in the
integrity of the bibUcal record, and in its not being impugned by the discoveries or inductions of science, we
find a survey in Southall's Xtceal Origin a/ Man. These two books constitute the extremes of the methods,
both for and against tlie conservative interpretation of the Bible. The independent spirit of the scientist is
nowhere more'confidently expressed than by J. P. Lesley (Man's Origin and Destiny, Fhilad., 1868, p. 45),
who says : *' There is no alliance possible between Jewish theology and modern science. . ■ . Geologists
have won the right to be Christians without first becoming Jews." Southall^ inteiptets this spirit in this
wise ; " I do not recollect that the Antiquity ef Man evti recognizes that the book of Genesis is in exist-
ence; and yet every one is perfectly conscious that theaullior has it in mind, and is writing at it all the time." °
enough to prevent the widest interpretations and inferences.
The intimations which are supposed to exist in the Bible of a race earlier than Adam have given rise to
what is called the theory of the Preadamites, and there Is little noteworthy upon it in European literature
back of Isaac de La P^yihn's Praeadamiias (Paris and Amsterdam, 16;;), whose views vrere put into EngUsh
in Man before Adam (London, 1656).! The advocates of the theory from that day to this are enumerated
in Alexander Winchell's Preadamites (Chicago, 1880), and this book is the best known contribution to the
subject by an American author. It is his opinion that the aboriginal Atnetican, with the Mongoloids in gen-
eral, comes from some descendant of Adam earher than Noah, and that the black races come from a stock
earlier than Adam, whom Cain found when he went out of his native eountry.t
The Investigations of the great antiquity of man in America fall far short in extent of those which have
been given to his geological remoteness in Europe; and yef, should we believe with Winchellthat the American
man represents the pte-Adamite, while the European man does not, vte might reasonably hope to find in
jcal man, if, as Agassi! shows, the greater age of the American continent
The CKphclt proofs, as advanced by different geologbts, to pve a great antiquity to the Ameticin man, and
perhaps in some ways greater than to the European man,'' may now be briefly considered in detaJL
Oldest of all may perhaps be placed the gold-drift of California, with lis human remains, and chief
them the Calaveras skull, which is cMmed to be of the Phocene {tertiary) '
that Powell and the govermnent geologists call it quaternary. It was in February, 1866, that in a mi
shaft in Calaveras County, Calif ornia, a hundred and thirty feet below the surface, a skull was founfl imbe
in giavel, which under the name of the Calaveras skull has excited much interest. It was not the first
that human remains had been found in these California gravels, but it was the first discovery that attti
' London, i86j, t eds., each enlarged; Philad,, 1863. ' LouU Agassi advanced (1863) (his view of Ihe
In his final edition Lyell acknowledges his obligations to eniergsnce of land in America, in the Atlantic Mm
Lubbock's PreklHaric Man and John Evans's Am. Slime
Im^metttt. His final edition la called : The geological
midlnas of the antiqtiily of man, with an ontliia ef gla.
eial and iost-terliar^ geology a<td remaril OK lie origin
ofrfeelei wM iêia! reference lo man's fint affearanee
OH tki earth. 4lh cd., revised (London, 1S/3).
" Recem Origin of Man, p. 10.
« Another way of looldng al it gives leasons for this
Jews bmroiKd from the Babylonians, and as preserving for i. (iS&i). Joly, Man before Meta-s. tp. 7- ■^"■"
ug an early cosmol.^" (HowoTlh's Mamnwtk and the Schmidt. Die Itttestin Sftiren des Memcfun In Nard
F!i«^.hoi,i., i837,p.ii). Between Lyell and Gabriel de ^«<fitn(Hamburs, 1887). A. R, Wallace in AfuKtoW*
Mottillet (Lafrthistsrif,ieAnliquiliderf{omHie,P3m, Ctn/ii-:}' (Nov., 1887, or Living Aet, drav. 47')- P'P-
188}) on the one hand and Soutiiall on the other, there are Science Monthly, Mar., .877. An ejntome in Sc-ence,
the mote cautious geolopsls.like Preslwich, who claim that Apr. 3, >8Ss, of a paper by Dr. Kollmann in die
Zeitschrift
we must wait before we can think of measuring by years f«r Ethnologic, F, Laikin, A neienl Man in A merica
tlie interval from the earliest men. (O. "Theoredcal (N, Y., 1880), The biblical record restrains Southall in
considetaaonson the drift containing hnplemenls,"inffor, all his estimates of the antiquity of man in America, as
Soc. Philes. Trans., 1861.) shown in his Recent Origin of Man, ch. 36, and E^k of
* Cf. Amer. AnI/f. See. Proc., Apr., 1873, P. 33- ''*' Mammoth, ch. 15.
' Winchell's book is an enlaisement of an article con. ' Hugh Falconer IPalMonlolagical Memoirs, u, 579)
tribnledbyhim to WCEntodi and Suons'a Cyclofiedia of says: "The earliest date to which man has as yet been
BiHical LUtratare, ext. (vol. viii.. 1S79), — the editors of traced bsck in Europe is probably but as yesterday m
which, by their foot-notes, showed themselves uneasy under comparison with the epoch at which he made his
appear-
some of his inference) and eonclusiona, which do not agree ancein more favored regions,"
with their conserradve views.
xi. 371
ijalsoi
n Oeol. Sketchei, p. I
,— marl
™g the Lau-
long
Canadian borders
f the United
as the
prim
mtineut. Cf
. Nott and Gliddou's
Types
of Mankind
', ch
.. 9. MoilUlet hold!
< that so late
as the
lary
period Europ
cabyai
re^
!d by the FarSes, Ice-
and Gr.
menial
Id.
ral refei
antiquity of mj
irica follow :-
-yf\i«SB, Prehistoric
Short's
ner. ef Am.
!,.. qh. :
.. NadaiUac,
Les 'premiers
«, ii. ch. 8.
Fostei
■, Prehisleric
of the U
; .s-..
and
Chicag,Ac.
•d. of Si.
■iencee,Proc.,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
notice. II was not seen in situ liy a professional geologist, and a few weeks elapsed before Profesaot JosUh
Dwlght Whitney, then state geologist of California, visited the spot, and satisfied himself that the geological
conditions were such as to make it certain that the skull and the deposition of the gravel were of the jame
i^. The relic subsequently passed Into the possession of Professor Whitney, and the annexed cut Is repro-
duced from the cateful drawing made of it for the Mtmoirs sf the Muimm 5/ Cm./. ZoUitgy (Harvard
University), vol. vL He had published eaiher an account in the /levue (CAnthropoiegie (1873),^?. 760.I
This interesting relic is now in Cambridge, coated with thin wan for preservation, but this coating inter-
feres with any satisfactory photograph. The volume of Memoirs above named is made up of Whitney"*
AurifiroHs Grai/ils of the Sietta Nevada of California (iSSo), and at p. Ix he says: "There will un-
doubtedly be much hesitancy 00. the part of anthropologists and others in accepting the results regarding the
the evidence of the Calaveras skull because it vras not seen in li/u hy a scientific observer forget the e»idenc»
of the fossil itself; and he adds that since 1866 the other evidence for tertiary man has so accumulaled
that "it would not be materially weakened by dropping that furnished by the Calaveras skull itself,"
What Whitney says of the history and authenticity of the situll will be found In his paper on " Human
existence of man with an eitinct fauna and flora, and under geographical and physical conditions differing
from the present,^ in the Pliocene age certainly. This opinion has obtained the support of Marsh and La
Conte and other eminent geologists. Schmidt (Areiin fur Anthropologic) thinks it signifies a pre-glacial
man. Winchell {Prsadamiles, 428) says it is the best authenticated evidence of Pliocene man yet adduced.
some confident doubters. Dawkins {No. Am. Rev., Oct., iSSj) thinks ihat all but
a few American geologists have given up the Pliocene man, and that the chances of later interments, of ac-
ddents, of ancient mines, and the presence of skulls of mustang ponies (introduced by the Spaniards) found
in the same giaveb, throw insuperable doubts. " Neither Jn the new workl nor the old worki," he says,
"is there any trace of PUocene man revealed by modem discovery." Southall and all the Bible advocates of
course deny the bearing of all such evidence. Dawson {PossU Men, 345) thinks the arguments of Whitney
inconclusive. Nadalllac (VAmerique prihistorique, 40, with a cut, and his Ui Premiers Hommes, II. 435'
hesitates to accept the evidence, and enumerates the doubters.^
Footprints have been found in a tufa bed, resting on yellow

caiio, Tiicapa, in Nicaragua. One of the prints is shown in th.
Dr. Brinton in the Amer. Philosoph. Soe. Proc. (xxiv,
distinct strata of deposits before the surface soil was
bearing shells, from the post-Pliocene to the Eocene. T
the mastodon.'
:t vol-
.0 Pulnai
( in Wheel
" a. H. H.
' Dr. Briatoi
VOL, 1
■3?- p. 4371- Above this tufa bed were foiii

iched. Geologists have placed this yellow s
seventh stratum, going downwards, had remaii
re Spired ».s ^ inchet 1<n||!

-. AfUiiuarian In. i.j), Mar.,
y Google

Foster rather strikingly 11
which we know neither the 1
le like following down the a
jists believe in a great i
ness. There are some, like Sir Willi

Whitney (Oimafic Ckangii, 38?) holi
eastern parts. The advociles look
well as any, while writers like Howe
Hon long ago this was, the caut><
les 0/ that pyramid till it reaches a lirai base, we know not where. Many geolo-
iheet which at one time had settled upon the northern parts of America, and
Dawson.i who reject the evidence that persuades others. Prof.
: to Dr. 1
lames Geikiei as hav
Ing correla
led the proofs
-orthStri
ions geo
jce the resulting phei
lomena lar,
„ i^ \,P q„ite 1
ANCIENT FOOTPRINT FROM NICARAGUA.

156) May, 18851 Piaiody Mia. Etfils., Mankind, iqj) siys: "Gtol
I evideiu
and lURtht
lirthiA
' H^mmotk and tht Phtod-
rtdis which haRiened oulMde hislory, and cannot n

leantiqiiilyofioanin terms of years." Dawiins
\m. Rn., Oct., 188], p. 338. Tylor (Earlf h
lapse of vast periods of luiie,hasic»rcel

admilled of then period! being biouglit into definite chroi
ological terms." Presmich (On the gtol. fnilinH an
"g' "/fiint-imflimiKl-iiaring bids, London, 1864, — froi
the R(v Sx. Phil r™w.) says ; " Homver we exten
ofm
oulhall lî
y Google
all means.' Perhaps, as some theoriie, this prevaling ice showed the 1
sion of iheequinoxes.ashaslongbeena favorite belief, with llie swing OJ
one extreme to the other.!
Others believe that we must look back 100,000 years, as James Croll ' and Lubbock do, or 800,000 and more,
as Ljell did at first, and find the cause in the variable eccentricity of the earth's orbit, which shall account
for ali the climatic changes since the dawn of what is called the glacial epoch, accompanying the deflection
of ocean currents, as CioU supposes, or the variations in the disposition of sea and land, as Lyell imagines.*
This great iCMheet, however extensive, began for some reason to retreat, at a period as remote, according u
we accept this or the other estimate, as from ten thousand lo a hundred thousand yeaM.
That the objects of slone, shaped and polished, which liad been observed all over the civilized world, were
celestial in origin seems to have been the prevalent opinion,' when Mahudel in 1733 and even when Buffon
in i?78 ventured to assign to them a human origin.'
In the gravels which were deposited by the melting of this more or less extended ice-sheel, parts of the
human frame and the work of human hands have been found, and mark the anterior limit of man's residenca
on the globe, so far as we can confidently trace it.' Few geologists have any doubt about the existence of
human relics in these American glacial drifts, however widely they may differ about the age of Ihem.s
It was in the Amirican Naturalist (Mar. and Ap., 1872) that Dr. C. C. Abbott made an early eommuni-
1 Cf. Louis Agassii, GtoUgical StcUiii (.865), P- "" 1 "»u»l.i ô" ^^'^ S&lals, ch. 1. Nadaillac (£« Prt-
' J. Adhimer.JTeiw/B/iapH* /a My, *ho advocates this 'Foster, PTthalurk Races, jo, noiea some obscure
theory, connects with it the movemeul of the apsides, and fuels which imghl indicale thai man lived back of the
thinks that it ii the consequent great accumuJalion of ice at gladal times, in the Miocene tertiary period. These
are
the noilh pole which by lis weight displaces the centre o{ the discoveries associated with the names of
Deanoyers and
gravity; andai the action is transferred (roiu one pole 10 the Abb^ Bourgeois, and familiar enoi^h to geologist!,
die other, the periodic oscillation oE that centre of gravity They have found little credence. Cf, Lubbock'. Pnha~
llB force with some minds from the great law of mutability ner'i S^h. p. 31 ; Nadaillsc's La Primitrt Himimci, ii.
in nature. That it ia a grand Held for such theooiers as 41s; and L'Htmmt lirtiaire (Paris, iSSj); Pewhel'i
Lorenio Bulge, his Prrglarial Man and the Aryan Rita Raca a/ '**■', P- i+1 Edward Clodd in MftJmt Rtvitm,
• shows! but authorities like Lyell and Sir John Henchel Jul^, iSSo; Dawkini' AiUnss, Salford, 1S77, p. 9; Joly,
find no sufficient reason in it for the great Ice-sheet which Man ii/arr Mrlaii, 177. Quatretages (Hianatt Sfteiei,
thej contend for. CI. H. Le Hon's Influinci dii hU H Y., 1879, p. Jjo) assents to their audienridly. Many oi
ciamiqurs lar la clhnalsligli It la glthtgU (Brmelle!, these look lo the later tertiary (Pliocene) as the beginning
1S6S). W. B. Galloway's Science and Gctlofy in nlatim of the human epoch ; but DawkiiiB('V0. Am. J?;?.,
cmviL
lollu ^«>i«no/Z>«/.i^(Lond.,i8»S) prints out what be 538; of. his £ar^ Mm Mifriiom, p. 9o),aswella> Huit-
thinks Ibe necessary effects of such changes of axis. J. D. ley, say that all real knowledge of mau goes not back
oC
Whitney {.Climalic ckangn 0/ later graitgical tinrs, the quaternary. Cf. further, Quatrefgges, /)i»-a/, d Ti^lîft
Mem. 3f»s. Cfmfi. 2M.. vii. 391. 3M) disbelieves all rf« ram .*»«««« (Paris, 1887), p. 9. ; and his Jfai. //lit
mera and dimatologists are opposed to them. WinchellfMcCiliniockand Strong's Oieiî/MiViii. 491-
• Of the manifold reasons which have been assigned for i, and in his Preadamitei) concisely classes the
evidences of
these great climatic changes (Lubbock, PrehiHaric Timet, tertiary man as " Pregladal reuiaini erroneously
supposed
j9i,andCron,0»olHH»I,enumerates the principal reasons) humid," and "Human remains erroneously supposed
pre-
there is at least some considerable credence given to the one glacial ; " but he confines these condusions to
Europe only,
^ntridty perhaps, be carried back (p. 491I into the tertiary age.
iminished Cf. on the tertiary (Pliocene) man, E. S. Morse in
from the present scale to one sixth of it, or to about half a Aimr. Maturallit, xviii. loai,— an address at the
Philad.
million miles. This change in the eccentridty induces meeting, Am. Asso. Adv. Sdence and his earHer paper
physical changes, which allow a greater or less volume of in the M*. A mer. Rev. : C. C. Abbott in Kantat Citji
tropical water to flow north. In this way the once mild Rrv; iii. 413 (also see iv, S4, 336); Camkm Mag., Ii. 1J4
dimate of Greenland is accounted for (Wallace's Iila-^d (also in Pop. Set. Monthly, xxvU. rej, and Edtctic Mag.,
tifi!). Croll first advanced his views in the PhUaiofkieal idv. 601). Dr. Morton believed that die EiKene man, of
theory till in his Climale and lime in their geclegiial In iSSj i.Gttl, Sielclui, 100), diought die younger nat-
relalimi, a Iheary sf secular changes 0/ tkt earti i uralisU would live to see sufficient proofs of the lertiiiy
t/jBMi;r(N. v., 1875). It gained the acquiescence of Lyell man adduced S R PasAson {Agt <!f Man
giDlcgicaUy
andodicn; but a principal objector appeared in the astron considered m Present Day Tract, ne. is, or yeumal 0/
oraer Simon Newcomb {Amer. Jl. 0/ Set. and Arts LhnsI Pkdas July i8B3)does not believe in the tertiary
April, 1876: Jan., 1S84: Pkitesopk. Mag., Feb 1884) man instancing among odier conclusions, that no trace of
Croll answered in Remarks (London, 18S4), but more cereals is found in the tertiary strata, and that these strata
fully in a further derdopmenl of his views in hu Pisia show other Gondii ons unfavorable 10 human life. Hie
sioia en ClimaU and Ci>smalitgy{S. Y., 1SS6). Wh Iney s conclusions are that man has existed only aboal
S,osd yean.
Climatic Changes argues on entirely diffeient grounds and that 11 is impossible for geological sdence at present
to
• Frincifles ef Geology, ch. T0-T3, where he gives a confute or disprove it. In his view man appeared in the
secondary placelothe aigumentsof Croll. ' first stage of the qualemary period, was displaced by
< Emile Cartailhac's L'Agt de fierre dani les icwiv floods in the second and for ibe thud lived and worked on
mrs el smferslitiom popalaires (Paris, 1877). the present surface
• Joly, VMommt avant les nUtanx, or in the Enghsh ' Lyell s Aniiqnily 0/ Man, 4th ed., ch. i3. Didel
Hosted by VJOOQIC
lation respecting the discovery of rude human implements in the glacial gravels ' of the Delaware vaMey, and
since then the Trenlon gravels have been the subject of much interest. The rudeness of the flints has
lepeatedly raised doubts as to their artificial character; but Wilson (Prehistoric Man, i, 39) says that it is
impossible to find in flints broken for the road, or in any other accumulation of rocky dibris, a single specimen
that looks like the rudest implement of the drift. Experts attest the exact correspondence of these Trenton
loob with those of the European river drift. Abboll has explained the artificial cleavages of stone in the
Amirican AnHjuarian (viii. 43). There are Eeologists like Shater who question the artificial character of
the Trenton implements. From time to time since this early announcement, Dr. Abbott has made public
additional evidence as he has accumulated it, going to show, as he thinks, that we have in these deposits of the
gladal action the signs of men contemporary with the glacial flow, and earlier than the red Indian stock of his-
toric times.2 He summariies the matter in his " Palieolilhic implements of a people on the Atlantic coast
anterior to the Indians," in his Primitivt Industry (i83s).»
Some discoveries of human bones in the loess or k
accompanied the discovery by Kemp in London, in 1714,
elephant's teeth,* has long passed into indisputable fact, settled by the exploration of cave and shell heaps.l
In North America, this conjunction of man's remains with those of the mastodon is very widely spread.i' The
Wilsos, oil "The supposed evidence 0! the eiisleuce ol Pulnant. Cf, ilia Amer. ^n/i^ndrux, Jan., iS£3,p. t6;
inteiâcial msn,^' in the CitKoJian yeumalj Ocl., 1877. Th. Belt's DiseoveTy of siene imptetneKii in the glacial
■i[iAxaii:'iL'Amlriqutl>rihi)tmiq«i,i:\i.i\LtiPrtmi4ri drift of No. Amirici <Lond., 1878, juid Q. ônr. Sci.
Mtmiui.ii- oh. lo; and his Di la piriade glaciairc tt dc xv. bi; DawUns vnNo.Am. StBÔct,, 1SE3, p. 347.
(Paris, 1884), eilracled from Ablirumx, eu^ G. F. V.'righl Boitoa Soc. Nat. Uiit. Proc, xxi. 134 ; Xtotiriauz, etc.
on "Man and the glacial period in AmericJ," in Mag. iviii. 394; PUIad. Acad. Nat. Scicaai. Proc. (1880, p.
H'fi^.tffi^. (Feb., iSSj|,i. 3oj<wilhiDaps),andhis"Pre. 306). Abbott refers to the cooEributions of Henry C,
glacial man in Ohio," in the Ohio ArcMaxl. aid Hill. Lewis oi the second Geol. Survey of Penna. (/Voc. /'iiViu/.
Omt/. (Dee,, tSSj), i. isi- Mln Bahlritl'i "Vestiges of ^carf.A'ai. J'timcij, and"The antiquity and origin of the
ghKta!niiininMinDesou,"inthe^Hiirr. NatKmlist, Jam, Trenlon gravels," in Abbott's book), and of Geoi^ H.
July, 1884, and Amrr. Alio. Adv. Sci. Proc. umii. 385- Cook in die Aviaa! Siforti ol the New Jersej state
d the Ftood, 333, considers geologist, Abbott has recently summarized his views on
es ol the i
' Pop.SeilHct Jlftm/i/y, xxii. 3.5. Smilhssniax Rtpt., America," in the .4m. Asia. Adv. Sci. Pnn., iawii.,!ind
i8j4-jS. Reports of progress, Etc., in the Pcadodj: separately (Salem, i«S8),
Macum Riforli, uoi, x. and xi, (187S. 1S79). Prat N, * Figuier, IfomM Priinitif, introd,
S, Shaler accompanies the first ol these with some com. ' The references are very numerous ; but it is enough to
ment5,in which he says: "If these remains are really those refer to the general geological treatise! ; Vi^t's
Lrctxrti
of man, they prove the eiislence of ialei^ladal man on this oh Man, nos. 9, 10; Nadaillac's La Prrm. //oames,i\.
part ol onr shore." He is imderatood latterly to have 7 i Dawkins in IMtlltctuai Oistrvcr, lii. 403 ; and Ed.
become convinced of their natural character. J. D. Whit- Lartet, NeitvtiUs recherches sur la estxisttive dr
Phuntme
neyand Lucien lâiT agree as lo Iheh- aitifidal character ttdta grands mammifir!i/iiisilis,rifaascaracth-isliqiai
iliid. lii. 489). CI. Abbott on Flint Chips (refuse work) dc la drmiire pModi gtologiqm, i
\n.\Vs Fiai. Mia. Ripi.,â. ^•. H. W, Haynes m Bos- ,' ' "---"- - ■'-
ion Soc. Nat. Hilt. Proc.. Jan., i8gr \ F. W. Putnam in '.
Peat. Mus. Reft., no. liv. p. li i Henry Carvell Lewis on
Ths Trenlon grnel and ill relation to He anliîlji
ef man (Philad., iSSo); also in the Proceedings. of ike
Acadnnf of NalKral Sciinca of Fhiladilfkia (i8jj-
1879, pp. 60-7J i and iSSo, p. 306I. Abboll has also regis.
teted the discoTety of a molar tooth (Peaiody Hfm. Reft.,
ivi, 177), and the under jaw ol a man {Ibid, iviii. 408, and
Maitriamx, etc., xviii, 334,) On recent discoveries ol Ohio, no. 44.
human skuBs in the Trenlon grawils, see ^trt*. jl/w. ^r/I. » Wilson's />«*«/. 3&b, 1. «h. 2; Proc. Amer. Acad.
xiii. 35. The subject ol the Treoton.giavelsnian,and ol Nal. Sciticei. July, 1839; Amer. Journal 0/ Sei. and
his existence in the like gravels in Ohio and Mimiesoia, was ^r/i,xiiri. 199! iS", 33Si Pef. Sci. Rez:, idv. 178! A.
discussed at a meeSug of the Boston Soc, ol Nat. Hisl., ol H, Wonhen's OrcL Surr^^, IlUnsis (tS66), i. 38 ;
Haven
which there ia a report in their Proceedings, voL xxiii, in SinOhiBnlan Cmtrii., viii. 141; H. H. Howorlh's
These papers have been published separately: PalaoIUkic lifammolk and lir Flood (Looi., ii»7),p. 31^; J. P. Mat
man in caiim and central .Norti America ICxinbriAge, Ltia'i Mastodon, MmrmolA oW Akx (Cindnnati, 188a).
188S). CoKTKNTs: — Pumam, F. W. Comparison of Cf. references under " Mammoth " and " Mastodon." in
palieoKlWc implements, — Abboll, CC, The antiquity of Poole's Index. Koch repieienled that he found Ihe re.
maninlhevalleyol the Delaware, — Wright, G.F. The mains of a mastodon in Miaaonri, with die proofs about
cession of the ice.sheel in Minnesota in its relition 10 the and arrow' l^-f, io-ii Acad, of Sei. TVaw., i, 6j, 1S57).
MlssBahbiilalLittleFalls, Minn. — Discussion and con- since some doubtlul traits of his character have been
ciencee NaSarelles,
4es^r
ie, IV, 356. Bcffon first fot
■mo-
lied the belie! in <
ones and teeth sen!
From the Big Boi
le Lie
:enluciy, about .7.
.vler first aRilied
nimal's resemblar
iberian mammoth
iihaa
netimes been call
led by
.tier name. Ther.
eaUly the fosal .

found in America
. On
ones from the Big
Bone
Li.
ck see Thomson-i
s Bihliog.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
389
geological evidence is quite sufficient without resorting to what hu been called in Elephant's head in the
architecture of Palenqut, the scKatled Elephant Mound in Wisconsin, and the dubious if not fraudulent Ele-
phant Pipe of lowa.i The positions of the skeletons have led many to believe that the interval since the
mastodon ceased to roam in the Mississippi Valley Is not geologically great. Shaler {Aitur. Naturatiii, i».
i6s) places it at a few thousand years, and there is enough ground for it perhaps to justify Southall (Heant
Orisin, etc., 551; £/. 0/ tie Mammsli, ch. 8) in claiming that these animals have lived into historic times.
A human skeleton was found sixteen feet ttelow the surface, near New Orleans — (which is only nine feet
above the Gulf of Mexico), and under four successive growths of cypress forests. Its antiquity, however, is
questioned,^ The belief in human traces in the calcareous conglomerate of Florida seems to have been based
(Haven, p. 87) on a misconception of Count Fourtalfes' statement {Amtr. Naturalist, ii. 434), though it has
got credence in many of the leading books on this subject. Col. Whittlesey has reported some not very an-
cient hearths in the Ohio Valley (Am. Ass. Artt and Scimcti, Proc, Chicage, iSbS, Afaling, vol. ivu. i68).
The I
■of th
has had in Europe.
le early existence of n
^had ti
importance in
ouod wiih such auiiuab in I

[IKnoii. E. L. Benhoud (>
1872) has reported on humai
■gu,,■i^). Th=,E have been

tone resembliug a halchet,
modifiEiI drift of Jeisey Co.,
■d. NiU. ScL, Phttad. Froc.
ilics found with eitinct ani-
3. Dr. Holmes {Ibid. July,
3und with the bones of the
DAWSON'S FOSSIL MEN.»

Mather, CO
Roy. SiK.
Hud
714). -
l>een observed ip. 19,). I«

:Kmes being reported, Dr.
to the PhUsiopkical Tram.
d them Ihe remains ol

while the colored eanh about ihe bones rep
rotted body. d. Matt. Hiit. Ssc. Col!., j
iRd lit Flood, ii7, e

Qeing found under '
: shown 10 him in an early

fMiz>mij). Howorth, -Ma
umerales the later discoverie
!cent conditions (/tid. 178).
^ l.yt\Vi Antiq. of Man, 4th ed., :

■etnitrt kommis, ii. 13; Southall'
'an, ch. 30. Vogl {Liolurtt on M
lrefage>,,ff„«™ij'«I,
at of the Enghis skull ; the dotted outline thai ol the Nean>

Tviog the true outline, and is one of the Hochelaga Indiana 1
are given in Luhboek's Prehiilorie Timtt, pp. jaS, 3)5,
>ubtiul age. On the lleandcnhal skull see Qualrefages
ij. Huldey
lerlhal skull. The ihided ikull is on

aiteofMonlreall. Cuts of the Enghis
Dawkin. iCavo HunUrt, 23s) think,
and Hamy, Crania BBmica (Pari*
[y of Ih
(1884I, *
irilla, a
Hosted by VjOOQIC
It was in 1821 that Dr. Buckland, in his Riliûiac diluvianiu {lA ed,. 1824), first made something like a
systematic gathering of the evidence of anmial remains, as shown by cave explorations ; but he was not pre-
pared to believe that man's remains were 33 old as the beasts. He later came to believe in the prehistoric
man. In 1833-34, Dr: Schmetllng found in the cave of Enghis, near I.i6ge, a
lished his Retherchis sur Us sisemens fessilis dlcouverts dans lei cavemes d
In 1S41, Boucher de Perthes began hb discoveries in the valley 0/ the Somme,^ and finally discovered
among the atiimal remains some Hint implements, and formulated his views of the great antiquity of man in
his AMlifuifSs Celtiques (1847). lathet for the derision than for tlie delectation of liis btotlier geologists. In
1848, the Sociit^ Ethnt^raphique de Paris ceased its sessions ; but Boucher de Perthes had aroused a new
feeling, and while his efforts were still in doubt his disciples" gathered, and amid much ridicule founded the
SociStS d'Anlhropologie de Paris, which has had so numerous a following in allied associations in Europe and
He tells us of the struggles he endured to secure the recognition of his views in his Di I'homme anlidiiu-
vien it de ses amvris (Paris, i36o), and his trials were not ever when, in 1S63, he found at Moulin Quignon a
human jaw-hone,* which, as he felt, added much strength to the belief in the man of the glacial gravels.'
The existence of man in the somewhat later period of the caves " was also claiming constant recognition,
and the new society was broad enough to cover all. In 1857, Dr. Fuhlrott had discovered the Neanderthal
skull in a cave near Diisseldorf .
scientific mind to the proofs than earlier discoveries of much the same character by McEnerj had been. In
March, i8?i, Emile Rivibre investigated the Mentone caves, and found a large skeleton, unmistakably human,
and the oldest yet found, supposed to be of the paleolithic period. (Cf. DUauverte d'un Squilttte humain
di PEpsqut faUolilhigui, Paris, 1873.) AH this evidence is best set forth in the collection of his periodical
studies on the mammals of the Pleistocene, which were collected by William Boyd Dawtins in his Catit Hunt-
ing; Ttsearckes on tht evidence of anus, resfeaing the early inhabitants of Eicrefe {htyaian, i874j,'abook
wliich may Ik considered a sort of complement to l.ye]Vs AHiijxiiy af JUan and Lubbock's Prehistaric Man;
Dawkins (ch. 9, and Address, Salford, 1877, p. 3) and Lubbock (Scienlific Lectures, 150) unite in holding
the modem Eskimos to be the representative of this cave folk. No argument is quite sufficient to convince
Soulhall that the archaeologists do not place the denizens of the caves too far back (Recent Origin of Man,
ch. 13), and he rejects a belief in the steady slowness of the formation of stalagmites {Epoch of the Maniinolh,
90), upon which Evans, Geikie, Wallace, Lyell, and others rest much of their belief in the great antiquity of
the remains found beneath the cave deposits."
The largest development of cave testimony in America has been made by Dr. Lund,« a Danish naturalist,
who examined several hundred Btaiilian caves, finding in them the bones of man in connection with those of
extinct animals.'" The remains of a race, held to be Indians, found in the cave
described by Cordelia A. Studley in the Psabody Mus. Reports, xv. 233. Edwan
contents of a bone cave in the island of Anguilla (West Indies), in the Smithsonian Contributious to Snowl-
tdge, no. 4S9 (18S3). J. D. Whitney describes a cave in Calaveras County, in the Smithsonian Reft. I1887),
and Edward Palmer one in Utah {Peab. Mus. Reft., xi. ^). Putnam explored some in Kentucky Ifiid.
via.) Putnam's first account of his cave work in Kentuclqr, showing the use of them as habitations and as
receptacles for mummies, is in the Prac. Boston Soc. Nat, Ifist,,xta. îg. 1. P. Goodnow made similar explora-
' Cf. Lyeil's Antif. ir/ Ma«, ch. 5 \ Huiley's Man's
' C(. also Geikie'sCwai/t«^^; IjtihhotVi Prekisttric
flaeii^natiire: Le Km'> L' Homme /ossite e« E«rofi:
Leslie's Origin and dtttiny 0/ mm, p. 54, who paues in
Britain; WitianH PreUstorie Annals of Scotland; Nils-
son'i Slonc Agt in Scandinavia ,- Figuier's World before
> Cf. Lyeir. description mhaAntirnilyo/ ffin. ch. 8{
theDebig. (N. Y.. ,8^,), p. 473 i Joly. Man before iUtals,
Qualrefî. JVat. Hist. M.»<N. V., ,B;j), p. 4. i Lang.!,
ch. 3; Caialis de Fondouce's Lee temfs frihistoripas
dans It s^.tsl de la France ; Roujow's BtMdt lar les
I ; Carl Vogl, Vorlesunetn lOer den Menicken.
races kmrainet de la France: Peschel's Races of Men.
' RigoUot, of Amiens, who had doubted, finally came to

believE in De Pmhes's views.
' BOchner'j ifan, p. 26: Hugh Falconer's P^-lamlo-
caves is accounted for by Lyell (Student's Elements, N.
lotical Mitnoirr, London. 1868 (ii. 601 ). Falconer's essay on
wilhlhatof beasts! and by Lubbock l/'re:iuf. Times, ivi)
through the vastly greater numbers of the animals in a hunl-
Falconer shared with Boucher de Perthes and Preslwich,
»nd it is an interesting study of the develi^mienl of the in-
• The present day is not without a cave people. See
London Anthrspolog. Rev.. April. 1869, and Biichner's
» Lyell. Antig. of lUdn, ch. Bi Lubbock, Prehistoric
jTfe«, Eng. tiansL.p. 170.
Timt,,dt,.„: 1iaAia\l^,Le. Premier, ffomm.,,i\.^>t:
• Haven, p. 86.
Leslie, Origin, etc. iff Man, 56. Soulhall gives the anlag.
onistic views in bis Recent Origin of Man, ch. .6, and
breenla Plata (Paris, iSSo), and Howorlli's Mammoth
Epoch of the A^rnmnlh, 116.
and the Flood. 355. who B.es Rise's L. DHuge. p. 3.6,
' This is in dispute, however. That the older cave imple-
America, in connection with extinct animals.
«.n,sIobeêdup>,nbyson,e.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
391
tions in Arizona [Kansas Cilr /ten., viii. 647) ; E. T. EmoK in Colorado {Pofi. Sci. lUt^ Oct., 1875), uid Leidj
in the Hartman cave, in Pennsylvaniii i^Philad, Acad. Nat. Sci. Ptoe., 18S0, p. 348). Cf. also HaUeman in
the Am. Pkihs. Soc. Trans. (1S80) x¥. 351. CoL Charies Whittlesey has discussed the " Evidences of the
antiquity of roan in the United States," in describing some cave
the remains of later prehislark man obtained from caves in the Cat,
and esfeeiaUy from the caves of the Aleutian islands (Washington, i
contribHiisns to knowledge, xxiL
Throughout the world, naturalists have found on streams 1

daily life of primitive peoples. Beneath the loam which h
edible mollusks and other relics of food, implements, omamen
times it happens that natural superposed accumulations will
usages of suecesave periods,^
doubtful age.l W. H. Dall's On
ne archipelago, Alaska t
) is included in the Smii
ist, heaps
refuse of the
the shells of
;lay, and bone. Some-
s, and distinguish the
OSCAR PESCHEL.*
In the Old World such heaps upon the Dani

Kjtekkenraffiddijiger, ot Kitchen.middens, and
Euiopean archsologists who have sought to pic
It seems to be the general opinion that in tl
These accumulations are known usually in Ai

that, while they contain pottery and bone imple
1 The inalances are not rare of mummiea being found in ' Lyell, AhIuj. sf Man, 4th ed. ch. >; Lubbocli, Pre-
cava of IheMisais^ppi Valley; but there is DO erideDce hisl. Times, ch. t. ■SiAiHUc, Lei premiers kommei.i,
adduced of any gnat age atiaching lo them. Cf. X. 5. ch. s ; Joly, Mm before Mtlab, ch. 4 1 FIgnlet, World
Shalei on ihe antiquity of the caveTTu and cavern life of the before Delage (tl.V.TigTi), p. t77. Wnniue,
the)elditi(
OhioVt]\ty,inBoitonSoc.yal.ffiit.Jtbin.,ii.iisUSn)i Danish authority, calls them pilawlithic relio; Lnbbodt

and on desiccated reoiains, see xiic ■^rcAaalegiii Amer.,l. placet them ai early neolithic. Sonthall, of coune.
Ihinki
G FleridiaH PenrKiula, App. ii. On ihe they indicilc the mdeneat of Ihe people.not thdraotiqniljr.
L'Amfriêpriklitorlgut, (K/cenf Origin, etc., ch. ill Efock of the 1~
1 coast have attracted the most a
ention under the name of
their teachings have enlivened the
recitals of nearly all the
ure the condition of these early ract
.e Old World this shell-heap folk su
cceeded, if ftey do not In
the caves'
erica as shell heaps, and it is gener
ally characteristic of them
lements, the stone instruments at
far less numerous, and
ee Nadaillac's
•e tnd-alry
n the 187? ed, of hit

Hosted by VjO-OQIC
392
genenttj occur in the upper Uyers

nf New England Professor Jeffri
shdUieap investigations, could not
sulêct in America earlier than Cale
such deposits on Che Muskin§^m 1
in those of Florida, hut they at
earlj explot
peake in 1834. The earl
Prini Maidmilian's Tram
spedilsuney of the Ami
moundB ID 1S41, in the Pi
{Esa
; scattered through all the layers in those

Vyman, whose name is in this country particularly associated with
i' that any one had in the scientific spirit called attention to the
water in the Archimlogta Amiricana (vol. i., iSzo), who had observed
- in Ohio. They had not passed unnoticed, however, by some of the
ûllelin, IV. 86) notes that J. T. Dncatel observed those on the Chesa-
■ticular mention of the inland mounds seem to have been made in
■edSiatfs? Tostet,\Bh\s Prehislorit Races efl&i U.S. (ch. 4, — a
says that Professor Vanuiemwaa the first to describe the sea-side
JEFFRIES WYMAN.»
I Am. Nalitralut, ii. 397. Flint Chif!, .94- For local observaiiomB i J. M, Jones in
^ CLl-riVtSeimidVUit. SmilksimiaKAnn. RejierUiiî.m those of Nova Scolia.
• AB the general treatises on American archKologj now S. F. Baird in Nat. ^(.ifB« ^rw. (igSi, igSi), on those
cover the sut^cl: Wilson, Prthat. Man,i. 131; Nadail- of New Bninswick and New England. For those in
i3t,L'Amlrîii frikisitriiiur,cY\, i; Short, A'a. Amr. Itaintiet Pmiodii ifla. Rtôrts,iim.,ii^\.;Ciiilr<il Ohio
Antiq., io<i Smiikssnian Rtparts, 1*64 (RauJ, iMt, i8jo Sci. Aluc. Prac., i.jo; thai at Damariscotla, in particular,
' ■i/orf..lv.(Pulnam)i/Va*«^^fiii. isdescribpdinihe /Vre*iJi<i'JS«. ^(^«,at. 531,546; and
mrf. Alice. Adv. Scf. Prx. 1867, in the M^m Hiit. Sec. CsL. v. (by P. A, Cbadbourne)
1875; PhU. Acad. Nal. Sci. Pnc. .866; Pof. Sciinci . andvi.jis- Wyman's studies ate in (he ..^ Mfr. JVa^mj/W,
*fe*(*fr,ii.(Le«is)lL)-d]'iJ'«™/rH*, Lisa; Stevens, Jan., .868, ^ni Ptaiedr Mt,i. Reft., Ii Pnloam (J'jitj
«, furnished by tiia family. The portnil In the Ftaieiy Muicvm Rtfarl, no. viii,,
r, wilh a beard. He died Sept. 4, 1874. There are accounts of Wyman in the aanie
Mddldy, Jan., 1875), with commemorations by O.W. Holmes UJ/nn/ie ManlU^, Nov., 1S74, acd Maii. ffisl.
Soc.
Rrârii, I, v
Nat. Acad., a
trl.O/d^,,dl
<:, Nov., ,87,).
I by Pi
d in the .
Hosted by VjOOQIC

ib*d them in the Piaindy Mia, Rifari.l., v.,
Fnik IVattrShiaHiafia/llUSt. y^/mRi
i87S\ being no. 4 ot the Mc.
c/lk
Far iliost on the New Jersey coaal sec Cqolt's G«/o

AVh. ?trs>y (Newark, i368), and Rau in the SmMsonia^
Rtftrls, 1863, iB6«, .865. The Lockwood collection fjon
" ' inihe Peabody Musenmfcf. ff^.
i. «X Ftai
1 Jort
Alvrigaiat Eitcam^menl at Rihubtih, Dltawai
jSSo). Elmer R. Reynolds repotted on " Frecolumbian
shell heaps at Newburg, Maryland, and the aboriginal
Cs'-gris des Ai«iricaitistis (Copenhagen, 1883, p. 19^).

Joseph Leidy describes those at Cape Henlopen !n the
Phil, Amd. A'a(. SeL, 1866. Those on the Geoigia coast,
Si. Simon's Island, ele., are pointed out in C C. Jones's
AnlignUUt oftht Smtthtrtt Indians ; Smilktmim Rrfli.,
1871 (by C.Brown)! in Lyelfs^w,^. B/ân.and in his
SicsHd Vi,Ut„tkiU.S.(li. Y., ia«), i. 151.
The ibell heaps of Florida have had unusual attention.

Wyraan hai indicated the absence of objects in Ihsn, show-
ing Spanish contact. Dr. Brinton's £r^l studies Oi them
were in his Ni^ri a, the Fhmdian Ptnimtila (PhHad..
iS;9), eh. 6. and again in the SmilAsuniaic Rtport |iS6«),
p. 356- Prof. Wyman's first reports ( St. John River) were
in Tht A mirican NaturtHsi, Jan., Oct. , Nov., t868. He
the SmUksimian Rifarli, <Sjj, by S. P. May-

3t, John River; 1879. by S. T. Walker, on
I ampa nay ; also by A. W, Vcêler in A mrr, Nalurallit,
Jan., 1879: byW. H. Dall in the Ameria-H y^rtial qf
Ardusolsg^r, i. 184; and by A. E, Douglass in tbtAmer.
AniijaarinH. vii. 74, 140. On those' of Alabama, see Pia-
iod^ Mta. Rifi., ivi. 186, and SmithsoHian Rtpl., 1877.
On those ot the great interior valleys, tec tix Sccnd Gi.

slDgical Riftrl sf Indiana, and Humphrey and Abbott's
Pliyiki Md Hydrmdic, of tht Mlaissifti ValUy.
ForlheC
P. Scbi
ler); .
It, there
11; SmithtoHU
L R.fl..
ra74 (by
S9I and
Schu.
Jamal ef tht A nthrapirlagical ImtSutt, t. 4

macher covers the northwest coast in the SmiOttnucn
Rtft; 1873. Those in Oregon are reported to be destitute
of the bones of eitinct animals, in the BM. U. S. del.
Sttrmy, ili, Bancroft, Nal. Raca. iv, 739, refers to thoM
on Vancouver's Island. W. H, Dall describes those on the
Aleutian Islands in the Cmtritalums Is No. A mer. Elk-
t This branch ot archiologicsl science began, I believe,

with the discovery by Sir Wm. R. Wilde of some Iscus-
trine habitations in a small lake in county Meath. R. Mon-
ros -*■?«■( J'cfl/e*iafZ)i««ii^(Edinburgh,i8ai)hai
Hosted by. VjOOQIC
PUEBLO REGION."
" From a map, " Origiiialliane
d^r U™oh
sine d« AiMekH. und V«»and«n Pu«blo5 is New M™co, .usm.
gtstdltvonO, L«*,"ii>P«™
x^n'tMiU.
iluKgtK sbtr viichtigt tern Et/orickangin aufdtm Cisammlgtbitl
a^^grafhU, «ii, (.876). able <i
The smi
Sfc^ Kift. Bur. ElknoiA'i
BvaithouMS, cliff h(m«>,.i.dl
wer houses
vGoosIe
reported to have built houses on piles ; and in South
known. Mr. Hilborne T. Cresson has repotted (Piaiody Mus. Sift..
ends In the Delaware Rivet, and has shown that two of these river sts
third, where implements of jasper and quarts and f r
The earliest discoveries of the cliff houses of the Colorado region were made by Lieut J. H. Simpson, and
his descriptions appeared in hh Journal sf a MUilary JficonHoinanci, in 1849.1 No considerable addition
was made to o*r knowledge of the cliff dwellers till in 1874-75, "hen special parties of the Hayden Geological
Survey were sent to explore them {Haydtn'i Stpsrl, ,$76), whence we got accounts of those of southwestern
Colorado by W. H. Holmes, including the cavate-houses and cUff-dwellers of the San Juan, the Mancos, and
the ruins in the McEhno cafion.^ W. H. Jackson gives a revised account of his 1874 expedition In the Buf-
Mm of the Survey (vol. iL no. i), adding thereto an account of his explorations of 1875. Jackson also gives a
chapter on the ruins of the Chaco caBon.^
In coming lo the class of ruins lying in a tew instances just within, but mostly to the north of, the Mexican
line, we encounter the Pueblo race, whose position in the ethnological chart is not quite certain, be their con-
nection with the Nahuas and Aztecs,' or with the moundbuilders, — red Indian a they be, — or with the cliff-
dwellers, as perhaps is the better opinion. Theu- connecUon with savage nations farther north is not wholly
determinable, as Morgan allows, on physical and social grounds, and perhaps not as definitely settled by thar
The Spaniard early encountered these ruins,^ and perhaps the best summary of the growth of our knowledge
of them by successive e<plotations is in Bancroft's Nat. Sacis, iv. ch. ii.' In the century after the Spanish
conquest, we have one of the best accounts in the Memerial of Fiay Alonso Benavides, published at Madrid
in 1630.8 The most famous of the ruins of this region, the Casa Grande of the Gila Valley in Ariiona,* is
:mgrii da Am,
at Europe; but Ihose revealed by the dry season of 1853- ' Bidlilin, etc., ii. (i8j6). Hayden'j Surviy {i8j6),
Keller described Ihem in ReporU made to Ihe Archs- agej ;■ James Stevenson in F^rth Rtft. Bunait 0/ Elk.
plofical Societyol Zurich. A. Morlol primed an abstract HolBey,vp.ii:jî,itt; tSiMMac's LtiPrtmimasmmit
of Killer's Report in the Smil/amian Refurl, 1863. In (ii. 61), and UAmiriqui prihitleriqut, ch. 5; Scrih-
1366, J. E. LcE ananged Keller's material lyslemalically, nn-'j Mag., Dec, iS;8 (ivii. 366); Gead H'lrrds, XI. tS6;
and Iranslaled it in Tit Lair DwtlUngt of SwUttrlaitd Siiintt, li. ij;. Tlioie of Ihe CaHon de Chelly ate de-
OHd olhtr farit of Eta-apit by Ftrdimmd AVffiw (London, «ribed by James Stevenson in the Jimrnid Amir. Gto.
iM4), which was reiuued. enlarged and bniughl down to Soc. (iSW), p. 339. Il is generally recofuiied that the
dale, in a second edition in 1878. The earliest elaborated cliff dwellers and the Fuebln people were the tame
race,
account was Prof. Troyon's Haiitaluia lacudrii (i860), and that the modern ZuHi and Moquis represent them.
of which Iheiewas a tranalalion in the Sutilksmiax Rr- Bandelier in ^ «Aw/. fnil. of Am., jth Rcpt. J, Sleven-
/Hrti, i860, .361. Troyon and Keller have reached differ- •ira (.Siimd Rifl. Bur. of Etknal.. Mi)desciihea some
while Keller holds these lo be signs of the progress of the dalion with Ihem ol the great antiquity of man.
same people. A paper by Edouard Desor, Paiafitlns or ' Cf., for instance. Short, 331.
Lacialriatt CmOructi/ms, appeared in English in the ' Motgan (SyiUmt nf Cemimgttijtlfy, 157) finds corre-
Srrtltksffn/an Rtporiy 186^ There isalar^ collection of spondence to the roving Indian in physical and cranial
char-
typical relics ftora these lake dwelling! in the Peabody acler, in linguistic traits, and in the limilarilj of arts and
Huseom {Ittforl, r.). social haWn. Their connecdon with the moundbuildet
These evidences now makepart of all archxo!<^ca1trea- and diff-dwelling race it traced in H. F. C. Ten Kale's
lisei: Lyell's Anliq. itf Man: Lubbock. Frrkiil. Tmrn, Rtiuit tx OndiriiMiHgtti in Kard America (Leyden,
ch. 6; Nadaillac. Zis firrmiers kammts, i. 941 ) Ste- 188;). Cnahing thinks {Fourth Rr/I. Bur. Elluurl., 481)
vens, F/IhI Chlfi, 1 19 \ Joly, Man it/ort Mtlali, ch. 5 1 they goi their habit of building In sloiiea from having, as
Figuier, Iforid hi/m tlu Dtl^gi (N. V.. 1871), p. 47B; cliS-dwelleTS, earlier built on Ihe narrow shelves of the
Soulhall, RtanI Origin, elc., ch. 11. and Efoth ef tlu rocks. Morgan (,Peai. Mm. Srfl., ilL ss°) 'hinks th«r
MammotA, ch. 4^ Arck^Bologut, xxxviii. ; Haven in Amrr.
Atitig. Ssc. ProcOet.. 1867; Ran in flarftr's SfonMy,
Aug., 1375; Poole's Ixibx, p. 718, and Sufplimtnt. v- »4«.
The man nf the Danish peat-beds and of the Swiss lake
dwellings is generally held to belong li the present geolog-
ical conditions, but earlier than written records. • See chapter vii. of Vol. II.
Cf. Ban- ' Cf. lesser accounts of these earlier notices in £. G.
■terii. etc., Squier'spaperinlhe.^««-. j;n.„Nov., .848; andG. M.
iiKual Scirnl. Disavtry, iS;o; Snoa, No . Am. Wheeler in the/o=™B;,<imr. Gtog.Soe. (1874), vol. vi,
, 39> A pholrîaph of the Cua Blanca is given > The book is rare. There is a copy in Harvard College
ik'j Rtforl, IVitrln's Surary. p. 370. Cf. libiarj. CI. Sabin, ii. 46J6-J8; Temaui, 518; Cartei-
Am. Aaliif, Soc, Prec,, 185s. p. >«■ Brown, ii.; Lederc, no. Sij (100 francs). There is a
U. S. Gtol, andGcog. Sumtyo/tAr Itrriloriet, French venion. Bnusels, i6jii and a Latin, Sallibuig,
no, 1 (Washington, 1875), and its Annuai Rtfit. 1634.
:ton, i87«l, condensed in Bancroft, iv. 650, 71S, ■ Not 10 be confounded with the Caias Grandes. Iinhei
nrrai
i(.Pcil.
Jfm.
Refl.
. liL SS") think:
ralar
tdeterio
the ruined pneh

jHted now. a.
archif
indelef! in S:i«
i. D.
Peel in
I Am
■tûarian, iv, k
1 Acad. o/Sc
««,,
V. 190
yGoosIe
iDtn ; but we get no dear description till

he rains in 169;.'
which was made during the Mexican War. Such is recorded in W. H. Emory's Nates of a Military Recsit-
aaissanse from Fsrf LtavcniDorth iu Missouri Ic San Ditgo in California? which gives us some of the
earliest representations of these antiquities, including the ruins ot Pecos.* In 1849, Col. Washington, the
governor of New Mexico, organized an expedition against the Navajos, and Lieut. James H. Simpson gives
us the first detailed account of the Chaco caBon in \\a Journal of a Miiilary Reconnoissanci (Philad,, i8;!).5
He also covered (p. 90), among the other ruins of thia region, the old and present habitations of the Zuni, hut
these received in some respects mote deuiled esamination in Capt. L. Sitgreave's Report of an Expeditian
down the Zuni and Colorado rivers (Washington, iKs3),6 accompanied by a map and other illustrations.'
New channels of information were opened when the United States government undertook to make surveys
(1853) iora trans-continental line of railways 1 and a great deal of material is embodied in Whipple's report on
the Indian tribes in the Pacijii R. R. Reports, vol. iii. The running of the boundary line between the United
Slates and Mexico also contributed to our knowledge. The commissioner during 1850-5J vras John Russell
Barllett, who, on the failure of the government promptly to publish his report, printed his Personal narra-
our knowledge of the antiquities of this region.^
No considerable advance was now made in this study for about a score of years. Major Powell iirst pub-
lished his account of his adventurous exploration (1869) of the Colorado caBon in Scriiner's Monthly (Jan.,
Feb., Mar.) hi 1875, and it was followed by his official Exploration of the Colorado River (Washington,
1875), making known the existence of ruins in the caiion's gloomy depths. '£be Reports ai the U, S. Geo-
logical Survey, mdudii^ the accounts by W. H, Jackson and W. H. Hohnes, give much valuable and original
information ; and a good deal of what has been included in the Reports of the Chief of Engineers (U. S. Army)
for 1875 and 1876 will also be found in the seventh volume, edited by F. W. Putnam, of Wheeler's Survey?
including the pueblos of Acoma, Taos, San Juan, and the ruin '° on the Animas Rivet.
The latest examinations of these Pueblo remains, of which we have published accounts, are those made by
A. F. Bandelier for the Archieological Institute of America. He has given his results in his " Historical
introduction to studies among the sedentary Indians of New Mexico,'' and in his '* Report on the ruins of
Pecos," which constitutes the initial volume of Papers, American series, of the Institute (Boston, ibSi) " He
believes Pecos to be Cicuye, visited by Alvarado in 1541, — a huge pile with 58"; compartments, finall)
abandoned in 1840. In October, 18S0, he examined the region west of Santa F6 (Second Sept Arch^-.l
Inst.). His explorations also determined the eastern limits of the sedentary occupation of New Meiico
Short, ch. 1: Bartletfs Perianal Carnitine, ii. 348. H Chaco cation was i
was first described io Escudero'a Notleiis de ChOnahaa his report is in the
(iSifl); and again in i%î,\-a AOxm Mexicano, i. jja. 411- Moângive!
' From thai day to Ibe present there have been very in>' in his Hsusei. .^„ _ ^.j., — „ „,
many deKiiplionB: Decunmdos fara /a lusloria de Mei- holding (p. 167) Ihem to be Ihe seven cities of Cibola
seen
iio, 4lh ser., i. i!>i iv. S04; Bancroft, Nat. Rai^s, iv. byCoronado, CI. on Ihis mooled question our Vol. II.
«ii; Short, 179; SchoolcrafI, /irf. Triies.'Sy. 300; Bart- 30.-5=3: and Sunpson's paper in the 3<™™i;.rfBMr.
Gcfl*.
\as.,PeTSOitai!far.,\\'lii "Sii Emoiy. Reemnaissatci, Sor.io\.-i.
81,567; Humboldl,J«<«'>Wiiijw; Baldwin, ^w.^mr" ' sid Cong.,sd sess., Sei. Ex. Dec., No. ^
iia. Sii Mayer, Itbxiôâ. 396, and Oiservatroiu, isi ' On the Zufli region see Banerofl, iv. 645,667,673 [wilh
Domenech, Deserts, i. 381 ; Rosa Browne, Afsche Coun- tef.) ; Short, jSa ; MBilhausen, Reiseit in die
Felienge-
Irr, 114; Jamelel in Serr. de Gieg., Mar., 18811 Nadail- Urge Jôrd Amerikas (ii. 196, 40a), and his Tagehuh,
\aC; Prehist. Amir., 212, Bancroft groups many of Ihe 183; CoasD'a Mamtltou Cmntry ; Tour du Mendt, L;
iescriptions, and best oollales them. Harft^s MonOdy, Aug.. .8751 J. K Sleveoson's Zmi
' Oi^ssAaiiiCommerredes Prairies (fi.V.,^6ti),ti- iW£(t Z-waxHWashinglon, .88,). Of F. H.Cushing's
.mined Ihe Pueblo Bonito in ,840. "cent labors among the Zufii, see Powell's Second. Third,
' Wijiuiglon, 184!, — joUi Cong., Ei. Doc. 4T. This and Fifth IteMrls, Si-r. qfSHnology.
iadoiaLitiiL J. W.Absn'sFefiort and Ufa/ if the £x~ • The /fi5><*( of Lieut. W. H. Emoiy, directly in chaê
aminatum 0/ New JOitieo. He visited two pueblos. This of Ihe survey (Wo. Ex. Dot. ISS, S4th Cong., ist sets.),
and other material affonled the base for the anidiea of was primed separately in 3 vols, in iSsD-
Squier and Gallatin, the former printing "The ancient ' Revert upon V. S. Geol. Surveys, nest 0/ Ihe one
monumenti of Ihe iboilginsl lemi-dvlliied nations of New hundredth meridian in charge of First Lieut. Geo. M.
MeiieoandCailfomia"(..4«.r. J!<F.,iS48),andthelatter Wheeler, v^. mt, .^fsfewA^f (Washington, ig7<i). Er-
a paper inthe ..4 iiHW. «■**!»;. Jdc. r«K,,ii., repealed in nesl Ingersoll, a member of Ihe survey, published
some
French in the JVM3'...4wi.rf« Voyages, 1851, iii. 337. papers on Ihe "Village Indians of New Mexico " in ihe
<This isperiiaps the mosl importanl ot all the ruins, fournal Amer. Geog. Socn. aadyil
Bancroft, iv. 67., Bandelier-s studies are the most recenl. '" Cf. L. H. Morgan on thiamin in th^Feai. Mus. Reft.,
Ctngris dei Amir., Cotnfle Rendu, 1877, ii. aso, and his idi. S36, and in a paper in the Trans. Amer. Ass. Adv.
tntrod. to studies among Ihe sedentary Indians of Nm Sci. (St. Louis, i377>.
Mexice and Refsrl of Ihe ruts 0/ Pecos {60001,. iSSi,— " His notes form a good bibli^raphy. Heinlendsisa
vGoosIe
Them
tiat s(
comprehensive treatment of the subject worth ll
The literature of the moundbuilders, aud of t

hfe, i5 commensurate with the very wide extent (
mielligent notice was taken of the mounds b
■ull. Archaol. Inst., Jan., i88j), *od thought the

;e dweUings, cllfC houses, one-storr buildingi, and
the front of the next lower.
ies arising out of the mysterious relics of their

vered by their traces.^ It was long before any
traversed the wilderness. De Soto, in 1540,
THE PUEBLO REGION,"
3I (OTidenscs more, and Baldwin (p. 78) slUl more. Nadail.

lac, VAHtiriqiu frihislirriqia (di. 5) also suinmarites.
Morgan studies the social condition of Ihia aneienc people
tSyHrim 0/ Ccâ
!fsmeLi/t.cii.t;
't^^Mu!
j?./li.,.
ni.), Cf. James
11 Habitatie
> of the
y^mrnal A«^. Ceog. S«^
i. (.836;
and his illus-
■.,?,<iACali.!0giu.,/
■:ollt,-t.
K A.
hloa" in Cmg. dtsAmirit
.877. i.
ndbullde
lid pueblo peoples
ll.PT.
lecs
C. Schoe
Archi'B.
.dilaS0C.A
nonY. ser. 1., and th

erelere
ces
«/>«.&',
rmUi.i. 1063;
Dii^dingtherem
nimtre
ereu
Hinlolo,
3lities,wenote
for New Mexico the lolkranng; J. H. Catlelon in the

SKilAitnia« Rtfl. <. 854)1 W. B. Lyon i.Iiid. 1871)1 J-
A, McParlin Uiid. 1877)1 Tunier in Am. Elk-ul. Sx.
TraHs., a. 1 and A. W, Bell in Jnurnal of Ot Eiinol.
Sx, (London), Oct., iB6<). Carleton describes the ruins
alio in the tVttUTK y-mrnal, x\y. iSj. Clarence Pullen
describes the people in JmrKolAmrr. Gtsg.Sor., lix, >j.
FotColoiado; E, l.-'SttAitmim Smithsmian Rtptt-.iî,
1871. G. L. Cannon In Hid. ,877: H. Gannett la P^
Scl mitlhly, ivi. 666 (Mar., iSSol; AiKtr. Natunlitt,
I. Ji; LifPaicalfi Mag., Kvi. 54, For Ariiona; F. E,
Giossmann, J. C V. Les, and R. T. Bun in SmUhnniim
:879, with other refer-
■Thisi
>le under "Moqui.'
ipe of treatment is manifest in the large num-
>■ Calid. „f Pt^l. nf Sm. liHl. (Washington,

Hosted by VjOOQIC
could get no traditions concerning them beyond the assurances that tlie peoples lie encountered had built
them, or some o£ them. We read of Ihem also in Garcilasso de la Vega, Biedma and the Knight of Elvas, on
the Spanish side; but on Ihe Fienchat a later day we leain Utile ot nothing from J oulel, Tontl, and Hennepin,
though something from I>u Fratz, La Haipe and some of the missionaries. Kalm,i the Swede, In 1749, was
about the first to make any note of Ihem. Carver found them neai Lake Pepin in 1768. In 1772 the mis-
sionary David Jones^ made observations upon those in Ohio. Adair did not wholly overlook them in his
American Indians la 17?;. Prof. James Dunbar, of kbeiAssri, 'iDioi Essays on tht lustery of mankind in
rudt and -uncultivated ages (Lond., 1780), uses what little Kalm and Carver afforded. Jefferson in his A'oisi
an Virginia (1782) speaks of them as barrows "all over the country," and "obvious repositories of the
dead."' Arthur Lee makes reference to Ihem in 1784. A map of the Northwest Territory, published by
Jolm Fitch about 1785, places tn the territory which is now Wisconsin the following legend; "This country
hasônce been settled by a people more expert in the art of war than the present inhabitants. Regular for-
tifications, and some of these incredibly large, ate frequently to be found. Also many graves and towers like
pyramids of earth." In 1786 Fianklin thought the works at Marietta might have been built by De Soto ;
and Noah Webster, in a paper in_ Roberts' Florida, assented.* B. S. Barton, in his Oiseroalions ia some
farts of Natural History (London, 1787), credited the Toltecs with building them, whom he considered
the descendants of the Danes.
As the century draws to a close, we find occasional and rather bewildered expression of interest in the
Observations on the Aneiint Mounds by Major Jonathan Heart ; 6 in the Miimnj ot Loskiel ; in the New
Vieuisoi Dr. Smith Barton; in the Caro/iMo of William Bartram ; and in the travels of Volney. In 1794
Winlhrop Sargent reported in the Amer. Philoi. Soc. Trans., iv., on the exploration of the mounds at Cin-
dnnatL The present century Soon elicited a variety of observations, but there was little of practical eitplo-
tation. A New England minister, Thaddeus Mason Harris, passed judgment upon those in Ohio, when he
journeyed thither in iSoj.« The commissioner of the United States to run the Florida boundary, Andrew
EUicott, describes some near Natchei in Usjevrnal (1803). Bishop Madison communicated through Pro-
fessor Barton some opinions about those in Western Virginia, which appear in the Transaction of the
American Philosophical Society, taking different grounds from Dr. Harris, who had thought them works of
defence. The explorations of Lewis and Clark (1804-6] up the Missouri, and of Pike (1805-7) up the Mis-
sissipjrf, produced little. Robin, the French naturalist, in 180;,' Major Stoddard* and Breckentidge ' later,
saw some in Louisiana, Missouri, and Illinois. A leading periodical, Tkt Portfolio, contributed something
to the common stock in iSio and 1814, giving plans of some of the mounds.* Those in Ohio were again the
subject of inquiryby F.Cuming in his 5*<«c*ejo/ a Tour to the WeiWfn CoKuir^ (Pittsburg, 1810), and by
Dr. Daniel Drake In his PUture af Cincinnati and the Miami Valley (Cinn., 1S15). John Heckewelder, the
Moravian missionary, accounted for the ancient fortifications through the traditions of the Delawares, who
professed once to have InhaWled this country, but it has been suspected that the worthy missionary was im-
posed upon.M DeWitt Clinton, in 1811, before the New York Historical Society, and again in 1817, before
the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, had given some theories in which the Scandinavians
figured as builders of the mounds in that State.
It was thus at a time when there Yias much speculation and not much real experimental knowledge respect-
ing these remains that, under the auspices of the then newly founded American Antiquarian Society, Mr. Caleb
Atwater, of Ohio, was employed to explore and survey a considerable number of these works. He embodied
hb results in the initial volume of the publication ot that society, the Archsologia Americana^ After
pointing out scattered evidences of the ttaces of European peoples, found in coins and other relics throughout
the country, Atwater proceeds to his description of the earthworks, mainly of Ohio ; and beside giving many
pkLns,i''he enters into the question of their origin, and expresses a belief in the Asiatic origin of their builders,
and in theit subsequent migration south to lay, as he thinks, the foundations of the Mexican and Peruvian
civihzations.
' Btsckrtilmngitr JiiuelGBltingen, 1764! Eng. Iransl., rfsm on Heckewelder is in No. Am, Rev. Jan., \%%b. Ci.
» yourrud of two oiiiif, etc., Burliuglnn, 1774 (Thorn- " Dcicrlûmaf tlu Atiiiquiliesdiscoviridiii ihe Slare
son's 301. sj- Ohio, no. 657). of Ohio axd other IVisltm Stales, with tngrmintt/rom
■ Hia account is coined in the Mkj. Mag..Oa., 1791. /KtBal sm-orys (Worcester, Mass., iBlo). Thia was re-
• Cf. Amir. Mag., Dec,, 1737; Jan., Feb , 1788. primed in ihe Writings of Colli Atvaler (Columbus,
> Repealed in Gilbert Imlay's Tofog. Descrif. West. ,8)3). This volume also included his Oismw/imimflDi 01
Territory. a IrartoPrairii du Chica in rfi? (Columbus, 1K31), where
• 7oi,™i/ nf a Tour. Atwater was wot by the Federal govemmeul to purchase

' Vcyogi dans Louiiia»e{'PiAi,rfB7). mineral lands of the Indians (P. G. Thomson's Biil. of
• Shilchis of Lmisianaftiii). Ohio, no. 5.; PUlmg, Biil. of Siouai La«g.,p.a). The
' yinB!OfZ.ouis!ariaiPU<cbarg, 1814). iHrl orlRinally published in the ./)rf*<iirf. Amer, waslrans-
» Account of Ihe History, Mannrri and Customs of tht laledby Malie BnminNouv.Aimalesde yryagti,iivii\.,
Ik€ neighboring Slaies,mtbe TroHiaeiiims Amer. Philoi. mens de I'Obio." CLKntxi's Archad. U.S.,3i,an.i(M
See. (tSi4), and later repeated in other editions and vet- memdr of Alwaler in Am. Aniij. Soe.Pr/tc.,Oa,, 1867.
liohs (P. G. Thomson's Bitliog. of Ohio, no. jjj, etc., " Induding those of Newark, Perry County. Marietta,
and Idling's Eshimo Bibliog., 43). Lonis Can's crili- Circleville, Faint Creek, Lillle Miami, Piketon, etc.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
During the next twenty-five years there cannot be said tn have been much added to a real knowledge ot tha
subjert. Yates and Moulton in their Hist. Niw Yort (1824) borrowed mainly from Klrkland (178B) the mis-
sionary. Humljoldt had no personal contoct with the remains to give his views any value (iSaj). Warden
. in his Rcchirches (iSa?) gave some new plans and rearranged the old descriptions. There was some sober
observation In M'Culloh's *«(o/-e*!j (3d ed., 1S29) 1 some far froin sober in Ralinesque (i 838) ; some com-
piled descriptions with worthless comment in Josiah Priest's Amirican Anliquilies (Albany, 1S38) ; some-
thing like scientific deductions in S. G. Morton's study of the few moundbuilders' skulb then known, in his
Crama Anuricana iii^-j) ; with an attempt at summing up in Delalield (1839) and Bradford <l84l). This
is about all that had been added to what Atwaler did, when E. G, Squier and E, H. Davis eclipsed all labors
preceding theirs, and began the series of the Smithsonian ConfribuHom wllh their Aticienl MDnuKUKls tf
the Missisiippi Valliy (Washington, 1847 and 1848).! During the preceding two years Ihey had opened over
two hundred mounds, and explored about a hundred earthwork enclosures, and had gathered a considetabls
WHITTLESEY*
idbuiiders' relics.^ They had begun their work under the auspces of the
Jut the cost of the production of the volume exceeded the society's resources,
made to the Smithsonian Institution. The work took a commanding position at once,
ssential value, though some of the grounds of its authors are not acceptable to present
i in his work on the mounds of New York, which the Smithsonian Institution included
e of lh«r Contribuliimi, Squier found occasion to alter some of his opinions in his
tt to ascribe the mounds of that State to the Iroquois. The third volume of the same
5tigators in a paper by Charles Whit-
: numerous papers which he has given
7. This publication was anticipated by a 0/ IktWeiWarilkaiiaUrmptait^tirClauificafitH (New
emenl in Squler's 06urvalum tm the Abo- Haven,
HKxb of IIk Miitiaiffi VaOi), in the 16;; A

ot the Tram. Amtr. EUmol. Sk. (N, v., • Th,
lis Oiirrvafiaiu m the Um of tht Momda buiy, E
Hosted by VjOOQIC
s later (1855), in these
l5 of the northwesi
ght to any considerabli
in the paper by Inc
Inliquitles of Wisconsi
■evised by Haven, «hen

for publication to the i
have
ie A. Laphani,
; their
tNCREASE A. LAPHAM."
an^tii evidence4 of an am
shapes till Lapliam first noted this peculiarity in

1836. In April, 1338, R. C. Taylor was the earliest
to figure Ihem in the Amer. Journal of Science
(Silliman's), and again they were described by S.
Taylor in Ibid., 1S41, Prof. John Locke referred
to them jn a Report on Ike mineral lands of the
United States, made to Congress in 1S44. WJUiain -
Picêon, irfao had been a trader among the Indians,
published in his Tntdiiiom of Ds-coo-dah, and
Antiquarian reaarches : comprising extensive ex-
Builders in. America ; the traditions of the last
Prophet of the Elk Nation, relative to their origin
it population more numerous than the present Abmgines (N. V.,
as in large part the results of his intercourse with an Indian chief, tn
volving some theories as to the symbolism of the mounds. The book contained so many palpable perver-
sions, not to say undisguised fictions, that the Smithsonian Institution refused to publish it;* and the book
has never gained any credit, though some unguarded writers have unwittingly borrowed from it.*
In the eighth volume of the Smithsonian Contributions? Haven, the librarian of llie Amer. Antiq. Soc,
summed up the results of mound exploration as [hey then stood. The steady and circumspect habit of
Haven's mind was conspicuous in his treatment of the mounds. It is to him that the later advocates of the
identity of their builders with the race of the red Indians look as the first sensibly to affect public opinion in
the matler.9 He argued against their being a more advanced race (p. 154), and in his Rsport of the Am,
AnUq. Soc., in iS;? |p. 37), he held that it might yet be proved that the moundbuilders and red Indians
were one in race, as M^Culloh had already suggested.
At the time when Haven was first intimating (1856) thai thb view might yet become accepted, it was
doubtless held to be best established that those who built the mounds were quite another race from those
who lived among them when Europeans first knew the country. The fact that the Indians had no tradition of
their origin was held to be almost conclusive, though it is alleged that the southern Indiana in later times
retained no recollections of the enpedition of De Soto, and Dr, Brinton thinks that it is common for Indian
traditions lo die out,? It is not till recent years that any considerable number of moundbuilder skulls have
been known, and from the scant data which the early craniologists had, their opinion seems to have coincided
with those in favor of a vanished race.B It was a favorite theory, not yet wholly departed, that they were in
some way connected with the more southern peoples, the Pueblo Indians, the Aztecs, or the Peruvians ; either
"Ct. Tram. A-mr. AUB. Adv. SHîin-'^^^
(.8*91.
■ Preciedmgs, Oct jj, tBs", where are plans ai

at CrawloKlsville, and of othm in the diwding rid
tAecD the Mississippi and the Kickapoo rivers. Cf
" P. G. Thoni
r, o/Okii,. n.
SaenUin)- Cf. T.H.Lewis in the .rfjM^..

Archaoloa; Jan., 1886 {il. 65).
> ArihiiologyB//»e[r.S.{i»ie>).
Gallatin and Schoolerafi have somewhat lollowe

' Ifisl. Mag., Feb., 1866. Cf. Charlevoii.
» This was Dr, J. C. Warren's view in 1837
before the Bril. Asso. Aibi. ScUnce. Cf- al'
bach, Monon, Kotl, and Gliddon.
a photoeraph dated 1863, kindly fun
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ANTIQUIJY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 4OI
that they came from them, or migrated south and became one with them.1 The bolder Uieorr, tiial we see
tlieir descendants in the led Indians, is perhaps gaining ground, uid it has had the support of the Bureau of
<!i the G
:t,-3ih«e
, i373, tSyS, i8«i, elc.l, ID which

th^r migTaling aouth and dereloi^
1 of Central America. Cf. hij
■ago Arad. Nat. Scl., voL L, and
isiiffi Valley ('869. p.
id he defended these views in the .
liii, 101. The leading memb

the Bureau staff, who it working in Ihii Geld, i* Cytni
Thomas. In the J/a/.M!.. Xs/w/dSSTJlie defined theaim
and chaiacler qf the Work m JtSnitd Eiflsratioit n/ Ike
Surtau a/ Ethnolngy, also issued Eeparately. In this il
was slated thai over 11,000 mounds had iwen opened, and
3lt,oQo relics gathered from them; but nocliing to afford any
clue to the langusge which the moundbuilden spoke. The
(Ond
Sremd, thej yield ni

Third, their builden
FmiHh, the iccounlt
ie Indian
been derived is
Rrtdn, Congris dci AiniriisiKk

' Major Powell says, that years
elusion that the modem Indians i
some of the moundB in the Mi
Ei/mti. Rift., iv. p. hi). C
• This follows a snrvey given
Ptatedy Miatum Rejuirts, iviii
siity acres about the effigy, whi
also Pow
,e promi-
thec
let's Srrfnl Symial (N, Y., iSji), p. 137. It is criticised by Putnam in
i Amtr. AiUiq. Sx. Prx^QO., rSSj, Putnam has recently purehised over
be held by the trustees o£ the Peabody Museum asaparfc(X(^j., icd. 14);
show tbat tne projections in the side of the head (shaded dark In the cut) are not a part of
finds turn distinct periods of occupadon in this region, to the oldest of which he attribute*
/, 1888). W. H. Holmes made a survey in i%V,\Amtr. AnUqMarian, May, iBSj, 11. 141;
1886), Cf. J. P. MacLean,in Atnir. AntiqioTian. vii. 44. and his ,W«~i»«i'ifcr». p. s« J
19. T. H. Lewis describes asnakemoniidinMinne60la(J'fii««,i..j93). On the serpent
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Of the opposing Iheory of a disappeared race, Capt. Heart io reply to Batton (ABUr. Pkilalog. Asso. Prsc.
iii.) gave, as Thomas tliinlis, " the earliest cleai and distinct espression," but Squier and Davis may \x consid.
ered as first giving it definite meaning; and thougli Squier does not seem to have actually revoked this jodg-
menC as respects the mounds in the Mississippi valley, he finally reached the conclusion that those in New
York were really the work of the Iroquois.' This ancient-race theory, sometimes amounting to a belief in
their autochthonous origin, has impressed the public through some of the best known summaries of Ameri-
can antiquities, like those of Baldwin, Wilson, and Short,^ and has been adopted by men of such reputation
as LyelL" The position taken by Professor F. W. Putnam, the curator of the Peabody Museum of Archsol-
ogy at Cambridge, is much like that taken earlier liy Warden in his Recherches, that both vievts are, within
their own limitations, correct, and, as Putnam expresses it, " that many Indian tribes buiit mounds and earth-
works is beyond doubt ; but that all the mounds and earthworks of North America are by these same tribes,
or their immediate ancestors, is not thereby proved." i Thomas (Fifth Report, Bureau Eihnol) holds this
statement to be too vague. It is certainly shown in the whole history of archieological study that uncompro-
mising demarcations have sooner or later lo be abandoned.
Morgan finds it difficult to dissociate the mounds with his favorite theory of communa! life.' There is no
readier way of marking the development of opinion on this question than lo follow the series of the Amiaal
Slforts of the Smithsonian Institution, as hardly a year has passed since i36i but these Reports have had in
them contributions on the subjeet.6 Among periodicals, the more constant attention to the mounds is
coBSpicuous in the Americait AntiguarianJ
nent characterLslic, and he roughly distinguishes these

sections aa of Wisconsin ; the Upper Mississippi ; Ohio i
New York; Appalachian; the Middle ('[ssissippi i the
Loner Mississippi and the Gulf. He holds that the
Iâundbuilding people existed from about the fifth or
Taking for his leids the mounds of the Appalachian dis-
Ihe eonstruclora of its mounds, and that the Chetolues dians at the early contact. He aims also panit
were thai race. Cair had already (1876), from invesligat- show thai these early Indians were agriculturists
••sidirid IT.
lakes pari of t;
he second
volume
, of Shaler's
fâ-îys,
the ace
ounls of the
.diansatan
■ early day, whii
:h has yet
ade, and his

! an ample bib!
iography 1
jf Ihisa
ispecl of the
bject. H<
! holds that III
lese early
record!
.thing has
been found in
mds wh
ioh was not
conclusion that that particular mound was huill by the

CheroLees. Thomas further undertakes to prove that the
Chemkees once occupied the Appalacluan region, and
the mounds, bringing them down 10 a period since the

contact with Europeans. The habits of Ihe builders of
Other supporters of the red Indian viev/ are Edmund
what we know from historic evidence were the habits of
Andtens, in the Wacomm Acad, rf Scimct. iv. 126 ; P.
the Chetokees.
R. Hoy, in lb!d.-A.\ O. T. Mason, in Sciemt, iii. 658;
NadaiUac, in L'Amiriqm prikiUmgm ,- £, Schmidt, in
/i:«»«i(Leipiig).v:ii. «., .63; 0. p. Thumon, b Mag.
6Si .fl/flf. Amtr. Hisl.. May, ,884, p. 3^: ,887, p. 1931
ABUr./iiil.,iSSS,xa.i74.
July and Sept. 1 18S8. In these papers, among other points,
IThisisdeniedinFred. l.arkin-s.4«c. .Von !„ Anar-
ica{V.V.\
Ohio are due to the Iroquois- Huron tribes, and he ac-
'J. D, Baldwin's Ani:. AmeriiaiN. Y., 1871), D.

Wilson's /'«*a;»r,cM.-,Lc'.,. ,0, etc., who holds thai
are mora ancient than the ampler forms. Other invesli-
galon have adopted, in some degree, this view. Horatio
Indian hunter than behind Ihe civiliied Mexican ; " and he
claims that the proof deduced from the Indian type of a
may have mingled with the Rioundbnilders, C. C. Baldwin
be the same.
Amir. o/AHlig., believed Ihey were of the race later in
pTomintnt among those who have adopted this led-
Anahuac. Gay, Paf. IfM. U. S., i, ch. 1, believes in Ihe
IndiBn theory are Judge M. F. Force and Luciin Cair.
Iheory of a vanished race. In ,775 Adair thought the
In 1874 Force published at Cincinnati a paper, which he
works indicated a h^her mUitary enejgy than the modem
read before the literary club of diat city; and in .S77 he

"^Mif. d/Mii, 4lhed. 42-
jtHfle RenAi, Cimgris da * Putnam's papers and Ihe records of hi
mfricanisUi (1877, L p. i3t), and in English, Te what can be found in his Feabody Mm, Rtforls, ivii., Iviji.
emaintainjthitlherace.whichshows no differences from Ifatiraail, }ane, iSn; K^muas Ci/y Sev., 1B79, m.
id that some of them still survived in the Gulf States in bulldeij," and also In his ffaues and Hme Life. ch. 9
I the plane of the Pueblos, higher than the Algonquins Feb., 1884, p. 110.
id lower than the Aileis, " Rhee's Calalngve, p, sjs-j.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
The basis for fstimating th* age of tlie mounds is threefold. In the first place, there are very few found on
the last of the river terraces lo be reclaimed from the stream. In the second place, the decay of the skeletons
found in them can be taken as of some indication, if due regard be had to the kind of earth in which they
ate buried. Third, the age of trees upon them has been accepted as carrying them back a certain periuJ, at
least, though this may widely vary, if you assume their growth to be subsequent to the abandonment of the
mounds, or if, as Brinton holds,i the trees were planted immediately upon the building. The dependence
upon counting the rings is by no means a settled opinion as to all ciimes ; but in the temperate lona the best
authorities place dependence upon it. Unfortunately it cannot carry us back much over 600 years.^
The early attempts lo disclose the ethnological relations of the moundhuilders on cranial evidence were
embarrassed by the fewness of the skulls then known. Morion {Crania Ame'kima) calleii the four exam-
ined by him idenUcal with those of the red Indian.^ At present, consideiable numbers are available; but still
Wilson {.Prehistoric Man, ii. 128) holds that "we lack suHicient data," and in the consideration of them
sufficient care has not always been taken to distinguish intrusive burials of a later date-*
]. W. Foster {Prihisl. Races, ch. 8 ; Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Trans., iSji ; and Amir. Naturalist, vi, 738)
held to a lower type of skull, on this evidence, than Wilson {Prekist. Man, ii. ch, lo) contended for. There
are examples of the wide difference of views {MacLean, r42), when some, like Morgan, connect them with
the Pueblo skulls {No. Amer, Sev., cht., Oct., 1869], and others, like Morton, Wmchell, Wilson, Brasseur,
and Foster, find their correspondences in those o£ Mexico and Peru.t Putnam, whose experience with mound
skulls is greatest of all, hokis to the southern short head alld the northern long head {Sift. 1S88). Probably
we have no better enumeration of the variety of objects and relics found in the mounds, thotigh much has
since been added to the collection, than m Rau's Catalogue of tie Archxologieal Collection of the National
Museum (Washington, iSê).* Unfortunately he shows little or no discrimination between discoveries in
the mounds and those of the surface. The interest in such collections has naturally brought prominently to
theattentionof every student of such collections the tricks of fraudulent imitators, and there ate several well-
known instances of protracted controversies on the genuineness of certain reUcs.'
one dC his papers [vij. 8^) Ihat some ol these eatthflotks
are Indian gamedrives and screens. (He also conlribuled
a classilicalior of them lo the Congris des AmiriciuiisUs,
1S77, i. loj.) The paper by J. E. Stevenson (ii. S9), and
that by Horatio Hale on '■ Indiin Migrations" (Jan.-April,
iS3]), aiE worth noting. The Comple Readu, Cengris
di! AmfricoKiites, 187s ('■ 387), haa Joly's "Les Mound-
builders, leats (Envres et leurs Caractires Ethniques," and
ihat for 1877 has a papn by John H. Becker and Stronck.
That by R. S. Robertson in Uid. (L p. 34) is also re-
printed in the Mig.Amer. Hist. (ii. 174), March, i8Sa;
while in March, 18S3, wiU be lonnd some of T. H. Lewis's
Ada. Science, 1S6E; D. A. Robenson, in yaursal Amer.
Gicg.Soc.v. itfi; A.W.V<^lesindS. L. Fay, in ,1 mw. m iciemi, Apnl 11, t88(,p. 437. In the mounds of the
Naturalist, liil. 9,1^37; H, B. Finley in Mag. Western Ultle Miami Valley, native gold and meleoiic iron have
tfist.,FA., 1S87, p. 4391 Sc-tnce, Stf I. 14, 18831 Squier, been found Cor the first time (/"Aij. ^&i. £cjt/.,xvi.
17a),
iaAHurkan yoamal Science, liii. .37, and in fiarê ' See,on suchiraposirionsingeneial. MaeLeEm'aMwB^-
Afoatily, XX. 737, Hi. 20, 16s; C. Morris, in Nat. Quarl. bm!dtrs,t!n. 9; C. C. Abbott in Pop. Sci. Monthly, Ja\y,
Etv., Dec. 1871, 187s, April, 1875 ; Ad. F. FontpeniM on 1885, p. jo! ; Wilson's Prekisl. Man, ii, ch. 19 ;
Putnam in
"Le penple des mounds et sea monuments " in the Rev. de Piab. M»i. Repli., xvi. 1S4 ; Fourth Sift. Bur, Ethmd.
Oleg. (April and August, i8Si)i E. Price, in Ihe Annals 141.
^ /™m, vi. II 1 1 Isaac Smucker. in ScieiJific Monihlj' The best known of the disputed relics are the following i
(Toledo, Ohio), i, 100. The largest mound in the Ohio Valley is thai of the Grave
Some other references, hardly of essential character, are ; Creek, twelve miles below Wheeling, which was
earliest de-
H. H. Bancroft, Nat. Races, iv. ch. 13; v. 5381 Gales's scribed by its owner, A. B. TomUnson, in iSjg. It is sev-
Uffer Mississippi, or Hiiloriad Sketches of Ihe Monnd- enty feel high and one thousand feet in circumference.
(CI.
buOderi (Chicago, 1867); Soulhall's Recent Origin ^ Sqnier and Davis, Foster, MicLean, Olden îmi,\. 1311
flfcs,eh, 36; Wm. McAdims's j;««-flti of ancient races and account by P. P. Cherry — Wadsworth, 1877.) About
inihiMiisiisipfijâaFf-.beinganaccomiofsomeoflhe 1838 a shaft was sunk byTomlinson mto it, and a rotunda
fidegrafhs, sculflured hierogljiphi, lymlaUe devices, constructed in its centre out of an original cavity, as a
show-
emilemi and Iraditiom of the prehistoric races of A mer- room for relics ; and here, as taken from the mound,
ap.
H-o, with some suggestinns as In Ihtir origin (St. Louis, peared two years later what is known as the Grave
Creek
rS87)i Brlihl's CtdlnrvUlher die alien Amerika; J. D. stone, bearing an insctiplton of inseruuble eharacten.
Sherwood, in Stevens's Flinl Chips, J4'; E. Pickett's The supposed relic soon attracted atlendon. H. R. Sohool-
Teilimon)'oflieRochs(H.V,}. craft pronounced ila twenty-two characters such "as were
' Hist. Mag., Feb., rS66, used by the Pelasgi," in his QbserviMaxs rtsptetii^ tht
' CI. Congrit des Amir., î^^. i, )i6; C. Thomas in Grave creti mmind. in Ifestem frirginia ; the antifue
Amer. Anlif., yii. M; Warden's ^«*(rc*tj, ch, 4; Bald- imcriptien dlscmiered in its fxcavatlim ; and the
connected
' Cf. Short, p. 158. the mound period, and prior lo the 'discovery of America
• Fores, To what Race, etc, p. 63. lyColKmtsu. which appeared in the Amer. Ethnological
' Cf, Henry Gillman's
the Gtei
Lakes" in Amer. Assoc
i. (Detrfflt,
■ 87Sl, PI
197,317; Boston Nat. H.
Ut. Soc. P,
'oe., iv. jj.
nian Reft., 1867, P 412 1

C. C, Jo
nes's Antiq.
' Sonthe',
Indians ; Featody Mas.
Sefls., iv.
, vi., si. 1 Jos. June.
,nes«e! J,
iitties Wym
Journal of Arts, W, c>
u. p.i.i W.J. McGt
le in Ibii
cxvi, .sS; and Dr. S. F.
Landiey t
bn:,a'-«. Pop. Science N
■™j(BosI(
m,Ocl.. i8B(
S, p. .38).
•a, Holmes's "Objec
ts from the
n Powell
Bur.of Ethnol. Repis.,
iii. ; C. C.
00.23(1874)1 Foster on 1
heir stone 1
md copper i
mplemen
,■.(.869),
n the Oh
mounds in Stevens's Fli,
a Chips, 4
,8; images
from the:
lyQpogle
Neu
tnglan.
!of thes<
Is described as a fortification in Sanbornton, in New Hampshire, which when found was faced with stone
exlemally, and the walls were six feet thick and breast-high, when desoibed about one hundred and fifteen
years ago. There is a plan of it, with a descriptive account, preserved in the library of the American Antiq.
Sodefy,i and another plan and description in M. T. Runnels's Hiit. of SanbsrntoK [Boston, i88i), i. di. 4.
Squlet also figured it.
As we move westward, the mounds begin to be numerous in the State 0/ New York, and particularly in the
western part of it. One of the earliest descriptions of them, after that of the missionary Kirkknd (about
r7S8), is in the "Journal of the Rev. John Taylor while on a mission through the IHohawk and Black River
Country in 1802," which was first nrinted. witii ulatis of the works examined, in the Dommeniary Hist. New
Yffri {vol. iii. quarto ed,). I om lie AntiûiUa of
CINCINNATI TABLET.*
Sti. r™«., L 36r (N. Y„ \%iil. <

iv. iiS, where he thinks it may be an
The French BHint Jomard publi
fitmgravfi(emi, .a«, i8s9l, '"
Libyan. Uvy-Bing calls it Uehrew
(Nancy, i. 11s). Other notice! an
Sx.A
.(.865),i
The Davenport tablets, found by the Rev. J. Gus in a
arlYiamAmir. Aisa. Adv.Sc/iHce PrBc.^.li■vni,Ii^^),by

R.J. Faniuharson; Cmgris Ai AMir.i,tS77,'u. n'i, ""b
rian, i. ij*; Bancroft's A'fll. Racti, v. 75.

Sqiiler prompdy queetioited its aulbenticity {Amri
J. Sx. Tram., it ; Aiarv- Jl^-, 't*)- Wilson 1
\t{PrrhitlsritMiai,u.iaa). Cot. Whhllesey ha
Fhich hav.
auddeni
1879I- who jumt
t, Hia. Sec. Tr.

id 44 (1B79I.) Cf, on this side Shod, p. 41^
Rift, Bur. Etknsl., i<io. Its authenticity i
d by MacLean XMmndbuildirs, Onn
V. of the I>m
Elifi/iaia fifia and
M the <
lai^nw
accepted il a genuine, and thought it m^hl be a printing-

stone for dicoraling hides (yl »m-. BIknol.SiK. Tram.,'A. \
Aierig. Mil. (1S47I, p. to). Whittlesey « first doubted it
(»"«<. Rti. Hist. Tradt, no. s), bat wai later connnced of
its lenoineiten by Robert Ciarke'g Prthkbtric Jf/maim
faimd sH Iki lilt of CittciiBiaeHpritateJy printed, Cinn,,
AulkrniicUy sfiht
iscriied lailll! Cm lit Mia. 0/ Ike
ivenport, Iowa, iSSj). Cf. Cyrus
.mas in Siiimt, vi. 564 ; also Feb. j, iSM, p. T19. The
stion of the elephant pipes is included in the discussion,
7 i Short, sji i Dr. Mai Uble in Ziitschrlfl fur Bih-
It has been found convenient to follow an advandng
pies oi the mounds seem to Indicate that those dwelling

)01h slopes and in the valleysof die Appalachian langea
187*).
n Ohio
74, engraved from a tiibHng taken from the originai. W

is Archsologlcal Frauds i but the result of inquiries mad(
!S." Cf. olberculsin M. C. Read, Arcka-!t.iif Okiii(\i
inASic^nd Ripl. Bar. e/ Elh<\<lL,pp. i33-}(.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
-n fan ef Nm York, a
40!
he artribules their origin to the Scandinaviani.t They w
1 ,t. .,îfye« rntLtilii itt iBib (Aubuni. iSioi. There is not

described in David Thomas's l raven inra^gh the weltim ceunttj m leio (rteueru. 'o w
mueh else to note for twenty-live yeats. In 1S45, Schoolcraft made to the N. Y. benate hiS Sifarl M Me
S. „/ i.W.i, </ W,2. J»™ M (». V. .8,6). I. ..io, the rjW **.« of Ih. ««^ ""■=
Unlvetalty of the State of N. Y. c.ntam. T. B. Ho.gt's pape, on the e.rih.otk enCosnt. ,. "■•J""; •*
m me same yea. (.Sso) cam. the essential antho.ity 00 the New York ...nd., E. G. Sqn.ert Al^g-
:rrixsT'riSttYtratr.;r?.rr:r.:;SS^^^^^^^^
;i-,'i"s?o,?:rrr,:drrh?r;;U7ki^^^^^^^^
"ft :; 'h-o^. "f «; r If ;:,;;tih"~r.'r.,., .ncud, an. ,>„ th. .„e tho,o..h
COBchiuoDB, diUinc
the re4 Indian
■ Cf. W. M. Taylor
fm«» Rtfil., 1877-
' A few niino. reft
ANCIENT WORKS ON THE MUSKINGUM*
■Ison, Journal Auifr. Gtsg. Sac., vol. v., L. Slone held Ihem
e North American mounds were buill by a ai«Tward went Boi
long before Ihe Chiislian era. S33). CI. UiJ. 1.
iseued, wilh some addilional matlet, at iiralisi, Oct., 1879-
■s AiUu^k$ d/ A'iw Kw* ««*, ™« lia (N, Y., 1S80),

Antiquitiii a/ the Wtsl (iSsi)- Stjuiet Squier, and beHeve
;,, Jan., i8«,p,4i. d. Ata. Jsurval jf 1854, a copper relk
It the N. y. earthwo
ns to the Ohio I
ound In SmUh-
i8;i. w
mh.
<e teen bull
ns,who
rh Ifll
hi.. Sept
3;, am
S. L. Frey
.nlMan
deric Larid
, uk« i»iie with
lot the m
!ern In-
e N. Y. nv
ni.a.,io
videntlyi:
hamen,
5. Mercer')
£™vii Sloiu de-

Bghlbe.
the ha
. which w
t bnria] mound of the Senecas is described at lome

in G. S. Conover'i X«»w 'mky Ihi SUli ihsuld
■r Ihi faHums burial mmmd of Iht Situca Indians
/Sdj(B
.h, 1805)-
ginT.M.HarrU's>K™o;?/'o Tm
o the I
of Mari
icOitf.
I VII.
■sftluAlligkany,
p. 5,0. To follow
in 1)87, reprc-
had plans. One v
gically, we find that of Winthrop Sargent, communicated 10 the Am
>. new SCT. V. part i. The Cubrntiiafi Mag., May, 1787. ™l. i. *is, ""i the A'- ^- '"'•r \'T>'i
Schidti'sr™i«i( (1807), 146. Atwater, of COUTH, ga>e one in iBio. A mirrey by S. Dewitt,
■s AmiT. AKliqsttU,, 3d ed., Albany. tSjs- Others ire in tbe ^»w. Pimttrr, Oct., 1841. Juno
isij'. and to S. P. Hlldreih', Pic«t^ HUl<^, a.i Oan,, .8,3). Whittiesey made the »urvey in Squier and Da™ (who
also five a colored view), and it is reduced in Foster. Cf. also .^«o-, A-llfuarim, ^!,b.. 1880; M<^g.A»i^. Hal..
iSSs.p. H7; Henry A. Sbepird'i.4«VKi(»ifl/0*i'o(ann., 1887); Nadaillsc's Z,'^«frif« i»-«ii(«-irw, loj, and
Znfrim, Mommis, ii. 93-
Xôgle
exploration has been made.' The earliest pioneers reported upon them. Cutler described then
__^ HflP
OP k SECTJon or tweive hilks
SCIOTO TAliIEl
f/A Sef B E
vGoosIe
407
:iny Bdknap.i Beti). S. I
ribed a mound at Cincinnati in 1799.'' Dr. Harris in iSo;

in Jautnal 0/ a Tour, wliete he gives one of the earliest
engravings. A plan of those at Circleville, with description by ]. Kilbourne, is given in the Ohio Ganauer
(Columbus, 1817). Caleb Atwater, in 1820, was mote familiar with them than with others of his broider field.
Warden in his Recherchis noted the early describers. Gen. Harrison discussed the mounds in his Diicovra
on til Aborigines 0/ the Fa/ley of the Ohio (Cincinnati, 1838). Squier and Davis, of eontse, brought, them
within their range,° and Col. Whittlesey supplemented their work in the third volume of the Smithsoman
CoHlriiulioHs. Whittlesey and Matthew C. Read contributed the Report on the Archaology of Ohio, which
forms the second portion irf the Final Report of tie Ohio Stale Board of Centennial Managers (Columbus,
1877), and in it is a list of the ancient enclosures, which is not, as Short says (p. 81), as complete as it should
be. A survey of the mounds was made by £, B. Andrews, and published in the Peabody Mus. Sefts. (no.
X.), 1877. The Ohio StaU Archaiological and Historical Society started in June, 1S87, the Oiia areixoUgi-
eal and historical Quariirly, which has vigorously entered the field, and in it (Match, 1SS8) G. F, Wright
has reported on the present coniUtion of the mounds. M. C. Vitad^s Archaalogy af Ohio (Cleveland, t888)
was published by the Western Reserve Historical Society, whose series of Tracts is of importance for the
study of the mounds.' Heray A. Shepard's Aniijuities of lie Stale of Ohio (Cincinnati, 1887) summariies
the discoveries to dale.fi Thomas {Fifth Ript. Bur. Etinol.) claims that the Ohio mounds were built by
an Sab
THE WORKS AT NEWARK, OHIO.*
in those of the Nat. Hist.
l.ofOhie.BO. 328). The
fist., Feb., iaa« (vol. vii.).

' Life o/Cutltr, ii. 14, i5i.
i Their survey is used in Slevens-s Flint Ciifi by
:indniiiii, of * Cf.no. 11,13,41.
the Central ' Some minor references ; Whittlesey in Firelaad's

of the Dia- fw«n-|June, 1865), andin hiB/"BfrtiM iuavJiHudson,
[877. Cf.P. 0.,iasi). CH.Mitchener-50*w^««fli(Dayton,iSj6>
Durse of the Hid. Miff., lii. J40. C. W. Bullerfield in Mag. tVeil.
Mag. /Test. Hist., Oct., 1SS6 liv, 777). I, Dille in Smilhsmian Reft..
Hid. 1877. C. Thomas
. Thoni
>J, Bro.
■* Hia. CollK-
Ktta a cut in Wllsoh's Prekiitorie Man. i

aced in all their integrily;'^ and they " illu
\% the monumental memorials of the old w<
Hosted by ,
Côgle
4o8 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
with earthworks.! Those it Cine

cent Little Miami Valley is the re|
f uUy worldng.s
Of all the works in the central portions of Ohio, and indeed of all in any region, those at Newark, in Licking
the» earthworks ; hut those in the north have been particularly examined by CoL Whittlesey and others.'
Tbe enclosure called Fort Azatlan, at Merom on the Wabash River, is the most noticeable in Indiana.' In
Illinoii, the great Cahokia truncated pyramid, 700 feet long by 500 wide and 90 high, is the most important.8
Henry Gillman, of Detroit, has been the leading writer on the mounds of Michigan.i" The supposed con-
Thomas {Fifth gif!.. Bar. Ethnol.) contends that much of the copper found in the mounds was of European
make, and had no reblion to any aboriginal mining.
Wisconsin is the central region of what are known as the animal, effigy, symbolic, or emblematic mounds.
Mention has been made elsewhere of the earliest notices of this kind of earthwork. The most extensive
exammation of them is the AnHqnUus of WiuôHiin as sumeyid and disctibsd by I. A. Lafkam (Wash-
ington, 1S5S), with a map showing Uie sites.'' The consideration of these effigy mounds has given rise to
various theories regarding their agnificauce, whether as symbols or to totems,^' It is Thomas's conclusion that
' The annexed map of the vicinity of Chillicolhe wiU ' Wtsl. His. Hist. Sx. Tracts, do. 41 (1877) ; and forlhe
show Iheir abundance in a confined area. E. B. Andrews Cayaboga Valley in no. 5 (1871), borh by Whitileaey.
The
onihoseiniheS, £.in/>Ai£n^Mu.«<^.,i. MacLean's works on the Hnran River, easl ol Sandueky, were de-
ihm&mUiri (Cindnnad, 1879) is of no original value icribed, wilh 1 plan, by Abiaham G. Steiner in Caluntiiati
except for Butler Counly. Squierand Davis give a plan of Mif.,Sept, 1789, reprinted in Firilan^s Puimt',s\. 71.
the forti6e< hillin this county. Vlai.'a^s Aihtm Cmnl^. G. W. Hill in .TwiVîm^Hi JTe^., 187*1 E. O. Dnnning
Isaac J. Flnley and Rufua Pulnam's Piomfi- Ricard of on the Lick Creek mound in Piah. Mia. Jlefl., v. p. n ;
Hbh Cti4itl)> (Cincinnaii, 1871). A plan o( the High Bank S. D. Peel on a double-wailed enclosure in Ashlabula
Co.
works in this connly is given In the Amir. AiUiqitarian, in SmUhsmiait Rift,, 1S76, IS, Cornelius Baldwin on
T. ]«. The Highland County works, called Foit Hill, are ancient burial cisls in nonkeasterR Ohio in Wist. Ra.
described \a'A\t Ohio Arch. &• Hist. Q., 1887, p, a6o, G. Hist. 7Va,^M. no. 56, and Yairow on mound-bgrials
in />-rf
S. B. Hampslead's A niif. of PorlsrHimth (187s) embodies Re/il. B«r. Blknul.
resulls oi a long series of surveys. (.^.Jntrnal AtUhm- ' CI. Putnam in îfl. £tor;r/i«i,,iii. (Nov., 1871), and
f^giiol Jiaiilvti,m. ija. Beslsa Sbc. Nat. Hist. Prac. (Teb., 1872); Foster, p. 134,
• D. Diakes/'K/B«a/OiKi«<Mli(i8is)i Harrison in wilh plan. Tbit Smithseaian Rifls. corer notice! by W.

OhiaI{isf.&'Phi!ia.Sx.,\.; Sqniet and Davis; Ford's PidBeon(i867), byA. Pallon in Knoi and Lawrence coun-
Ci«c««aii, i. dl. 2. dee (,873), and by R. S. Robertson (,874).
' The beet known of the ancient lorrificalions of this » Ptahufy Mas. Xiferls, xii. 473 (1879). For Illinois
region is thai called Fort Anaent, about a miles from Cin- mounds see Thomas in Fi/lh Rifl. Bvr. Elhmil. :
David-
onrad. Itwas surveyed by Prof. Locke in i8,j, Cf . L. son and Struve-a/^/iBoii; E. Baldwin sZ-Bi-affjCs. (Chi.
M,HoseaiBCBari.y™™ii/o/.ScKB»(Cinn. .Oct., 1874)! cago, 1877); W. McAdams'a ^ ni^' a/' Cfl:4o*M
(Edwards-
Putnam in (he Amir.ArchiUcl,^-A. 19; Amtr. Anti- ville, 188]); H. R. Howtandin the ^hô^c 5'»-. A'al.î'ri.
tnarioH, April, 1878; Farce's MoKndiiiUJirs ; Warden's £B//.,iii.; andin.S'Hii(*i™u<iXfî.,byChas.Rau(i8G8);
Ricttrciei: Sqnier and Davis, with plan reduced in Mac- largely on agricultural traces i by Dr. A. Palton (1873) 1
by
Lean, p. 11 i Short, s>i and on its present condirion,/'™*. T. M, Ptirine on UnionCo. (1873); by T. McWhoner
and
Mil. A-iy/., ivi. 168. There is an excellent map of the others (1871); by W. H. Pratl on Whiteside Co. (1874) ; by
mounds in tbe Little Miami Valley, in Dr. C, L. Melj's J. Shaw on Rock River (1877I: and by J. Cochrane on
Pnhisltric H&mimtKtt ofthi LUtU Miami Vanty, in the Mason Co. (1877).
Jamymti/thr Ci-uiH-ali Six. 0/ Nat. Hist., vol. i., Oct., '" His papers are in i:t>% Stnilhsinian Rifls., 1S73, '875;
1878, The explorations of Purnam and Meti are recorded Ptabody Mus. Reports, vi. (1873), on the St, Qair
River
io the Plot. Mut. Riptt., xvlL, iriii. (Mairkm mound), mounds; Am. Jturnal 0/ Arts, itc, Jan., 1874! Am.
and XX. Cf. Putnam's lecture h Mag. Wist: History, Assoc. Adv. Sci. Free., \%n\ on bone relics in Cengris
Jan., iS98, Ther« are nplorations at Madisonville noticed drs Amh-., 1877, L 65; and on Ihe Lake Huron
mounds, in
in lia Jmrnai ef Or Cntn. Soc. Not. Hist., Apr., iSSo. AmtricaH Nattiraliit, Jan., iSSj. Cf. olber accounls In
Othen in Ibis region are recorded in L.B.Welch and J. Michigan Pii^tr ColUciions, a. >p-. iii.4i,aoa; S.D.
M. Richardson's Prrhiitoric rtlics fsund mar Wilming- Peet in Amir. Antiq., Jan., 18S8; and on the old fort near
Am (Sparks mound), and l>y F.W. Langdon in the appen- Detroit, /û/. p. 37 : and Bela Hubbard's Mimorialt of
a
dbt ol Short. half ceKtury.
» The copy in Harvard College library has some annota-

tions by George Gale. Lapham's survey ol Aitlan is re-
produced in Foster, p. 101, Lapham's book ia summariied
by Wm. Barry in the Wiscomin Hist. Sue. Coa.,m. 187.
These Collictims contain other papers on mounds in Ciaw-
forr) Co. by Alfred Branson (iii. 17S) ; on man-shape mounds
(i». J6i); J, D, Butler on ' Prehistoric Wisconsin" Ivii.);
on Aztalan li<. .o,J.
the mounds near Madison, wilh cuts; vol. iv., a paper by

J. M. DeHart on the "Antiquiries and platycnemism [iiat
andil
iscotuedby
Foster. O.C. Marsh i
T,Hia.M^g.-ai.
and in Amir
, Joumt! 0/ SciiKi,
.di, (July, iSM).
local antiquary, in Ne:
Dec,
■ft '87.; in
Amir. Hilt. Riii>rd, ii. j8i ; and in

■.^«^.,iii.
a6.auly, -88.), Cf. Nadailkt, 99, and
«'aro/,Sr!,v.i6i.
OtI
lerantiquitiei
, Wltm R
Hardin Co.) ; in
Ohie Anh. HiH.
Quari., March, 1SS8
(Franklin Co.)-,
Amir. Antiq. Soc
. Proc.. April, 1863 IF;
tirfield Co., etc).
SR
. W, McFari
and in Ohio Arch. Hi
Hosted by VjOOQIC
the effigy mounds and the burial mounds of Wisconsin were the wotk of the lame people {Fiflh Refl., Bur.
Etknol.).
The existence of what is called an elfphant or mastodon mound in Gtinl County has been sometimes
taken to point to the age of those extinct animals as that of the erection of the mounds-i Putnam, referring
to the confined area in which these effigy mounds ate found, says that the serpent mound, the alligator
mound,» and Whittlesey's effigy mound in Ohio, and two bird mounds in Georgia,* are the only other works
in North America to which they are at all comparable.'
When Lewis and Claik eitploied the Missouri Rivet in 1804-6, they discovered mounds in different parts of
its valley ; but their statements were not altogether confirmed till the parties of the United Stales surveyors
traversed the region after the civil war, as is particularly shown in Hayden's Geologiial Surwy, blh Sift.,
in 1872. Within the present State of Missouri the mounds which have attracted most notice are those near
the modern St. Louis,! In Iowa (Clayton County) there is sad to be the la^st group of effigy mounds west
of the Mississippi,' The mounds of Iowa and the neighboring region are also discussed by Thomas in (ha
Fifth Rtfl Bur. Elhnol. O. H. Kelley has reported on the remains of an ancient town in Minnesota.' In
Kansas there is little noticeable,' and there is not much to record in Dacotah,» Utah," Califotnia," and
Exploring Expedition and in the earlier story of Lewis and Clark. Some of the mounds ate of doubtful
Along the lower portion of the Mississippi, but not within three hundred miles of its mouth, wa find In
Louisiana other mound constructions, but not of unusual significance.^)
The first effigy mound, a bear, which was observed south of the Ohio, is near an old earthwork in Greenup
County, Kentucky.is The mounds of this Slate early attracted notice.!* Bishop Madison " thought them
sepulchral rather than military. In the Wsslira Rtvsea (Dec.. 1S19) one was described near Lexington.
' sane account of them to Marshall's ffiiti
viii. 1; ir. 6j. He also eiamioes the evidence of the vil- by F. F.Hilder; inCiVin, Quart Jour o/Sci Jin . 187J,
lage life of their builders (i>. .0). Cf. his S«hUp,alU by Dr. S. H. Headlee; in the Kan^ City Rrv., i. is.
JMm)(,6;andbispaperii.ihcH'iKawmWiii.Ci>a,ii.40. 13r;inlhe SI. Lmis Acad, d/ Jcwei (1880) by W. P.
• None of the bones of enlinci auiuuls have been found Potter ; Mr. A. J. Conanl haa been the most prolific
wriler
;_ .k. J,. u„ .i,e bufdlo, long a ranger of thg in Kirf,. April j, 1876; in W. F. Swifiler's Hitlsry tf
n C. R. Bun
ZS. also Poole'!
Mississippi Valley, been identified in the shapes of II:
m Ainir. Aiiti^., vi. 1^.) Peet holds they
mastodon period(/*W, ix. 67). The elephant mound, 30 = T. H. Lewis in Sriince. 1. iji; vi. 455. On other
called, has been often shovm in cula. (CE. Smil/umiai Iowa mounds, see SmiOsmian Rift., by J. B. Cults
Rtfl.. 18/;, accompanying a paper by J. Warner, and Pow- (iSjal; by M. W. Moullon (1B77), and again (1879);
tWi Stcend Rtft. B«r. of Eth. ,11.-) Henshaw here dis- Annah nf Ima, .i. iii ; and W.J. McGee in Amir.
credila the idea of its being inlended for an elephant The Jearnal Scitncr. civL 171.
evidence of dephanUBpes is thought uncenain. Ct. article ■< Smil/utHia« Rtft., iS6ji and for monnds, 1B79.
on mound pipes by Barber in Amtr. Naluralin. April, CI, L. C. Esles on the antiouities on Ihe banks oi
'*8'- Missouri and Lake Pepin in Ibid. 1866,
' J«:«i,f*tj«.5»r.^£««rf.,p, ,59, where HAishaw ' Kamas Rn.. S. 6ij; Joseph Savage and B. F.
thinks il may just as well be anyibing else. Cf. Isaac Hudge in tCansai Acad. Scknci, vii.
?mv>^Va'\r. Amcr. Anliqtutrian^-m. 350, •> Smilkionian Rrfil.,\iy A.. J. Comforl(i37r)andby A.
» Cf. Amtr. Ailij., vi. ij4. Barrandl (1871)1 W. McAdams in Amtr. Aniiquarian,
lat the Ohio effigy mounds » Atntr. Naturaliil. I. 410, by E, Palmt
with clay superposed : the Nat. Races,
App. to Gleeson'a Hlit. of tit Calfalic Ckurck in
.rth. Califgrnm (1871). ii.. md Bancroft's Nat. Raca, iv, 69J.
Refsrt, 1879.
Further references on the Wis
■M« «*/>«, by E. E. Breed (1873); byC, K, Dean (1871)! « Ct Geoi^"GibiînV'iowJi"«^.'b«iii. J»..,...,
byMosei Strong (1876, ,877); by J. M. DeHart (1877)! K.^- O^xin Am»: Jeia: Set., m.if,\Amer. Archi-
and ag.m (1879). &rf, ni. jgj; and Bancroft. A'a(, «<K«, iv. 7JS.
Also: Haven's ^K4aB^tr..r., p. ,06; W.H.Canfield'i '• Ct. S. H. Locket in i'mifiiminB J?;/(.(iS7jl, and T.
.SadACDMijr; DeHart in^mw.^B/i-jKBriaK, April. 1879! P. Hotchkiss in the same, and a paper in 1876; Amir.
their m.litaiy character in Hid., Jan., 1881; also as em- Jearml ScltHci, ahi. }i.bf C.G. Forshey, and liv. .86,
blems In Hid. ,883 (vi. 7); NadaiUac and other general by A. Bigelow.
works. There is a map o£ those near Beloit — some are in » T. H. Lewis, with plan, in A mir. Jimrmil A rckacl.,
tignarioH. iii. 9j. iii, 375 ■, previonely noted by Atwater and by S<)ule» and
hsmian Riftrli Davii.
by T, R. Peale (i86r) ; and m Amir. Anllf«aria«. July, w Cf. FUson's KnituclU.
1888, by S. D. Peat. Other mounds and relic, are de- " A mer. PKUoi. Sac. TraHa.,W.,T,a. it..
scribed in ibe SmitlnoHiatt Rtpli. (1863) by J. W. Foster i « Thomas E. Pickell contributed Ihi. part (1871) 10
CoV
(iS7o)by A. BarrandtJ (1877) by W. H. R. Lyliins: and llns's Hi^. HTni/tirt, (i(Um. 1. iHni ii rW. fa,. .,,. in,.
ti879)byG. C. Broadhead; in /■«*. jHbi. j?q«j„ vii
v£uDog\e
.merica thus;
m. The agri
original
cultural ;
barbarism, mounds,
ige thus follows that
eems enough (
;vide!ice that
the constructors
s of Central America, 1
has
as yet had little
imcratc i
' °f the inscrip-
Imiih (1874, cf. .
; Haven. P. S' :
./«.//< J, .53-
lS7,|i Jas. E,
, and C««. Q.
. and Ed*. Fi;
imaine's A-^^/fe
In Tennessee we find in connection with the earthworks the stone graves, which the eiploiations of Put
nam, about ten years ago, brought into prominence.' The chief student of the aboriginal mounds in Georgia
has been CoL C. C. Jones, Jr., who has been writing on the subject for nearly forty years.2 The mounds in (he
Stale of Mississippi, as including the region of the Natchez Indians, derive some added interest because of
the connection sometimes supposed to exist between them and the race of the mounds.* The same character-
istics of the mounds extend into Alabama.' The mounds in Florida attracted the early notice of John and
William Bartram, and are described by them in their Travels^ and have been dwelt upon by later writers.'
The seaboard above Georgia has not much of interest,* Concerning the mounds along the Canadian belt
there is hardly more to be said,'
Lubbocli classes the signs of successive periods ir
of the old earthworks were an agricultural race.'
There is another class of relics which, outside the hi

comprehensive study, though the general books on A
tions on roclis, which are so widely scattered throughoul
Ky., 187;). Prof. Shaler, as head of the Geological Sui-

Tey of Kentucky, included in iis Reports Lucien Carr's
treatise on the mounds, alitady mentioned; and touches
the subject briefly in liis JCmtucky. p. 45. Cf. also Maj.
jona. Heart in Imlay's iVistira TirrUfy ; S. S, Lyon • t, Lomenus in Amir. fmrn. jî., Liij; ficKetfs
in SmiOuimiaH Refls.. iSsS, iiS7D, and R. Petit, in 1S71, Alaiama, ch. 3.
.8711 F. W. Putnam in Brnton Sd. Nat. Hilt. PrK.. <■ Schgnlcrafl, Indian Tribn, iii., and in K. V. Hhl.
ivii. 31J <i87s); and A'aiJirir, liii, 109. Sx. Five., 1846, p. tij. Brinton'i Fleridia* Pimnala,
■ The aboiiginBl remaini of Tennessee have sncce9«vely ch. 6. Armr. Antigiiarian,\i.vx\\%.ivi. Siaitksaniaa
been treated in John Haywood's Hiilory ef Taotaii X//erli (1^74), by A. Mitchell, and 1879.
(Ni^ville, iSij)i by Gerard Troost in AiiKr. Elhal. ' J. M. Spainhonr on antiquities in North Carolina, in
.yflf.7-ra<B. (184s), i- 335! by Joseph Jones in 5™il*w«MK Stuiliim. ^*^., 1S71; T. R. Peale 011 some near
Waah-
C<>iifriiH/u"ii,xi[.(iS;6), who connected those nho erected ington, D. Ciliid., 1S71); Schoolcraft, on some in
Va,, in
(he works, throu^ the Nfltchei Indiana, with the Nahuas, Amrr.Ethiml.Soc. TVbjk., i. ; with Squier and Davis,
and
Edward O. Dunning had described some of the Tennessee /'.ni&Mr.^'u. J?'/U.,x., by Lucien Cart. There is a plan
relics in the Peatody Mm. Rt0s., lu., iv., and v.! but of a fort in Vitginia in the .4«tr. /'iwwf-, Sept., T84!,and
Putnam in no. li. (iS78)gaYe the results of his opening of a paper on the araves in S. W. Viiginia in jT/^f. Amer.
the stone graves, with hi; explorations of the sites of the Jful., Feb., iSSs, p. 184.
villagea of the people, and describedlheit implements, nolh- ' W. E. Guest on those near Preacott, in
.Sm/Mfm/sB
ing oi which, as he said, showed contact with Eun>peans. Fffl., iSje. T. C. Wallbridge describes some at the bay
Cyrus Thomas deems these remains the woilts of the Indian of Qnint^ in CBrnK/ian ymrmlM^),v. 409, and
Daniel
raeeW-KT-. ^h/^., vii. T*);Tiii. 161). The i-«iV*iDiniH Wilson for Canada West in Hid., Nov., 1856. T. H.
I. Dme(i86jh A, F.Danilsen (1863)! M.C. Read (1867): Nonb.in^mn- .^n/i^riaB, viii. 369; and lor those in
E. A. Dayton, E. O. Dunning, E. M. Gram, and J. P. Maoilnba papers by A. McCharles in xtiEAmtr. yoiaiuil
Stelle(iS70|; Rev. Joshua Hall, A. E. Law, and D. F. 0/ Ariia.J.'g): iii. j2 (Jvoe, i88?), and by Geoige Biyce
Wright (1874I; and others (in 1877). in Manitoba Hisl. and Sei. Soc. TVabi., A'o. rf (1884-85).
L. J. Du Pr^, in Harftr'i MmlMy (Feb., 187J), p. 347, Bancroft's Nat. Raai, iv. 738, etc., for British Colunibia.
two feet and a hall beneath black loam, near M^phJs. Foster, iii\ Gela Hubbard's Minwriali ifakal/anmry
' til. Jones'! papers are ! Indian Rimains in Stmlh (DelTOii). Shaler (Kmt«cl^, 46) surmises that it vres the
(nw^.nn WdVcuCSaiannatl, 1850); Ancient tumuli en buffalo coming into the Ohio Valley, and affording food
til Savannah Sivir ; Momanmlal Remaini of Grargia. without labor, that debased the moundbuilders to hunters,
part i, (Savannah, 1861); Amir. Antig. Ssc. PriK.. April, " Q, Col. Wbilllesoyon rock inscriptions in the United
1869; AnlifuHits a/ Saulhim Indians (1873); on effigy Stales in W^rsl. Rts. Hill. Sue. Tract Nu, 41. Col. Gar-
moonda in Smitktsnuin Rtpl. (iSjj); and on bird-shaped rick Mallory's special studies ol jactographt are
contained
mounds in ymimal A ntkrafiilogiial Sk., via. li. Cf. also in the Bnll. U. S. Gurlcgical Sitrtxy ef iki tirritarUs
the eariy chapters of hisffJi/.fl/l^flrfM. (1B77), and in the Fimrth Reft. Bur. ElUnal. Wm. Mc-
Other writers : H. C, Williams and Geo. Stephenson in Adams includes those of the Mississippi Valley in his
Smithsim. Rift. (1870); and Wm. McKinley and M. F. Recerdi of aniiinl races it Ha Mininiffi falliy (St.
Stephenson (1871). CLAmer. Etknol. StK. Tram., Ill, Louis, 1887). CI. Hill. Mof., I. 307. Those in Ohio are
on Creeks and Cherokeet; and on the great mound in taammltAmiks Finiil Rtft. c/tit Slait Bsard ef Crn-
the Etowah Valley, yJmiT'.^Ma, Adt.Scl.îijt). Thomas lennial Miaiagira {i»j7),\iy ill. C Read and Col. Whillle-
(Fifli Reft. Bur. Elinei.) supposes the Etowah mound to sey. Cf. alto the Hîst. Res. Hist. Sac. Tracts Hes. II,
be the one with a roadway described by Garcilasso de la 41, s3;'Sat Amtr. Aas. Ade. Sci. Free. (1875); and The
Vega as being on De Soto's mule. Thomas describes other Anlignary, a. 15. Those in the Upper Minnesota
Valley
mounds of this group, giving cuts of the incised copper are reported on by T. H. Lewis in the A mtr. Natura/iit.
plates found in them, which he holds to be of European May, 1886, and July, .887. J. R- Barllert in his Persenat
later; and as they differ from those in Carolina, he deter- ;i9)'cotitrovens some of Bartlett's views. Cf.
Nadaill'ac,
mines they were not built by the Cherokees. Lis fremitrs hamnus, ii. ; J. G. BruS on those in the
' Cf. S. A. Agnew in Smithsonian Reforts (1867), and Sierra Nevada in Smilhson. Heft., 1S72, A. H. Keane
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Oat of all this discussion has risen the new science

not only aichaology in its general acceptation, but to s
ethnology and of geology. It is a new science as at
traced from its origin witii the ancients in a paper by
SocKty 0/ London (vol. L 335).' Its progress in Amei
ralist (jtiv, 348; XV. 616). The most approved n
Schmidt's Anthmfilogisihe Milhsdin ; AnUilung lu
Rtist (Leipzig, 1888). " The methods of archieologi
natural science," says Lubbock {Scienlifit Licturts, i;
a considerable centre of infotma

de Phemmr? and for America in t
successive Congresses of America
Aalhrofologisl, and the Polk Lot
the Materiaux four I'histoirc ft

and in such periodicals as the Ai
endyshe in the Mtmairs oftki Anihrofolegieal

treated by O. T. Mason in the AnuriiaH Natu-
Is of modem research are explained in Emil
obachiin und samnain fur Laôraioritim und
ivestigation are as trustworthy as those of an;
Beside the publications of the various ArdiKo-
of both hemispheres, we lind for Europe
tt naturelli {fhiloSBfhique)
in the Comptts renduj of the
Aati}iiarian,ths Am<rinm
MAJOR POWELL.
n Nfrl
Khe/ottmalAn-
lAr^folof&ai /mi. (Lnndof), lii. iSi. C. C. Jones In his
Sinaktm Indians (i37l)coveia the Bnbjecl. Some in Biaiil
. are noted in Ibid.^ Apr,, iSj3.
I The Grsi Hsuoa of the Intemalional Congiesa d( Pre .

historic (Antbrcpcilc^y and] Archeology was heM a\ Neu-
chitel, and Its piouedings were printed in the Malirinux
four Vkutoirt de r/iomme. The second sessian waa at
Pitij; Ihe third at Norwkh, England; Ihe lourth at
Copenhagen; and there have been otliers of later years,
a. A. &c(iaXriAa%r:s' Rafporl sur U frogyis dt FarUkra.
falr>gii(.Vms, 1868). Qustrefagei himsell is one of Ihe
r«(iSS4V The English n
Bed u( h- ■
ouman's English veruon of his m«t

lularbooli. Nat. Hal. a/ManlH. Y., 1875).
Founded in Paris in 1864 by Gabriel de Mortillel, and

Led after vd. >. by Eugine Trutat and Endle Cârlailhac.
Cf . C. Rau's A rliclri on anlla-ofsl. tiOf/cll contrlb-

itoihiA nnrntRefiU- of lit Stniliten. Init. , rSaj-iSyj
" ' '■■ Wishinpon. 18B1). The Smi '
IS the f
of anthropologists
Cf. I
« >«,
ion. Rtpt., 1880 (Wa^

liography of
able list of b
published a1
a bilv
es (1875-188?) al N. Y., Cinrin-
iPO'
jle
The broad subject of prehistoric archsofogy is covered in a paper by Lubl»cl£, which is induded in his
Scitnt^c Ltdures (Loai; 1S79);' in H. M, Wiitiopp'i PnkisUric Phases, or htradHaary Essaya on Pre-
hiUorie Archaeiogy (Lond., 1872) ; in Stevens's Flint Chips (1870) ; by Dr. Brinton in the Uonografhic
Bncyclofxdia, vol. ii. ; and more popularly in Charles F. Keary's Davin of Histsry, art iiilrod. la frskisioric
study (N. v., 1879), and in Davenport Adams's Beneath the SKrfact, or tie Underground World.
The French have contributed a corresponding literature in Louis Figuier's VHemmt fritniti/ (Paris,
thjoy,iia Zaborawski's L'homme frihistorigite (Paris, 1878); and in the Marquis de Nadaillac's Lisfre-
miirt iommes et les temps frehistoriques (Paris, iSSi), and his Maurs et monumenls des ptaples frchis-
toriquts (Paris, 188S), not to mention others,'
The principal comprehensive wotks covering the prehistoric period in North America, are J. T, Shorfs
North Americans of Antiquity (N. Y., 1879, and later) ; the L'Amirique freiistarijue of Nadiillac (Paris,
1883) ; * Foster's Prehistoric Racas of the UnUid States (Chicago, J873 ; 6th ed., 1SS7) ; and the compact
popvJat Ancient America (N. Y., 1S71) of John D. Baldwin. Beside Bancroft's A'aiiw ôcei, there are vari-
ous treatises of confined nominal scope, bul covering in some degree the whole North American field, which
are noted in other pages.s
The purely ethnological aspects of the American side of the subject are summarily surveyed in A. H. Keane's
"Ellinology of America," appended to Stanford's Compendium of Geography, Cent. America, eU:. (London,
2d ed., iSSs), and there are papers on Ethnographical Collections in the Smiilisonian Report (i862).« The
great repository of material, however, is in the Conlriiutions to North American Ethnology, being a Action
of Major Powell's Survey sf the Rocky Mountain Region, and in the Annual Reports of the Bureau of
Ethnology since 1879, made under Major Powell's directions, and in the Reports of the Peabody MuseumJ
' He had surveyed Ihe condii
ion of the sddice in .867
,,„,Aee.-Primiiiêi,.-
Irilmliiine to the stndy of Amir. Arckieidogy (Plillad.
kaiitants of Scandinavia. Cf.
also Smithionia^ Re/ort,

■ Figuier's book, are nearly
all awessible in English.
Proc., Apr.. 1S69, and Haven's Prehistoric Amer, Civili-
His rtsman Race and hia tViî.
i before the Delate cover
Quart. Rev. (April, 1S7SI, i«v>. 2^7. Frnesl Marceau's
> A few mnor reference.: Z
lawson's Story of Earth
" Lea andens peuples de TAniirique " in the Sevui Cana-
ami Man, ch. ,4, 'S. Foster's
PreUslorie Race, 0/ the
dien«, n. s., iv. 709. E. S. Morse in No. Amer. Rev.,
^d of the World. Gay's
Pof. Hill. U. S., ch. .. Prima
pal Forbes in the £*«•

men of the Great Lahes (Detroit, 1S77).
MirghRtvimi, Jul,, ig63; Oct,
, 1870. Londint Quarterly
The principal work on die South Ameriran man isAlcMe
J?™.,Apr., iSjo. CoMemf.Rei
d'OrblKDj'a L'Jfomaie A mJrioaiitir (P«ns, 1S37). Tbere
Apr,, i8j3. BrU. Q. Rn., Ap.,
Oct., iMj. Lo«d.Rev..
are some local treatises, like Lucien de Rosny's Les A a-
Jan., i«6o. Liffi<uvll't Mtg..
, «ll. i. A'fl*. Q. Rev.,
tales: Ittide dethmigrapkie et d-archtologle Amerieaines
Mar., >a76. Lakeside MÛy,
(Paris, i886,-^«. Sac. d'ElhHtgraphie,Ti s., ii.),aiid
* Translated by N. D'Anvws 1
mi edited by W. H. Dall,
papers by NadaiJlao and others in the Maleriaux, etc.

Îb corns radical changes of
text (N, Y.. iSS^X Cf.
• By Then, Lyman and Hr. de SchJagintweit.
Lucien Can in Seiimre. ,885, Feb. 17, p. 176. Call dU-
r The long article on the Races of America in Cassino'a
cusH» (he evidences of the rsnai
man in the United Stales in tb
Flicdrichvon Hellwald's Naturgesckichte dei Mensehen,
tions. vol. jril
' A few other references of 1.
Putnam and Carr. CI. also J- C Prichard's Researches
ton's RrBtfilf of Ike data /or th
I iludy of the prehiHoric
, 1887, -from the Free.

Hosted by VjOOQIC
APPENDIX.
1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ABORIGINAL AMERICA.
By the Editsr.
The student will find a general survey of " Les Sources de I'histoite atitS-CoIombienne du nouveau nionde,
par Lion de Rosny," in the Rgvsts Orientals et Americaine (Mim. de la soc. d'eiknographie) stssioit de
1S77 (p- >39)- Bancroft in his Native Races (v. 136) malies a simitar grouping of the classes of sources
relating to the primitive Americans.i Tliese classes are defined in Daniel G. Brinton's Review of the data for
h d f he frehistoric chroHology of Ametiea <Salem, 1 88 7), from the Proceedmgs of the Amer. Ana.
f -Id leeaunt of Stienee (vol. xxxvi.), as eonveniently divided into groups pertaining to legendary,
m m al industrial, linguistic, physical, and geological phenomena.
T been given in the Introduction of the present volume the titles of genetal bibliographies of
A hi tories, most of which include mote or less of the titles pertaining to alioriginal times. It is the
purpose e present brief essay to enumerate, in an approximately chronological order, the titles of sotne
d of others which are useful to the archsologist. So far as they are of service to the student of
Am languages, an extended list will be found prefixed to Filling's Proof-Sheets (p. li).
The earliest American bibliography was that of Antonio de Leon, usually called Pinelo, — £/i(oww dt la
Biblioteea oriental y occidental niutica y Geogrifiea (Madrid, 162^, — but which is usually found in the edi-
tion of Goniales de Barcia, " Aiiadido y enmendado nuevamente " (Paris, i737-i;38), in which the American
titles, including numerous nianusctipls, are given in the second volume.'
The Bibliotheea Hispana Nova ai Nicolis Anlonio was first published at Rome in 167a, but in a second
edition at Madrid in 1783-SS.B
Passing by the BibUMheea Mexieaaa o! Eguiara y Eguren,' and the early edition of Beristain, we note the
new edition of the latter, prepared not by Juan Evangelista Guadalajara, as Brasseur notes,* but by another, as
the title shows, — Bibliotsca Hispano-Amerieana Septentrional, 6 catalogs y Holieia de los ■Literalos que 6
natidos, 6 educados, 6 fioreciintes en la A-merica Septentrional Espahola,han dado & luz algun escrito 6 lo
han dexado preparado para la prensa for Josl Mariano Beristain y Martin de Souta. Segunda edi-
tion. por Fonine HipSlifo Vera (Amecameca, 1833).
Dr. Robertson intimates that the lists of books which writers of the seventeenth century had been in the
habit of prefixing to their books as evidence of their industry had come lo be regarded as an ostentatious ex-
pression of their learning, and with some hesitancy he counted out to the reader his 717 titles; but Clavigero,
as elsewhere pointed out.s was richer in such resources. Humboldt, in his Vues.^ gives a list of the authors
which he cites.
The class of dealers' catalogues — we dte only such as have decided bibliographical value — begins to be
consirfcuous in Paul TrSmel's Bibliothlque Amlrieaint (Lelpsig, 1861), the best of the German ones, and in
Charles LeclerCs BiiUolhica Americana (Paris, 1867), much improved in his Bibliotheea Americana. Hh-
toire, geograp&ie, voyager, atchiologie il Hnguistique dis deux An,erig«ii it des ties Pkilippines (Paris, 1S78),
with later supplements, constituting the best of the French catalogues, provided with an excellent index and
a linguistic table, rendered necessary by the classified plan of the list
PeabsHy Mxsetim Reports, ipeakt of his neglecting such * See Vol, II. p. 419.
comirilations as Bancroft's in order lo deal solely with the > B^. Mex. Guat., p. it ; Pinart, no, 161, CE, Icai-
original sources, and'lhe student will find the references in baleeta on " Las bibliotecas do Iîarayde Beriuain"
in
his fool.nota of those essays very full indications of what Memoria de la Acadtmia Mixicaaa, i. «).
' BamsM, *a. y4w, fit.: Rich, fiiW. jVffoa ,■ Leelerc, ' Alaoin EnK. Irinsl,. ii itf,
vGoosIe
The list formed by students io this Keld begins with the BibHotheca Americana Velustissioia of Hanisse
(New Vork, 1866; additions, Paris, 187^), and includes Ute Biiliotiiqui Mexico-Gualiinaliiniu, fricSdie d'urt
louf iPail sur les iludes amiricaines dans Iturs rapports avec les itudes elaliigues, el sunie dn iaileoH,
far ordre alfkabiiique, des ou-iirages dc tinguistiptc Americains canlenus dans le mime volume (Paris,
1871) of the Abb* Brasseur de Bourbourg, who al that time had been twenty-five years engaged in the studies
and travels which led to the gathering of his collection. The library, almost entire, was later joined to that of
Alphonse L. Pinart, and was included in the iattet's Caialogue de Hvres rares it pricieux, manuscrils el
imprimis (Fads, 1SS3).
In 1866, Icazbalceta published at Mexico bis ^/»n/fi /bt-b un Cat&logo de Bsiritores tn lenguas indigsnas
de America,^ but of his great bibliographical work only one volume has as yet appeared : BibHografia Ame-
ricana dll Siglo xvi. Primera patli. Catihgo raamado de libros imprests en Mexico de IJSQ 1> reoo, con
biografias de aulores y olras iiuilraciones, preadido de una noticia acerca de la inlroducciSn di la im-
prenta en Mexico (Mexico, iSS5).
Bandelier has embodied some of the results of his study in his " Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and
Central America," in the Amer. Anlij. Soc. Proi., a. a., i, pp. 82-118.
The catalogues of collections having special reference to aboriginal America ate the following; —
Calahgne de la Biblioihiê de Jose Maria Andrade, •jpoo piices el -volumes, ayant rapport ait Miiiquc
ou imprimis dans ce pays (Leipiig, 1869).^
Bibliolheca Msjicana : Books and manuscripts almost wholly relating to the history and literature of
North and South America, particularly Mexico (London, 1S69J. This collection was formed by Augustin
Fischer, chaplain to the Emperor Maximilian ; but there were added to the catalogue some titles from the col.
lection of Dr. C.' H. Berendt.
Catalogue of the library of E. G. Squier, edited by Joseph Sabin <N. Y., 1876).
BibHotheca Mexicana, or A Catalogue of the library of the rare books and important MSS. relating to
Mexico and other farts of Spanish America, formed by the late Senor Don Jose Fernando Ramirez (Lon-
don, 18B0). Thb catalogue was edited by the Abb6 Fischer.a
The most useful guides to the literature of aboriginal America, however, ate some compiled in this country.
First, the comprehensive though not yet complete bibliography, Joseph Sabin's Dictionary of books relating
to America, now being continued since Sabin's death, and with much skill, by Wilberforce Eames. Second,
the voluminous Proofsheets of a Bibliography of the languages of the North American Indians (Washington,
iSS; ), prepared by James Constantine Filling, tentaUvely, in a targe quarto volume, disDihnted only to collab-
orators ; and out of which, with emendations and additions, he is now publishing special sections of it, of
which have already appeared those relating to the Eskimo and Siouan tongues. His enumeration so much
exceeds the taiê of purely linguistic monographs that the treatises become in effect general blblii^raphies of
aboriginal America.
Third, An Essay towards an Indian bibliography, being a Catalogue of books relating to the history, an-
of Thoi. IV. Field, aith biiliographical and historical notes and synopses of the contents of some of tlie
works least inmin (N. Y., 1S73). The sale of Mr. Field's library took place in New York, May, 1S75, from a
Catalogue not so elaborate, but still of use. These books are not so accurately compiled as to be wholly trust-
Finally, the list prefixed to Bancroft's Native Races, vol. i., and the
eferences
of his foot-notes, througho
his five volumes (condensed often in Shorf s Nonli Americans of Anti
juity), ar
on the whole the most s
viceable aids to the general student, but unfortunately the index of the
et is of n
use in searching for bib
graphical detail.
The reader will remember that the Mbliogtaphies of sectional or pa
tial irapo
t in the field of Americ
archsology are referred to elsewhere in the present volume.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
11.
THE COMPREHENSIVE TREATISES ON AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES.
At the time when Bancroft published his A'a(n/«i?fl«j (1875), he referred to John D. Baldwin's -^nojK/
America (N. V., 1871) as the only preceding, comprehensive book on America before the Spaniatds.i It sUU
remains a convenient book of small compass ; but its absence of references to sources precludes its usefulness
for purposes of study, and it is not altogether abreast of the latent views. To the popular element a moderate
share of the indexical character, rendering the book passably serviceable to tlie average reader, has been
added in the somewhat larger North Americans of 4nlijuily, Meir origin, migra/ions, and type of cwilita-
lion considered, by John T. SkorHH.Y., iWo —somewhat improved in later editions), though it will be
observed that the Peruvian and other South American antiqmtiea have not come within his plan. The
latest of these comprehensive books is the Marqiua de Nadaillac s (Jean F. A. du Pougef s) L'Amirique
jirikisloriquc (Paris, 1883), which in an Enghsh lersloti by N D Anvers was published with the author's
sanction in London in i88i. With revision and some modifications by W. H. Dall, which have not met the
author's sanction, it was republished as Prshistsrk America (N. Y., 1884). ft is a work of more theoretical
tendency than the student wishes to find at the opening stage of his inquiry.
But as 1 eompend of every department of archEological knowledge up to about fifteen years ago no advance
has yet been made upon Bancroft's Native Races as indicative of every channel of investigation which the stu-
14) the treatment is condensed and without references, as occupying a field beyond his primary purpose of
covering the Pacific slope of North America and the immediately adjacent repons. MenUoo is made else-
where of Bancroft's methods of compilation, agd it may suflicE to say that in the five volumes of his Natitit
Races he has drawn and condensed his matter from the writings of about i!oo writers, whose titles he gives
in a preliminary lisl.^ The method of arranging the departments of the work is perhaps too far geographi-
cal to be always satisfactory to the special student,' and he seems to be aware of it (for instance, L ch. a) ;
but it may be questioned if, while writing with, or engrafting upon, an encyclppKdic system, what might pass
for a continuous narrative, any more scientific plan would have been more successful. Bancroft's opinions
are not always as satisfactory as his material. The student who uses the Native Baas for its groups and
references will accordingly find a complemental service in Sir tJaniel Wilson's Prekislaric Man (London,
1876), in which the Toronto professor conducts his " researches Into the origin of civilization in the old and
the new world," by primarily treating of the early American man, as the readiest way of understanding early
rnan in Europe. His system is to connect man's development topically in the directions induced by his
habits, industries, dwellings, art, records, migrations, and physical charicteriiations.
Another and older book, in some respects embodying like purposes, and though produced at a time when
archsolugical studies were mudi less advanced than at present, is Alexander W. Bradford's American Anti-
quities and restarches inlo the origin and history of the red ratefN. Y., 1841).' The first section of the
bocA is strictly a record of results; but in the final portion the author indulges more in speculative inquiry.
Even in this he has not transcended the bounds of legitimate hypothesis, though some of his postulates will
hardly be accepted nowadays, as when he contends that the red Indians are the degraded descendants of the
people who were connected with the EO-:alled civilizaiion of Central America.^
' A school borik, Maiclua Willson's Amer. Hiilary 1,'S. lioHS lurofiennt.rcmaiiu, grecût, del fafulalions frimi-
y., 1S4TJ, went much farther than an; book of its class, or Iraisde fAm/rifise leftmlrionate. Its Chiapas, Palrn^
■ even of the usual popular hialories, in the matter of Ameri- dts Jfuiaas axOlres dti Tal/tfutt, cMUtatioa
YtaiUkqm,
can antiquitieSf^ving a good many plans and cun of ruins. Zapotigues, MixiiûtSt royaume du Michoacan,
poputa-
■ For bibliog. dstail regarding ihe Nat. Races, see Pill- tima du Nord-Omsi, du Nirrd tt de FEst, iatsin du
ing's Proof Sheets, f.^ Reviews of the work are noted Mississipi, eiriUisatioK Tirltifiie, Aeliqut, Amtrifiu du
in Poolers Index, p- 9^. centrg, Pintviettnej deminrstitiH des /Ticas, rsyaume de
' Cf., for instance, Call's strictures on the tribes of the Qxito, Ocfanle {Paris, 1671-74); Frederick IjtaUa'iAn.
K. W. in Cimtr&. la A mer. Ethnal., i. p. 3. cuU man in A meraa. tnAîng mrkt inwettem New
< Sabin.il. 713] ; Field, no. 169, York, and fortiene of other stales, together with slnic-
general scope: Jean Benoil Scherer's Secierchex hiito- however, hardly 10 be commended by archxologisli ; and
riqugset gio/^raphiguessur Unovoeau »tande{^Pa:tiA,iy7j); Cliules Francij Keaty's Daam of History, an

tntroduo'
D. B. Warden's Rsckirchss sur lei Aniiquitf! de FAm. tion to prihiiloric iludy[tf.Y., rSS?).
Sept. (Paria, 1817) m Jtecueil de Voyages, Imbliiparia The periodical literalute ol a comprehenHve son is not so
i-oc.Cfcj. (Paris, lais, ii. 37"; cf.Dupai>,ii.l; Ira Hill's eilenslve as IrMtmenla of special aspects; but the student
Antiquities of Amer. ExfIai«idi^3êT»otm,\i,yy,\jxat will find Poole's Index and Rhee's Catalogue and Index
salts' £lndflhisloriquej el phaoiBfhiques sur leicivdis^ of tht Smithsonian pid:lkationi atrmxAAt.
Hosted by Vj.OOQIC
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF
THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
By the Editor.
While we have a moderate list of works on the general subject of prehistoric art and industries,' we lack
local treatment. Humboldt in the introduction to his Atlai of his Essai folUique (Paris, 1S13) was among
the earliest to grasp the material which illustrates the origin and first progress of the arts in America. The
chapters on the Wild Tribes, devoted to the subject, which make up the first volume of Bancroft's Naiwe
Races^ and for Mexican and Maya productions some chapters (ch. t^, 24) in the second volume. Prescoll's
treatment of the more advanced peoples of this region is scant [Mexico, i., inlrod., ch. 5). The art jn stone of
the Pueblo Indians is beautifully iUustrated in Putnam's portion of Wheeler's Refari of his survey, and com-
parison may be made with Haydeti's Annual Rept. (i8j6) of the U. S, Geol. and Geographical Survey. The
work of Putnam and his collaborators in the archsological volume (vii.) of Wheeler's Survey h probably
the most complete account of the implements, ornaments and utensils of any one people (those of Southern
California) yet produced; and its illustrations have not been surpassed. Passing north, we shall get some
help from E. L. Berthoud's paper on the "Prehistoric human art from Wyommg and Colorado," in bis
" Journal of a reconnaissance in Creek Valley, Col.," published by the Colorado Acad, of Nat. Sciences {Pro-
teedingi, 1872, p. 46). In the Pacific Rail Spod Reporli (vol. iii. in 1856) there is a paper by Thomas
Ewbank in " Illustrations of Indian antiquities and arts." 5. S. Haldeman has described the relies of human
industry found in a rock shelter jn southeastern Pennsylvania {Comfte Rendu, Cong, dis Amir., Luiemboui^.
ii. 319 ; and Transactions Amer. Piihs. Sec., 1878). The best of aU the more comprehensive monographs
is Charles C. Abbott's Pri>nmve industry : or illnslTaliens of the handivierk, in stone, tone and clay, of the
Hathie races of the Norfhim Atlantic seaboard of America (Salem, iSSi ). Morgan's League of the Iroquois
touches in some measure of the arts of that confederacy, his earliest study bdng in the Fifth Report of the
Regents of the Slate of New York (185a),
For the Canada regions, the Annual Reports of the Canadian Institute, appended to the Reports of the
Minister of Education, Ontario, contain accounts of the discovery of objects of stone, horn, and shell (See
particularly the sessions of tE86-87.) Dawson in his Fossil mm {ch. 6) considers what he accounts the lost
arts of the primitive races of North America. On the other hand. Professor Leidy found sOll in use among
the present Shoshones split pebbles resembling the rudest stone implements of the palanlithic peiiod ( t/. 5.
Geological Surrey, 1872. p. 652).
Many archaologists have remarked on the uniform character of many prehistoric implements, wherever
found, as precluding their being held as ethnical evidences. The system of quarrying' for flint best fitted for
the tool-maker's art has been observed by Wilson (Prehistoric man, i. 68) both in the old and new world, and
in his third chapter (vol. i.) we have a treatise on the ancient stone-worker's art,*
< It is not oeqeaaary lo euunierals many lilies, but refer- Smilh in Hid. 1S76; Dr. Brailon in Proc. Ifumiim. a«d
mZsifSs Historical drailetmcHi of art. It maybe worlh pipe-aione ia also well known, and the iaijiou! red pipe-
while to glan« at A, Daui's Eludis frihiiloriques. L'in- stone quany, lying between the Missouri and Minnesoia
dtutrie humaine : set eriginei, sei premitrs essais €t jtr rivers, was under Ihe proledion of ihe Great Spirit, so that
liEtndes derail lesfnmiers tempt jtaqu'au dilmge (Paris, tribes at war with one another are s^d 10 have buried
their
1877); Dawson'a .Pam? HKK, ch. ji Joly's Afan iefore hatihels as they approached it. Wilson, in the last chapter
Mrlali : Nadailiac's Z.es Premiers Hommes, iL ch. ii ; at Ihe first volume of hij Prthistoric man, examines Ihis
Dabry de Thieisanl'a Origim des indiera du Xmvtaii fop6<arving and lella the slory of Ihis famous quauy. He
JIfoHde (Paril, iSSj) ; and BrHhl's CaUuniilker alt-A mi- relets to ihe tobacco mortars of ihe Perurians in which
they
rika's, ch. 14, 16. ground the dry leaf; and 10 the pipes of the mounds in
' Cf., panicularly ior California, Putnam's Report in which il was smoked. Cf. J, F. Nadailiac's Les pipasel
Wheeler's Survey. tet^-tac (Paris, 1885), Taken from ihe Material:: Pour
' There is some queslion if Ibe early Americans ever car- rhistoire primitive de rhomme (ii. for 1885) i and
Lucien
inR-sionea. Cf. Morgan's Houses and HiJse Lift. 174. g^nes de I'AmWque," in Mhnoires iw fArchiologii
They did quarry soap-stone (Elmer R. Reynolds, Schn- Amtricaine, 1865. of 'he Soc. d'Elhnographie.
macherand Putnam, in Ptaiody Mus. Refts., lii.) and ' It should be remembered that Ihe reoîlion of the
mica {Smithsonian Report, 1879, by W. Gemer; C. D. Flinl folk as occupying a distmct stage o£ development
is
Hosted by VjOOQIC
INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 417
Treating the subject topically, we find tlie late Charles Rau making some special studies of the imptanents
used in native agriculturei in the S^nMsanian Seforii for 1863, 1868 and 869' The agriculture of the
Aztecs and Mayas is treated in Max Steflen's Dit Landwirtschaft in din a am ian hen KuliuTT/olkem
(Ldpiig, i883),»
The working of flint or obsidian Into arrow-points or cutUng implemen s a p o e^ b pressure that has
not been wholly lost. Old workshops, or tlie chips of them, have been disco e ed and they are found In
numerous localities (Wilson's /'«Aii(orieMfl«,i. 75, ?9; Abbott's /> mU e Indust and Putnam In the
Buil.Eisix !>iitilule),bot FoveUlahliStf art s/ Elf /orations e/ tAtC ad h IV rf (1S73) does not,
as Wilson says he does, describe the present ways.*
Wilson {Preilitoric Man, i. ch. 4 and 7J in an essay on the bone and ivory workers substitutes for the cor-
respondii^ words usually employed in classifying stone implements llw terms palaotechnic and neotechnic,
as indicating periods of progress, in order that the art of making tools in horn, bone, shell, and ivory might
have a better recognition, as ot equal importance with that of making such in stone. Separate treatises are
few. Morgan has a paper on the bone implements of the Arickarees in the list Reft, of the Regents of the
University of the State of N. Y. (1871), and Kau's monograph on Prehistoric fishing in Europe and North
America, one of the SMiihsonian Cantriiulions {1884), involves the making of fish-hooks of bone. See also
Putnam in the Peabody Muscxm Reports, and in Wheeler's Survey, vol. vii. ; Wyman's contributions on the
shell heaps, and Ihe Journal of the Cincinnati Soc. 0/ Nat. Hist, for such as have been found in the ash-pits
of Madisonville. On shell-work there is a section in Foster's Prehistoric Races (p. 134) ; a paper by W. H.
Holmes in the Second Reft, of the Bureau of Ethnology (p. ijg); and one on American shell-work audits
affiniUesby Miss Buckland in the/our«B/^HM™/ii/. /nrf., xvi. i;;.
From the primitive materials of stone, bone, horn, or shell, we pass to metals ; but as Wilson (i.p. 174) says,
" if metal could be found capable of being wrought and fashioned without smelting or mouldii^, its use was
perfectly compatible with the simple arts of the stone period, as a mere malleable stone ; " and to the present
day, he adds, the rude American race has no knowledge of working metal, except by pounding or grinding
it cold.s The story which Brereton tells in his account of Gosnold's visit (i6oi) to New England, about the
finding of abundant metal implements in use among the natives, is questioned (Baldwin's Ancient America,
p. 6i). We have the evidences of the early mining' of copper extending for over a hundred miles along the
southern shores of Lake Superior and on Isle Royale, in the abandoned trenches and tools first discovered
in 1847 ; and in one case there was found a mass ot native copper (ten feet by three and two, and wdghing
over six tons) which had been elevated on a wooden frame prior to removal, and was discovered in this con-
dition.!' There are also indications that the manufacture of capper tools was carried on in the neighborhood of
half after European la^dary \n Smithsonian Reft. ii&ijY, and Koiny's "Re-
J. \cs ind
igfen,
.3 de I'Timirique
:" IB Arch, de la Soc.
•fr.^F,
.. n. ».. vol. i. J
.ave bSn fouDd
in Central America and
lico, and
rsraembKngthei
;balilis
yet clear that the

unworked maleriaj, <uch
Id,,
; middle America
1 specimens, i. found in
.erica ^1
Upon the aolut
depend
■erica as
bear
ing upon queilion
s oi Auatic inlercoutse.
Dr. A. B
.M.
iyerinthe^™r.
Aiakropologiit{m\.i.,
,), and F. W. Pul
. Proe.,.
Jan..
, i3S6, aid in th
le Proc. Amer. Antiq.
Scho<dcrafti Foster's /'«*i««-«:-«««i,ch. 6; .

Prehistoric Ti'Kii ; Joly-s Han before Meinls.
ences in Poole'i 'Index under " Slone Age " ani
Implements."
* Cf. S, D- Peer in A mer. A ntiquarian, vii. 1
historic ltîn,-vfA. 1. ch. 3, where it is held that they were lology confimis
formed by the grinding procesB in shaping the rounded end Btone." On the
ollools. K.W.Kei,sbav\.aiiiitAmer.7our.o/ATcha- Prof. F. W. Pu
ology {i. rnf) discuases anodier enigma in the atone relics, iBSi ; Wilson (
called sinkers or plummets. Foster {Prehiil, Raees,iio) ' Wilton (i. »09, 117J iniiuu tne arooreal ana ouier
believea they were used as weights to keep the thread taut evidences carry the lime when these mines were
worked
> Cf, also Stevens's P/in/ Ckifs, 291, and Chamay, Eng. medixvil era. The earUest modem references to copper
transl., p 70. in this region are in Sagard in i6ja (Haven, p. 11;) and ui
' a. G. Crook " on the Indian method of mailing arrow- the Jesuit Relatum of Allouei In 1666-67. Alexander
lieads" in the Smithsonian Refl., 1871, and C. C. Jones, ênry {Travels and Adventurei in Canada) in 1765 is
Jr., on "the primitive manufacture of spear and arrow- the earliest English explorer to mention it. Wilson holdi
, Cf. Stevei
lacher in Smilhioni
.ves reason) for supposing that the Lake Superior

Lca, but mines may have been a common meeting ground tor all
te, and < Wilson, i. »]. MacLcan's JHotmdhiaders, ch. 6,
Hosted by
Gpogle
4I» NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
the mines (Wilson, i. 213I ; and chemical tests have shown that a popular belief in the temperin
by these euly peoples is without foundation.'
It seems lo be a fact tliat while in the use of metals an intermediate stage of pure copper,
between the use of bone and stone and the u:
pected in Great Britain, the '^ peculiar intere:
the earlier stages are clearly defined; the pure naOve metal wrought by the hammer without the aid of fire;
the melted and moulded copper ; the alloyed bronie ; and the smelting, soldering, graving, and other processes
resulting from accumulating experience and matured skill " (Wilson, i. 230). It is in the regions extending
from Mexico to Peru that the art of alloying introduces us to the American bronze age. Columbus In his
fourth Yoyage found in a vessel which had come alongside from Yucatan crucibles to melt copper, as Herrera
tells us ; and Humboldt vias among the earliest to discover tools alloyed of copper and tin, and many such
alloys have since been reci^nlzed among Peruvian bronzes (Wilson, i. 239). In Mexico, metallurgic arts were
carried perhaps even farther in casOng and engiavmg, and not only tire results hut the evidences of then-
mining places have remained to our day (Ibid. i. 14B). It seems evident, however, that experhnenting with
them had not carried them so near the perfect combination for tool-making (one pari tin to nine parts copper)
as tlie bronze people of Europe had reached, though they fell considerably short of the exact standard {Ibid.
L 154). Doubt has sometimes been expressed of Meiican mining for copper, as by Frederick von Hell-
waJd {Cmfli Rendu, Csng. des AmirUamitt,, iS??, i. 51); but Rau indicated the references^ to Short
(p. 94), which forcibly led him lo the conclusion that the Mexicans mined copper lo turn mto tools.' Among,
the Mayas, Nadaillac (p. 269) contends that only copper and gold were m use. Bancroft (ii. 749) thinks the
use of copper doubtful, and if used, that it must have been got from the north. He cites the evidences of the
use of gold. William H. Holmes discusses The use of gold and other msisls among ike ancient inhahUants
of Chiriqui, Islkmvs of Darien (Washington, 18S7). As to iron, that found in the Ohio mounds, only of late
years, has been proved to be meteoric iron by Professor Putnam (Amir. Aniiq. Sec. Prac, Apr., 1 8S3). Bancroft
(i. 164) says iron was in use among the British Columbian tribes before contact with the whites, but it was
probably derived through some indirect means from the whites. Though iron ore abounds in Peru, and the
character of the Peruvian stone-cutting would seem to indicate its use, and though there Is a native word for
it, no icon implements have been found.' There is not much recorded of the use of silver. It has been found
by Putnam in the mounds in thin sheets, used as plating for other metais.' He has also found native silver
Wilsi
' Of the Lake Superior mines, the earliest iiHi:lligenl on " Prehistoric Wisconsin " m the Wiscomin Hat. Cdt.,
account we have is in C, T, Jackson's Giolsgkal Sefiorl vol. vii. (see also voL vitt.), with his '• Copper Age in
Wis-
tolii U. S. Gai^l, i349i but a more eilendcd and con- conwo " In the Prx. of tht Anar. Aatigaarian Socitty,
Iks Giology of Lakt SufiriOT (Waahinglon, 1850), by Acad. o/Scie'-a,\a. <»; H. W.Haynes on "Copper ini-
J.W. Foster and J. D. WWlney, which is substantially piemen 16 of America" in Proc. Amer. AMig. Sia..Oi:i.,
reproduced in Foster's PrthUlork Races (1873J, ch. 7. i&Sj, p. 335 ; Putnam on the copper objects oi Nonh and
Meanwhile, Col. Charles Whittlesey had published in vol. SouthAmericapreseivedinthePeabody Museum

(êjisr^j,
liii. of the SmUksonlan ContrHaliom his A ncienl Mm- iv. 83) : Read and WhitdeMy in the final Rtforl, Okh
i<tg OK thi short, of La*e Su/lru-r (Washington, 186}, Board Cent. Manager!, 1877, ch. 3 ; and Pee!i\ Index,
with a nap], which is on the whole the best account, p. 30D. Reynolds has recemly In the yevrnal of the Af
to be supplemented by his paper in the Memoirs of the throtel. Soc. (Washington) claimed copper mining lor
the
Boston Society of Natural Histoiy. Jacob Houghton modem Indians.
supplied a desi:ription of the "ancient copper mines of ' ClaviEero(Philad.,Ens. transi,, i. ao); Piescolt, i. 138;
Lake Superior" to Swineford's History and Revimi of Folsom's ed. of Cortes' letters, 413; Lockhan's transl. of
the ndntral resources of Lake .SV^riw- (Marquette, 187*). Bemal Dia. (Lond., JS44. L 36)-
Cf. alsdi«iflAs/-.Sf£nKe(aeveland), i, foriSsj; Daw- scf. on copper implements from Mexico! P. J. J. Va-
son's Fossil Men, b\; Baldwin's Ancient Atmrica., 43; \Br.<sKC% Mexican eofpir louts: the use of copfr ij/ the
■Wâoa's Prehistoric atan, i. 104 ! Dr. Harvey Read in MexUambeforetheConquelf.andTkeKatumsefMaya
the flirt. Hist. Soc. Report, i> (1878); Joseph Henry in history, a ihcêr in the earl;y history efCiKtral A merua.
Sia Smithsonian RefertsUKv, also in 1861); and Short, From the German,by S. Salisbfry,jr. (VIontila, imi),
p. B9, with references. (torn the Amtr. Aniij. See. Proc, Apr. yt, 1879; F. W.
On the mines at Isle Royale, see Henty Gillman's " An- Putnam in Hid., a. s., ii. ij; (Oct, at, 18S1) i Chamay,
cient works at Isle Royale" in ^jrt//<ton'j7™™i/, Aug Enn- transl., p. 7°; H. L. Reynolds, Jr., on the "Metal
9, i8j}; Smithsonian Sefts., tin. 1S74, by A. C. Davis ; art of ancient Meiico " in /■p/WarJ-i-HKe ^D-iMif.Ai^.,
Vns Proceedings of the Amer Asso. for the Advancement iSSjfvol. iiii., p. 519).
of Soence, 1875: and Professor Winchell in Papular • C(. SI, John Vincent Day's Prehistoric vst of iron
Science Monthly, Sept., 1881. and tteel: with obsematiens (London, 1877). This book
See further, on ihe copper implements o( these ancient grew out of papers printed in the Proe. Phileso/h. Soc. o)
workera: Abbott's Primitive Indmtry, ch. 38; Foster's Glasgo7u(t%^,-Jl^|,
Prehistoric Races, m ; P. R. Hoy's Hon, and by 'whone ' Cf, Dr. Washinpon Matthews on the " Navajo silver-
v<eri Ihe coffer implements «pm*/ (Racine, 1886, in Wa- tnaOii" \n\be id RePt. Bureau of Ethnol.
{V/iMjig.to,<,
conlin Acad, of Science, Iv. 133); J. D. Butler's address .SSj), p. 167.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 419
specimens gathered by Squier and Davis, lamented that no American collection 1 had been yel foimed adequate
to the requirements of the studenlS of American archaeology and ethnology. Since that date, however, the
collections in the National Museum (Smithsonian Institution) at Washington and in the Peabody Museum at
Cambridge have largely grown ; and especially for the fictile art and work in stone of Spanish North Ameriai
the Museo Nacional in Mexico has assumed importance. The collection in the possession of the American
Philosophical Society in Philadelphia,^ since ttansfetied to the Philadelphia Academy, is also oC value Cor th«
study of the pottery of middle America.
Ran has supplied a leading paper on American pottery in the Stniihsonian Report, i856 ; and E. A. Barber
has touched the subject in papers at the Copenhagen, Luxembourg, and Madrid meetings of the Congris des ^
Amiticanistes, and in the Amirican Anligaarian (viii. 76)." \V. H. Holmes has a paper on the origin and
development of form and of ornament in ceramic art in the Fourth Report, Buriau of Ethnology, p. 437,
For local characters there are various monographs.*
There is no satisfactory evidence that the potter's wheel was known to

any American tribe ; but Wilson, in hb chapter on ceramic act (Prehis-
eh. i5), feels convinced that the early potter employed
rt of mechanii
Mod
isideted in tl
1 clay for other f\

asks,fi|
d the aubje
range of aboriginal art, which necessarily makes part of all comprehensive

histories of art. W. H. Dall has a paper on Indian masks in the Third
Rtporl, Bureau of ElhtioUsy, p. 73. The subject is fuither treated by
Wilson in a paper on " The artistic faculty in the aboriginal races," in the
Proceeding! (iii., ad pact,67, 1J9) of the Royal Society of Canada, and
again in a general way by Nadaillac on i'ari /r(AH(arif«i en Amlrque
(Paris, 1883), taken from the ^«;w rfsj o'eai A/oMîj, Nov 1 1883 s
As regards the textile art In prehistoric times, see for a gene a

VV. H. Holmes in the Amerkan Antiquarian, viii. i5i and tl e
archxologist has treated the subject on the evidences of the mpr
of textures as preserved in pottery, in t
p. J93. Cf. Sellers in Popular Scienci
Museum Reports.
J. W. Foster first made (1S38) the discovery of relics of texl

■ It the Albany meeting (1S51) .
:e(7-«.
s, found in the ni
: fabrics of the moundbuilders ; but he did
the American Association for the Advance-
375). He tells the story in his Prehistoric Races, p. 22i, and
.ployed in the making their oloth with watp

paper in the Proc. of the Dmenport A cad. of Sciences,
and imong piitale ones, the Christy and Evans colkcllous
vol. iv. Joseph Jones in ihe Smilksonian Conlrii., xxii.,
in Englaod and the Unde in HeidelbeiR.
and Putnam In the Peaiody Mm. RefU., have descrnêdthe
' Tramaelioia, n. s., iiL jio.
pottery of Tennessee. TheZ-acgfc R. S. Rifls. yield M
< a. Luciea de Rosny'a " Introduction 1 une hisloin it
la c^mique chei les ImUeoB da noDveau monde " in the
the Missouri pottery. J. H. Devereux treats the pottery
Archieet de la Sot. Amh: de FraHci,n.%.,yo\.\.,Wi&
of Arkansas in ihe5'ii«i*jo<iiM«<^., iSjJ. On the Pu-
eblo pottery, see papers of W. H. Holmes and F. H, Cuih-
Frehist. Man,--&. e\L. 17; Callin's !■/. A. Indians, â. A;
ing in the Fourth Reft. Bur. of Etkn. (pp. 137, 743} ; and
F. V. Hayden's Conlrit. to th. Ethnee- of th. Missouri
James Stevenson's illuslratedcatali«uein the ThirdRept.,

I'aiiiy.iis; A. Demmin's û/. dl la Oramifm, IPasii.
p. 5-.. F.W. Putnam {Amer. Art Se„iev,,Uh., -,»»,),
1868-1875); Nadaillac's Les Premiers ffammes, and his
L-Amîpafrihistarifue.ch. 4-
Ihioks that the present Pueblo Indians make an inferior
* For the Atlantic coast, papers by Abbott (Ameriean
ware to their ancestors' productions. The pottery of Ihe
treated in his Primitive Industry, ch. 11 ; and for the
middleAtlantic region,! paper by Francis Jordan. Jr., in
pottery and basket-worli among the Indians of Southern
the Amer. Philosofh. Sec. Free. (.8BS, vol. >n.). For
California in the Peaiody Museum Sift., lii. 511. 0. T.
Florida, Schoolcraft in the JV™ York Hist. Soc. Proc.,
Mason's papers in recent Smithsonian Reports and in the
1846, p. 134. For the mounabuildeiB, Foster's /"rtiirtiM-iB
Amer. Naturalist are among Ihe best invetdgationi in this

Races, p. 137, and in Amer. Naturalist, rii. 94 (Feh„
1873) i N^laiDac, ch. 4; and Putnam in Amsr. Kal.. ix.
« For some special phasei see S. Blondel's Recherches
jii, 393, and Peaiody Mus. Repis., viii. For the Miisis-
Pirtaiiem (Pirii, 1876); F. W. Putnam's Comientien-
• After a cut in Wilson's Prskislsric Man, ii, p. 33, ol ai
1 example in the collections of the American PWIosopWcal
Sociery, iu a totallj dlSerenl style from the usual Meiicao
teira-coltas ; and Wilson remirka of it that one will look !■
y Google
(mdwoof. Putnam has since made similar discoveries [PiabaJy Museum Reports). The subject is also
treated In liie Procsediagi of the Davenporl Academy and of the America^ Association for ttie Advancemen!
of Science. The fabrica were preserved by being placed in contact with copper implements.
The Indians of New Mexico were found by the Spaniai-ds in possession of the art of weaving. Cf. Washing-
ton Matthews on the Navajo weavers, in the Third Reft. Bur. of Ethnology, f. 27',Biid. Bancroft (i. 582),
who also records Che making of fabrics by the wild tribes of Central America (Hid. i, 766-67). He also notes
the references to the textile manufactures of the Nah
of graphic data relative to the fabrics of Peru is cont!
Feather-work was an important industry in some parts of the continent. The subject is studied In Ferdi-
nand Denis' Arte plumaria : Lis plumes, leur valeur it ieur empM dans Us arts au Mixiûi, au Pirou,
gu Bresilit dans lis Indes et dans eOeianie (Paris, 1875),'
Lewb H. Morgan's Houses and muss-life of the American Aborigines (Washington, iSSi) is the com
pletest study of the habitations of the early peoples ; but it is written too eiclnsively m the light of universal
have been given a bibliographical apparatus in another part of the present volume { but references maybe
made to Wilson's Pnhisteris Man (il. ch. 16), Viollet le Due's Habitations of Man, translated by R. Buck-
nail (Boston, 1876), and to Bandeller's Archxological Tour, 2i5, where he quotes as typical the description of
B native house in 1583, drawn by Juan Bautista Pomar.
There is no good comprehensive account of American prehistoric trade. The T-shaped pieces of copper in
use by the Mexicans came nearest to currency as we understand it, unless il be the wampum of the NorUi
ases and copper plates served such a purpose with some tribes.' The Peruvians used weights, but the Mex-
icans did not. The latter had, however, a system of measures of length," The canoe vtas a great interme-
diary in the practice of barter.^ The Peruvians alone understood the use of sails, and the earliest Spanish
navigators on the Pacific were surprised at what they thought were civilized predecessors in those seas when
they espied in the distance the large white salb of the Peruvian rafts of burden,'' The chief source of trade
In such conditions was batter, and we know how the Mexican travellmg merchants got information that was
availed of by the Mexican marauders in their Invasions. BandeUer^ gives us the references on the barter
system, the traders, and the currency in that country, and we need to consult Dr. W, Behmauer's Essai sur le
Commerce dans I'aneien Miiique et en Pirou, in the Archives de la Soc. Amir, de France (n, s., vol. i.).
All the treatises on the mounds of the Ohio VaUey derive iUustrations of intertribal traffic from the shells
of the coast, the copper of Lake Superior, the mica of the Alleghanies, the obsidian of the Rocky Moun-
tains or of Mexico, and the unique figurines which the explorations of the mounds have disclosed. Charles
Rau has a paper on this alx>riginal trade in North America, published m Hie Archiv fUrAnthrofologie [Braun-
schweig, 1871, vol. iv,), which was repubhshed in English in the Smithsonian Sefort, 1872, p. 249. Bancroft's
references under " Commerce " (V. p, 668) will help the student out in various particulars.
alism in Ancient AmericaK Art (Salem, 1887, Irom the work preserved inlhc Imperial Museum alVienni
appeared
Bull. Essex Insl., xviii., for iSS6); Meiican masks in in the Arehaol. and Etknuhg. Papers of Ihr Feaiody
StevenB' Fiinl CAifs, 318; S. D. Peel on " Human (aces Museum, vol. i. no, 1 (Cambridge, 1 838), and here she
dis-
1SS61 or viiL rjj); the dsBciiption of lerra-eolta figures holds ii 10 have been a head-dress. The tonlrary view is
in Herman Strebel's All-Mexico. A terra-cotla vase in taken by F- tou Hochsletter in his l/eicr JUcxicanische
the Museo Nacional is figured in Braiseut's Po/^ Vuh Rtliquieiam der ZeU Moidasmia's (Vienna, rB84), who
> Cf, Horatio Hale on The Origin of PrimUive Money
musical pipes ussd by the aborigines. The opening chap-
(N. ¥., 18B6,— from the Popular Science Monthly, xjvui.
=96) i W. B. Weedon's Indian Money as a factor in New
gives what evidence vn have, with references, as to kinds

(Univennly Studies); Ashbcl Woodward's Ifampum (AJ.
hany, 1S78); Ernst Ingersoll in WitAmtr. lâ/imilist(M.ay,
inlrcduclion. and descriflive naUs by A. J. ff if kins;
Bur. Elhnohgy (pp. I,!, =,4. =46, 3*8. aji. 254).
Himtrated fy WUliam GOi (Edinburgh, r388)i H, T,
' Cf, D. G. Erinlon'i The liuia! nuasur/i of tii Seml-
Crosaon on Ailec music in Ihe Proc. A cad. Nat. Scimeis
clvaized nations of Mexico and Central America. Read
(Philad., iSej) I and Wilson's PreUsteric jMa»{ii, 37). with
before ihe A merican Philosophical Society. Jan. 1, iBSS
(Philadelphia, .885),
In NoK and GKddon's Indigeitims Races of the Earth
* Wilson's Prehistoric Man. \. ch, 6,
(Philad,, i8s7) there is a section by Frauds Pulasky on

■ Wilson, L .68, See post. Vol, II, 508, for an old cul
« IconogmDhic researches on hunut, races and their an,"
of a raft under sail.
' Mrs, ZelU Nuiull's essay on some Mexican fea.her-
« Peabody Mm. Rept. . u. faa-S,
vGoosIe
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON AMERICAN LINGUISTICS.
By ikl Editor.
It onnat be said that the study of American linîstics has 3dvan<«d to a position wholly satisfactory. It
is beset with all the diflicuities belonging to a subject that has not been embraced in written records for long
periods, and it is open to the hazards of articulation and hearing, acting without entire mutual conddence.
And yet we may not dispute Man MiiUer's belief,^ that it is the science of language which has given the Atst
comprehensive impulse to liie study of mankind-
Out of the twenty distinct sounds which it is said the voice of man can produce,! there have been built up
from roots and combinations a great diversity of vocabularies. Comparisons of these, as well as of the
methods of forming sentences, have been much used in investigations of ethnical relations. Of these opposing
methods, neither is sufhciently strong, it is probable, to be pressed without the aid of the other, though the
belief of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, under the influence of Major Powell, practically discards all
tests but the vocabulary, in tradng ethnological relations. It is held t'lat thb one test of words satisfies, as to
customs, myths, and other ethnological traits, more demands of clas^calions than any other. Granted that it
does, there are questions yet unsolvable by it ; and many ethnologists bold that there are still other tests, phyô-
logical, for instance,' which cannot safely be neglected in settling such complex questions. The favorite claim
of the Bureau is that its officers are studying man as a human being, and not as an animal; but it is by no
means sure that the physical qualities of r.ian arc so disconnected with his mind and soul as to be unnecessary
to his interpretation. Evon if language iw given the chief place in such studies, there is still the doubt if the
vocabulary can in all ways be safely followed to the exclusion of the structure of the language ; and it is not
to be forgotten, as Haven recognized thirty years ago, that "one of the greatest obstacles to a successful and
satisfactory comparison of Indian vocabularies is caused hy the capricious and ever-varying orthography
applied
by writers of different nations." This is a chance of error that cannot be eliminated when we have to deal with
lists of words made in the past, by persons not to be communicated wltli, in whom both national and persona!
peculiarities of ear and vocal organs may exbt to perplex. A part of the difficulty is of course removed by
and purity and obscurity of articulation will still cause diversity of results, — to say nothing of corresponding
differences in the persons questioned. There is still the problem, broader than all these divisionary tests,
in the discussions of Sayce, Whitney, and others.i " Any attempt," says Max Mliller, " at squaring the classi-
fication of races and tongues must necessarily fail."' On the other hand, George Bancroft (Final revision,
il. 90) says that " the aspect of the red men was so uniform that there is no method of grouping them into
families but by their languages,"
It is the wide margin tor error, already indicated, that vitiates much that has already been done in philolop-
cal comparisons, and the ovei-eager recognition at all times of what is thought to be the word-shunting of
" Grimm's Law " has doubtless been respon^ble for other confusions.^
IS of the presence of im-
■n found, Biu inftrred
T, as he thought, of the
ig]y that Iht «rliBl n<>o
^ntrit. laN.A. ElkKslirgy, V. gi)
i speculations, see Col. E. Careile^s
guialic ulterancu now known, endeavored 10 set lorlh " a Eludr mr Ics Umfi anlihUlirrifuri, La Langagt (Paris,
somewliat correct conceplion of what was the charailer o( 1878).
ihe tudimentiry ullennces of the race." Cf. Brinlon, > Morgan thought he had found a lest in hii .S'î/ffw ^
Langaagt ef Ike PnlaelUkit Man. Philadelphia, iSSS; cumamguinUj andafinUll sf the Umxan âmi& (Waih-
HortiWa, La friliulsrijiie AitiiqiiiadrPHirmrneiPms. Ington, 1S71).
1883); H. Strinchal, />«• Urs^nmg dtr Soroche (Berlin, • ymimal Attlkrepologicd Inil.,v. 116.
■ SSS). Hoialio Hale, on " The origin of languages and ■ Sciincr of Langiuige, L ja6.
' Chifi, a, 143. CL Dabry de Thiersint'
i Oriei-.
(At
there are only nidimenli
«J««{Pari,, ,883), p.,8,.

ilxolilhic
cienl jaw-bone, winch h
Hiked, and it has been asserted and deuied.
ibal the totally lUvene 1
acler of certain injcnor maxillary bones louni
American tonguea incUcat'
■. Brinto,
1 has
could not articulitelCm
stock! oi
i im-
!:Q>OgIe

Most of (he general philological treatises touch more or less intiniiitely the question of language as a test
of race,i aad all of Ihem engage in tracing affinities, each with eontidence in a method that others with equal
assurance may belittle,' Thus Bancroft,^ reflecting an opinion long prevalent, says that " positive gramtnati'
cal rales carry with them much more weight than mere word likenesses," < while, on the contrary, Dawson ^
says that " grammar is, after all, only the clothing of language. The science consists in its root-words ; and
multitudes of root-wotds are identical in the American languages over vast areas." This last proposition is,
as we have seen, the principle on which this inquiry is now conducted with governmental patronage. " Each
American language," says George Bancroft, in his chapter on the dialects of North America, " was competent
of itself, without improvement of scholars, to exemplify every rule of the logician and give utterance to every
passion," In accordance with such perhaps extreme views, it has been usually said that the American lan-
guages are in development in advance of aboriginal progress in other respects. It is another common observa-
tion that while a certain resemblance runs through all the native tongues,^ there is no such general resemblance
to the oid-wojld languages ; ' but at the same time the linguistic proof of the unity of the American race is
not irrefragable,' and it would take lens of thousands of years, as Brlnton holds, if there had been a single
source, for the aghty stocks of the North American and for the hundred South American speeches to have
developed themselves in all their varieties.^ Proceeding beyond stocks to dialects, and counting varieties,
Liidewig, in his Litetaturt of the American Languages, gave 1,100 different American languages ; but an
alphabetical list given by H. W. Bates in his Central America, West Indies and South America (London,
1S82, 2d ed.) W affords 1,700 names of such. The number, of course, depends on how enclusive we are in
group-
ing dialects, Squier, f 01 instance, gives only 400 tongues far both North and South America ; fot, as
Nadaillac says, " phjloiogy has no precise definition of what constitutes a language." "
' Cf. Wailz. Introd. le A^lkropohgy (Eng. Iransl.), p.
' HaydeuEays: " The dialecLs
ajS : Wedgwjod, Origin 0/ Language : Lubbock, Origin
radically united among Ihemeelve
*/ Civili>a,u.«. ch. » ; Trior's Anlhroôgy. ch. 5 ; Topi-
guishtd Irom all others, stand in
Deslitf (who considers the test » fat a failuie) \ William
D. Whiloey'l " Teslimony of language leBpecIing the unity
» Mo^n, in his Sjs,eH,s ef C.

of Ihe human race," in Ihe Ntrth A miriam Revievi, July,
tor this linûlslK unity, though (ii
1867.
" the dialects and stock languages 1
> The " Lenguas y nadonea Ainericanas " loims part
with sufficient thoroughness."
ol Ihe first volume of Lorenzo Hervas'. CalHoge de la.
> Gallatin says of them: "The
Lengua^delasNacuines C/„ccida,, 3, n<weraci«.. di^-i-
primitive languages, ... and atl€
sien, y doses de eslas s/gai la disersidad de sas idicma!
population, — an an^quil; Ihe earli
y rfffl/«(M (Madrid, .Soo-i3os, in 6 vols.), which served in
Bome measure Johaui. Severin Valer, and J. C, Adelung in
tYail MUkridaUs.îder Allgimeife Sfrachenkiiide (Ra-
lio, i8o5-i?, ;n4V0is.)andhia Analeklen der Sprachix-

peraion of Babel,
iB«it (Leipzig, i3>i).
of the Ethnography and Philology
Ihe more northern parts. Cf. the map in OrOiCO y Berra's
Geegrafla de la, lengl^ de Mes^cc (.S6,), and thai in
tribes of difierenl lar,guages is what
V. A. Malte-Bmn's paper in the Ceixpie RendB, Cong.
language, and Ihe study of it shows
des A«irieaHisles. tin. »■ '=- The maps in Bancrnfl's
forms it is spread over the coniineni
Native Raeee. ii. and v. , will serve ordinary readers. For
studied by Col. Garrick Mallery.
the broader northern field, see thepapers by L, H. Morgan Amtr. AnlifvariaKAi. JiS; ^rx. Ainer. Asse. Adv.
and Geoi^ Gibbs in the i'MiilitmiaB Jfe/iw", 1861, i86i. ScieMe. Saiatoga meeting, 18S01 and at length in Ihe
The Bureau of Ethnology liaye in preparation such a map, FirsI Anmai Reft. Bur. e/Ellauilegy (1881). He notes
and they mark on il. it is understood, about seventy disCincl his sources of information ou pp. ^95, 401. He had
earlier
stocks prmted under the Burcauê saiKtion his Intrsductiea to
Cf, Horatio Hale on " Indian migralions as evidenced the Study 0/ Sign Language (Washington, 1880). The
by language," in the .,4.iar, Aitiqmrlan.i. iS, 108 (Jan,, subject is again tonsidered in the Third Reft, of the Ba-
Apiil, i883h and issued separately, Chicago, 1883. Lucien reau. p. xxvi. Cf. also W. P. Qart's Indian Sign-Ian-
Adam crilidsed the vievra of Hall in the Copenhagen gaage.miih Eje^Httory Notes IPhilad., iSSj|. Morgan
CBn,pieRe>idH,Cong.desAMir..-as.-!„f.tii. (5j.j*«ifl/C™™if»™{v, S27|expres«s theopinion that
> Nal. Raees, Hi. K%. it has the germinal principle "from which came, firat, Ihe
* Cf, Am- Antig. Sec. Free., April, 187^, pictographs of the northern Indiana and of the Aztecs;
s Fessil Men, 310. and, secondly, as its ultimate development, the ideographic
> A prominent feature is the process of uniiing words and possibly the hieroglyphic language of the Palenqu^
and
imnoitof a sentence. This characteristic of the American In addition to languages and dialects, we have a whole
body ol jaôns, a conventional minture of tongues, ad-

duced by continued intercourse of peoples speaking differ-
ent laiûages. They grew up veiy early, wliere the French
came in contact ^th the aborigines, and Father Le Jeune
menlions one in 1633 (Hist. Mag., 1. 3,5)- The Qiinook
jargon, lor inslance, was. If not invenlBd,at least developed
Hosted by VjOOQIC
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON AMERICAN LINGUISTICS. 433
The most comprehensive survey of the bibliography of American linguistics, excluding South America, Is
in Pilling'3 Froof-shals of a bibliography of the la»guagis of /At North Amtrkan Indians (Wa^ltlglon,
18S5), a tentative issue of the Bureau of Ethnology, already mentioned. Pilling also earlier catalogued the
linguistic MSS. in the llbiary of Ihe Bureau of Ethnology, in Powell's First Rtfort of that Bureau (p. 553),
in which that bibliographer also gave 1 sketch of the history of gathering such collections. A section of the
Biblioihica Amiricana of Charles Lecletc (Paris, iS;8) is given to linguistics, and it aflords by groups one of
the best keys to the literature of the aboriginal languages which we yet have, and it has been supplemented
by additional lists issued since by Maisonneuve of Paris. Ludewig's LiltraiMrt of American Aboriginal
Laiguagts, ivUh additions by W. Turntr (London, iSjS), was up to dale, thu:ty years ago, a good list of
grammars and dictionaries , but the increase has been considerable in this field since then (Filling's Eslana
Languages, p. 62), The Ubraries of collectors of Spanish-American history, as enumerated elsewhere,' have
usually included much on the linguistic history, and the most important of the printed lists for Meiico and
Central America is that of Brasseur de Bourbou^'s Bibtiothique MexicQ-GKaiimalienne, fricidU if hh
coHf d'lEil SUT Us studes atairicaints dans Isurs rapports miec Its ilttdis claiiifues, tt suivi du fabUa»,par
ordre alphaiitiqut, dis mivrages do UnguiHigue amiricaine contenui dam Is mime volume (Paris, 1871),
This list is repeated with additions in the Catalogue de Alphanst L. Pinart et . . . de Braiseur di Bour-
iourg (Paris, 1S83). Field's Indian Bitliograpiy characterizes some of the leading books up to 1873 ; but
the best source up to about the same date for a large part of North America is found in the notes in that
section of Bancroft's Native Races, vol. iii., given to lingubtics." The several Camptes Rindus of the Con-
gr^s des American istes have sections on the same subject, and the second volume of the Csnfributisns to North
American Elhnohgy, published by the U. S. Geological Survey (Powell's), has been kept back for the com-
pletion of Ihe linguistic studies of (he government officials, which will ultimately, under the care of A. S.
Gatschet, compose that belated volume. Major Powell, in his conduct of ethnological investigations for the
United States government, has found efhcient helpers in James C. Pilling, J. Owen Dorsey, S. R. R^gs,
A. S. Galschet, not lo name others. Powell outlined some of his own views in an address on the evolution of
language before the Anthropological Society of Washington, of which there is an alslract in their Trani-
ticA*i>iir|lSSl), while the paper can be found in perfected shape as " The evolution of language from a study
of the Indian languages," in the Firsi RepoH of the Bureau of Ethnolsgy.
Among the earliest of the students of the native languages in the north were the Catholic missionaries in
Canada and in the northwest, and there is much of interest in their observations as recorded in the /»Hi<
Relatians. We find a nidisnnaire de la langue kuronne in the Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons (Paris,
The most conspicuous of the English publications of the seventeenth century was the Nalick rendering o£
the Bible for the Massachusetts Indians, undertaken by the Apostle John Eliot, as he was called, at the
expense of the London Sodety for the Propagation of the Gospel. Eliot also published a Grammar of the
Massackuseiis Indian Language (Cambridge, t666), which, with notes by Peter S, Duponceau and an in-
troduction by John Pickering, was printed for the Mass. Hist. Society in iSii, as was John Cotton's Vocabu-
lary of the Massachusetts Indian Language (Cambridge, 1830). Roger Williams' Key into the language of
America has been elsewhere referred to.^ The Rev. Jonathan Edwards wrote a paper on the language of the
Mohegan Indians, which, with annotations by Picketing, was printed in the Mass. Hist. Sec. Co!!, in 1823,
and is called by Haven {Archaol. U. S., ?9) the earliest exposition of the radical connection of the Amer-
ican languages. Dr. James Hammond Trumbull, the most learned of the students of these eastern languages,
has furnished various papers on them in the publications of the American Philological Association and of the
American Antiquarian Society,* and has summarlied the lileratute of the subject, with references, in the
Memorial Hist- of Boston (vol. i.).
In the eighteenth century there were several philological recorders among the missionaries Sebasidan
Rasle made a Dictionary of the Abnaie Language, now preserved in MS. in Harvard College library, which,
edited by John Pickering, was published as a volume of the Memoirs of the Amer Academy of Arts and
Sciences in 1833. A grammatical sketch of the Abnake as outlined in Rasle's Dictionary is given by M. C.
O'Brien in the Maine Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ix. The publications of the American Philosophical Society in
Philadelphia have preserved for us the vocabularies and grammars of the Delaware language, collected and
arranged by John HeckewelderS and David Zeisberger, while the latter Moravian missionary collected a
considerable MS. store of linguistic traces of the Indian tongues, a part of which is now preserved in Har-
vard College library.s One of this last collection, an Indian Dictionary ; English, German, Iroquois {the
' There
There is some reason to believe thai the In

this jaiôn is older, however, than the J
(Bancroft, iii. 631-3 j Gibbs's CAiVhw* Dkti,
Hale in Wilfcea' 17. S. Exflor. Exfed.).
m%b«^-i. North Am,
,ricamo/Ait
liquUy, eh.
■0.
' Vol. III. p. J5S.
* See Pming's Pra
<f-shett!.
' Duponceau's repo
n in Heekew.
.Wei
■,HiH.
Aoc.e/tke
r-idian Natuim, 181?
., Is in the Mass.
PickerinR lays Ihal D'

esriies
ItodiMover
and make known the i
^mmon char,
isdciof theAmeiw
lean tongues.
meialed in the appendix of The Calendar
osle
Onondaga), and Algonjuia {the Delaware) (Cambridge, 1887,) has been carefully ediled /or the press b/
Eben Norton Horsford. Dr. John G. Shea published a DUtiimnaire FraHiais-Ononlagul, idite d'aftis un
manuscrit du 17' siicie (N. Y., 1859), which is preserved in the Mazarin library in Paris.
There was no attempt made to treat the study of the American languages in what would now be termed a
sdentifie spirit by any English scholar till towards the end of tlie eighteenth century. The whole question of
the origin of the Indians had for a longtime been the subject of discussion, and it had of necessity taken more
or less of a philological turn /torn the beginning; but (he inquiry had been simply a theoretical one, with
efforts to substantiate preconceived beliefs rather than to formulate inductive ones, as in such works as — not
to name others — A dair^s Amirkan Indian! (London, i?75), where every trace was referable to the Jews,
and Count de Gebelin's Monde Primitif (Paris, i;Si), whero a comparison of American and European
vocabubries is given.^
A much closer student appeared in Benjamin Smith Barton, of Philadelphia, though he was not wholly
emancipated from these same prevalent noUona of connecdng the Indian tongues with the old-world speeches.
He says that he was instigated to the study by Pallas' Linguarum tetius oriis Veiaiularia comparaiiva
(Petropolis,' 17S6, 1789), and the result was his Neai Vaw of the Origin, oftht tribes and nalions ufAmirka
(Philad., 1797 ; again, 1798). He sets forth in his introduction his methods of study. Charievoix had sug-
gested that the linguistic lest was the only one in studying the ethnological connections of these peoples ;
but Barton asserted that there were other manifestations, equally important, like the physical aspects, the
modes of warship, and the myths. He examined forty different Indian languages, and thinks they show a
The most eminent American student ^ of this held in the early half of this century was Albert Gallatin.
He began his ot>servations in 1S23, at the instance of Humboldt, and two years later he took advantage of a
representative convocation of Indian tribes, then held in Washington, to continue his studies of their speech.
a wider survey than had before been made, and he regretted that he was not privileged to profit by the vocal>
ularles collected by Lewis and Clark, which had unfortunately been lost. At the request of the Amer. Anti-
quarian Sodety, he wrote out and enlarged this study in the second volume of their CftlUctisns in 1836, and
advanced views that he never materially changed, believing in a very remote Asiatic origin of the tongues, and
without excepting the Eskimos from hb conclusions. In r84S, in his Nstei an the senii-civilized nations of
Mexico, his conclusions were much the same, t™t he made an exception In favor of the Otomls. At this time
he counted mote than a hundred languages, similar in structure but different in vocabularies, and he argued
that a very long period was necessary thus to differentiate the tongues. At the age of eighty-seven Gallatin
gave his final results in vol. ii, of the Transactions of lie A-neHian Ethnological Society (1848). Gallatin
published a review « of the volume on Ethnography and Philology, which had \xea prepared by Horatio Hale
as Uie seventh volume of the PuMiiatiens of the Wilkis United Slates Eifhring Expedition (1838-42), and
Hale himself, then in the beginning of his reputation as a linguistic scholar,' published some papers of his
aboriginal linguistic studies are Dr. John Gilmary Shea of Eiiiabeth, New Jersey, and Dr. Daniel Garrison
e/' the Starki MSS., luued by Ihe library of Harvard collaboraior in olher studies, ot which record is made in
posimriei by Pilling in his Proof-ikests. Hist, Soc. Cell., and then in the Smilisonian Report for
' Also in J. B. Scherer's ff«-*iTv*<i iisterigits et gio- 1S73; F. W. Hayden's Contributions to the ithnogmfky
grafhi^BIS Sfr le NotBteau MoitJe {Psni, 1777). and philologjl 0/ ike Indian triltes 0/ the Missaitri Valleji
•We know Utile of what Jefferson might have accom- (Philad., 1S61), being vol. liii. ot the Trans. Anar. Philo-
iiafl's Ind. Trite!, il, 356). As early at 1S114 the U. S, A contemporary ot Gallatin, bui a man sorely harassed,
ihoald get In difierent iribei the equivalent words, GaU head, was C. F. Ra&Ksque, who had nevertheless a
certain
latin used IhiH resulls. Different lists of test words have tendency to acute observation, which prevents his
books
been often used since. Geotge Gibbi had a list. The Bu- from beconring wholly worthless. His first puMicaiion
was
nan of Ethnology has a lial. an introduction to Marshairs History of Kentucky, which
' Ct ayngpMS in Haven's Arckael. U. S.. p. 65. he printed separately as Ancient History, or Annais of
antiquity of sftaking man (Cambridge, 1S86I, from the North Antirica, and a tahdar viea of the principal Ian-
ment i>f langtiage (Toronto, 1S8S), from the Prsc. Casa- fon, Ky., i&n). In this he mattes a comparison of four
dan Inst., ^d ser., vi. principal words from fourteen Indian tongues with thirty-
s Among other workers in [he northern phllolo^ may be four primitive languages of the «Id world. In 1E36 he
named Schoolcraft in iAi Indian TriliestW.Taim. 340), printed at Philadelphia rfcîmriiBnjVB/i'mi.ffl-rtil/wM
who makes no advance upon Gallatin; W. W, Turner In of their general history, ancient aniliHodmi,incli4ding
the
Ok Smahionian Report, vi, ; R.S.Riggs adds a Dacola vikcle history of the earth and mankind in the wrslem
bibliographT to his CVanmow- anrf Dtctianary of the Da- hemisphere-, ihe philosofky of American history ; the
an-
(SUbt in tht Smithsonian Septs, fm iS6s and 1870, and as ican nalions, Iriies, empires and ilaies tin two
yo\ames}.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
BiinUiD of PhUadelphia. Of Shea's Ubmry of American Linguiiiies he has given an account In the Smith- ■
seiian Rcfl., 1S61.1
Dr. Brinton has set forth the purposes of his linguistic studies in an address ixSon the Pennsylvania
Historical Society, ^nfruan Aboriginal Languages and wky Tve should audy thtm (Philad., i88;,-.-[rom
the Pennsylvania Magaiine of History, 1885, p. 15), In starting his Litrary of Aboriginal American Lil-
erature, he announced his purpose to put within the [each of scholars authentic tnatetials for llie study of
the languages and culture of the native races, each vBork to be the production of Ihe native mind, and to be
printed in the original tongue, with a translation and notes, and to have some intiinstc historical or eth-
nological importance.^
he er considerable collections are both Frencti. Alphonse L. Pinart published a Biiihliifue tit tin'
gti iTethnsgrafhit Amiricaines (Paris and San Francisco, 1875-8!).'
T shing house of Maisonneuve et Compagnie of Paris, which has done more than any other
es ni to advance ttiese studies, has conducted a Collection linguistiqui Amiricaine, of nuich
O Frencli studies have attracted attention. Pierre Etienne Duponceau published a Mimoire lur It
It m gr mmatical del langues de quelques nations indiennts de PAtniriquidu Nor^ i?aAi,i&fi)f Ho

d d correspondence with the Rev, John Heckewelder respecting the American tongues, which is pub-
hed e Transactions of Ike Amer. Philosophical Society (PhiL, 1S19), and he translated Zelabetger's
D w Grammar.
T dies of the Al^ Jean Andri Cuoq have been upon the Algonquin dialects,' and published mainly
in iVie Actis dt la SociiU philologique (Paris, 1B69 and later). His monographic Etudes fhilahgiques sur
queiques iangues sauvages de rAmerique was printed at Montreal, 1866. It was the result of twenty years'
missionary work among the Iroquois and Algonquins, and besides a grammar contains a critical examination
of the works of Duponceau and Schoolcraft. Luden Adam has been very compreiiensive In his researches,
his studies being collected under the titles of £/a^«jiiri«/HH^T(ij^weW(oi«« (Paris, 1S78) and£*<»w»
grammatical comfari de seise langitei Amiricaines (Paris, 1878).'
abulaire FroMfais-Esqulman
■cliomiry. 4. P. Fnndo, Noticias dt los Indies del Defartamtnla
I. G. Mengatini, Selish or Flat-head Grammar. de Vtragua, elc- (San Francisco, i88a).
,. B. Smilh, Grammatical Sketch e/ the Hevi bm- Pilling lProe/'-i**rti, 589, ■04J-10M) gives an aecouol of
age. Pinait's published and MS. linguistic collectioni, as n<ll
1. F. Arroyo de la Cuesla, Grammar 0/ Ilie Mutsun as (p. sS/)oS Francisco Piniemel'>iajt/«*m«m,ilf™«
•gtiaee. de Mixicotfilexua, 1861-65).
|. B. Smith, Grammar 0/ the Pima or Nevomi Ian. • II embtacEs :
age. 1. E. Uricoechea, iwifBH C*i»ciSa (Paris, 1871).
;. M, C. Pandosy, Grammar and Diclionary of the i. Eujenio Castillo i Oroico, Focaivlaria Paii-Castel.
Jama language. lano, elc. (Paris, 1577).
F. B. Siljar, Vocalmlary of lie langtiagi 0/ Ihe San 3. Raymond Breton, Grammaire Caraile, id. far L.
•tonio JUilsion. Adam el Ck. LecUrc (Paris, i!j8).
I. F. Arroyo de la Cuesta, Veeatulary or fhrase-iook 4, OIlaHlai, drame. Irad. far Pacheco Ztgarra (Puis,
• of the Micmaqm Ian- %. R. Celedon, La Len,
:. GLbbs, Dictienarji of the Chinook jargon.
(Pans, iSSo).
8, J. Creva
risioade,Gu,
9- J. D. Hi
of ihe language of the HidaUa.
Taemaiâra
Irst series was prinud in New \aii, tS6a-63 ; the
10. Francis
1873-74- There is full biblit^raphical detail in
(Paris, tSS6).
Li)-, La Lingua Chiqulta (Paris,

Lingua di los Indios Baures
, P. Sagot, » L. Adaiu, Langues t

Mi{Paris, 18S1).
Pilling's Proof-sheets. t Cf, Pilling'* Proof-iheits. pp. .17-118.
» The following are already published ; • Brinton i,A mer. Here Myths, bo), referring to Fadier
1. The Chronielei of lit Miâi, ed. by Bnnton. Cuoq's Lexique de la langm Iroqueiie, speaks of ihal
i.,TheIr<iquois Book of Sites, t&.hflloai:\oni.\e. author as "probably the best living authority on the
i. The Comedy-iallelofGueemnei,ed. by BnntoB, Iroquois." Pilling, /'™d/-iAi«j, iSj, etc., gives the best
4. Tie tfatiimat Legend of the Creiks,^ 'in MbenS. account of his writings. CI, Mrs. E. A. Smith on Ihe Iro-
• The languages covered aie: Dakota, Chibcha, Na-

huatl, Kechua, Quich^, Maya, Honlagnais, Chlppeway,
Algonquin, Cn, Iroquoii, Hidatsa,Chacti,CaiaIbe, Kiriri,
Guaiani. Adam has been one ol the leading spirit* in the
Congrit des AmiricanistES. There «u published in 18S1,
as a part of the Bihiiothigite lingnisligue A mh-icaint, a
Grammaire it yoeoOulaire de la langue laensa, attee
yCposle
The papers of the Count Hyadnthe de Charencey have been in the first instance for the most part printed
in the Revue dl Linguist! f^, the Annates de Philasofhii Chrelienns, and the Mimoires de VAcadimie de
Caen, and lave whoily pertained Co the tongues south of New Mexico i but his principal studies are collected
in his Milanges de philohgie et de pBleografhie Amiricaines (Paris, iSSj).'
The most distinguished German worker in Ihb field, if we except the Incidental labors of Alexstnder and
William Ton Humboldt," is J. C. E. Buschmann, whose various linguistic labors cover the wide field of
the west coast of North America from Alaska to the Isthmus, with some of the regions adjacent on the east.
He published hb papers in Berlin between 1853 and 1S64, and many of them in the Mcmairei de rAcademie
de Benin.'
Dr. Carl Hermann Berendt has published his papers In Spanish, English, and German, and some of them
will be found in the Smithsonian RefsrH, in the Berlin Zeitschrift flir Elhnologie, and in the Revista de
Mirida. Under the auspices of the American Ethnological Society, a fac-simile reproduction of his graphic
Analylica! Alfhkbel for Ihi Mexican and Central Ameticau languagei vzi pubUshed in 1869, the result of
twelve years' study in those countries.'
The languages of what are called the civilized nations of the central regions of America deserve more
particular attention.
In the Mexican empire the Aztec was largely predominant, but not exclusively spoken, for about twenty
other tongues were more or less in vogue in different parts, Humboldt and others have found occasional
traces in words of an earlier language than the Astec or Nahua, but different from the Maya, which in Bias-
seur's opinion was the language of the country in tliose pre-Nahua days. Bancroft, contrary to some recent
philologists, holds Ae speech of the Toltec, Chichimec, and Altec times to be one and the same.6 It was
perhaps the most copious and most perfected of all the aboriginal tongues; and in proof of this are cited the
opinions of the early Spanish sctiolars, the successes of the missionaries in the use of it in imparting the
subtleties of their faith, and the literary use which was made of it by the native scholars, as soon as they
Jiad adapted the Roman alphabet to its vocabulary and forms.'
iextis tradKsli It commenlis far 7. D. HiainisKli, Pari- iy him en the Americaavrrb {Plnlad., iBBj). The great
have been discovered in 1S71, in the library of Mons. Hau- rigiaii ^ûiaexuifes du ••aiviai c<mli«enl (Paris,
iSi6-
monti. Dr. Brinlon, finding, as he cliimed, that Adam 31), gives some linguisllc miner m the third vohime.
had been imposed upon, printed in the A merieiiH A tt/t- ^ Tbes
filarial, March, >£«;, " The Txnn Grammar and Die- Field, no
lionary, a Deeepôn Exposed," the points of which were tail in K,

epiiomized by Professor H.W.Haynes in Ibe Amerân Sat»n,iii
An/ifmiriaa Sxicly PriKeediMgs(Apn\, 1885), and Adam ' Brint
answered in Lr Tuma, a-l-il Hi /urgi de Uules fiices of him in
(Paris, iSSs). tlonaand
Slates have been particularly studied by Albert S. Galschet, ' He c.
aus dim SIlAmsIm i/erd Amerikas l,Vre\naT,lS77); Tkt the Meld
ri«»nm/on£i«i-*of Florida(Philad., 1878,1880)! Thi of the Fl
Chumtte langmge of California (Philad., iSS:}; Der <>Acoi
Yuma Spraehilamtit of Ariiona and the oeighboring re- come don
DialeHet (Berlin, i!8i); Tke Shelimasha Indians nf SI. first voinme ol his BiMiograJU Mexicana IMelico,
18S6),
Marfs Parish, Louisiana (Wasbinglon, rSSjl; but his in cataltîng the books issued in Mexico before 1600, in-
Crtek Indians (PMIad., 1SS4), in which he has surveyed American aulhurs and their fraduclians, especially
these
the whole compass of (he southern Indians, The eitent in the aatwe languages. A ehafler in the kistory of UUr-
ot Mr. Gatschet's studies wiU appear from PiUlng's Preef- aturi (Philad., iSSj). Cf. Ins paper in the Cengris da
sheets, pp. sSs-jgi, 955, Amir., Copenhagen, 1883, p, 54. Banecofl (Hi, 730) ^vet
traled this quality in some of his lesser monographs, as in
his Anci,«l Nahnail Poetry (Philad.. 1887); and in bis
4. Sur 1> famille de langue Pirinda-Othomi. 5. Snr les
specimens and enumerates the dictionaries and tens. He
Huastique, 6. Sur le pronom personnel dans les idiomes

says there are more than a hundred authors in it {.Anter.
de la famille Maya-Quichi, 7, Sur I'^tude de la prophilie
AniiqaariaH, viii. aa), Icaibilcela has collected many
en langoe Maya d'AhkoilJThel. S. Snr le systtme de nu-
Nahua MSS,, and his brolher-injaw, Francisco Pimentel,
meration chez les peuples de la famiil: Maya^Quich^. 9,
has used them in his Cuadro descriptive J- eemfarativo
Sur le d&hiffrement des ^crilnres calculitomies du Mayas,
de las Lenguas indigenas de Mtxko (,8S.), of which (here
jn, Snr les agoe. de nam^tion en Maya.
This is based on a lecoud augmented edition (Mexico,
'874-7S). in which the tongnes of northerr Mexico are
» Brinton has printed The pkOeiafhieal grammar of
better represented, and a general olawfieation ol the hiu-
guagesisadded. Pimentel (i, 154) asserts that it is a mis.
Humieldl, with a Iranslalion ef an unfiuilished memoir

take to suppose that the Chiclnmecs spoke Nahua, Cf.,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
it the Nahua has in the northerly parts of the

:ndal, still spoken near Palenqui, is conwdered
departure from the original slock. It is one o(
f the West India Islands that modern philolo-
Maya. Bancroft (iii. 759, with other references,
'aria al Rey de Esfana (i^'^b) i3
The Maya has much the same prominence farther south tli
territory of the Spanish conquest, and a dialect of it, the Ti
to lie the oldest form of it, though probably Ihb dialect was ;
the evidences that the early Mayas may have come by way 1
psts say the native tongaes o£ those islands were allied to the
760) refers to the list of spoken tongues given
m of the e:
iarly Span:
CO y Berta, mentioned in connection with I

■wtittiH oa Ike languages of Central Amei
n dialects of t&at coaHlry (Albany, 1861,-
a list of theit printed and MS. works. Th
-iginalAn^,
literary value we must consult some of the authorities like

le Altec. Squiet published a Manografh of outliers ait
ka, and collected vocabularies and composed -works in lie
-100 copies), In which he mentions no such authors, and
tse who have used these native tongues for written ptodnc-
!J (London, 1858) and In Brinlon's
» the Hahua in
[Paris, 1878).
. la pbilolê .
the
and Ctniral America /nn/iafiii (N. ¥., 1869). Busdi-

mamihasaBtudyiii Ak Mimoirs de PAcadimit di BerlrH,
and separilely, Ueber die AitekischeH OrUxamei (Berlin,
18S|). Henri de Charencey in hia MHanges de Pkilslagie
(Paris, iSS^ has a paper " Sur quelque:
re a striking resemblanc!
to this enumeralion.
Catalogue (pp. 9S-100I
■ gives a paniil list.
itioned: Father Pedro
: Santa Roll's Arte i
let idiaixa Maj'a {Me
do M£>iq
Rindu.Cong.dt
L. Mille-Brun gave
h-icama>s, .8?j(vol.
1 the Cam/He
later
lo'lhe Ckrm
I y Berra, Geognîa lionai
usmas leng>as} de the el

ri««.,(Me.ico,i864). mode
ere catalogues il(no.i,23a), as well as the reprint CMerida,

tS9) edited by Jos£ □. Espinosa. There is a nudy of the
[etmann BEtendlinlhe7oii"w/^/*c.4nKf. Geog. See.

nu. 131, for 18 j6), which was later issued separately as J?<-
arii on lie centns 0/ ancient citilitatiaH In Central
merka and their geographical dittrdmtiott ([I. V., iS;6).
ii accompanied by a map. (Cf. also his " Eiploraldoni in
entialAmerica" inthe Jm*(*i™™iff<^., 1867.) Brai-
- ^,.869-70), and
ublish
i, de la la
sn an MSS. be-
latler part of the
^.«<5«i,ii. SS9).
I'he work is said to be the frui
longin£ to Icaibakela, datiug'bs
aiileenlb century (enumetaled id
There is some adverse criticisit
42S) thinlis the lingidslic map of Mexico in Orotco y Bella's
worii Ihe only good feature in the book, ance the author
braced in Dr. Antonio Peilafiel'a Nomirn Geografice de

Meaco. CataUgoalfaielico de los namh-ei de lagar fer-
tenecienies al idionta" Nahuatt" estudio jerogllfico de la
matrtcu/ade lot trifftttos del codice Ir^docino (Mejrico,
1885). In the Archaiesdela Soc. Aivir. de France, n. s„
with Ihe Pueblo stocks is

LO follows D«t the diversities
Cf. Cor various views Mof
ritw'j, and First Reft Bur.
re Maya (Paris, 1873) 1 the dio.
es Ihe Greel
, and ended
oCth
dbyB^
ii. 665..
the graphic system of the Mayaa,

Miv AmericaH Antiqwxri^K,vau
3n of ''s llaya Chronicles (Phila
le language and literatui? of the It
ca'' by Crescendo Catrello yAnc

Tirida, 1870. Charencey has prim
!rs, like a Fragment de Ckresto
Taya antique (Paris, 1S75) from th(
'rffffAftp^TB/AiF, and a paper read]
testing of the Congres des Atu^ricar
vmerundSprachen Neui.
■ Some anlhorities give fourteen dialecli

Cf. the table in Bancroft, Iii. 561, etc., and
in Garcia y Cnbas, translated by Geo. F. Hend(
" ■ "ic of Mixico. It is still Bpokel '
1. 371), " De h
JTida's Relatim
iKouB special pa-

tie de la langue
vue de Philologie
e the Copenhagen
(Comfte Eendm,
thesti
the May>
11 ihe Quichi t
fKo Onn-W (Paris, 186a],

itsd the Rabhud A cAi, 1 1
)ublished by Brasseur (Paris, 1864I is

ichof the Maya we know most from
nt (be B:
newhit inla
nonlysa
! of til
untiy,w
It Le Plon- professor of the Cakchiquel languê Ir
le fotinil it "in all its Guatemala in the last centuiy, and published a Arte de la
Le leitgua nietrofoHlana del Reyno CaJechiûel (Guatemala,
1 de- 1753), which was unknown to later scholars, till Braiuur
ibis discovered a copy in 1856 (Lecleie, no. 3,170). Thelitera-
igue lure of the Cakchiquel dialect is eiamined in the introduc-
ries, lion to Brinton^s Grammar 0/ the CaichifiteJ tangtiagr
■?
)OQle
The philology of the Soulh American peoples ha? not btwn so well compassed as that of the northern
continent. The classilied hibliographies show the range ol it under such heads as Aade (or Campa), Arau-
caulans <Chilena), Arranak, Ajrmara, Brazil (the principal work being F. P. von Martius's BcilrUgt lur
EUmngrafhit und Sfrachenkunde Ameriia'i, xamal Brasilitns, Leipiig, 186?, with a second part called
GlBssaria linguarum brasilitnsium, Erlangen, 1863), Chama, Chibcha (or Muysca, Mosca), Cumanagota,
Galibi, Goajira, Guarani, Kiziri (Kariri), Lule, Moxa, Paei, Quichua, Tehuelhet, Tonocote, Tupi, etc.
(Philad., 1S34I, ediled for Ihe Anwrieao PhilosopKcal So- We ows 10 Erinlon, also, a lew discuisions of Ihs
Nica
ilhtahgic ftaiiai n/ Iht Xittca ImHans qf GwUmaia has discussed the local dialect of Ibis region in lbs iDtnxIuct
(Philadelphia, iSgf); his Sixalltd Alagvilat langKopr n/ lion of Tit GiltgUenci; a cmmdy baUtl in Ihi t/iUaimi.
GtiatrmalamiiaPrx. Am.PhilBiofh.Sx^ iSaj.p. j66; S/atiiik rfmirdJ/A'HrimjgiMfPfdladelphia, i883),andin
and Olio Sloll's Zur Etkiugrafhil dtr Refuiliil Gun- his IlTcfts in thl Mangvc, an txtincl dlattct farmerlj
lema/a (Zurich, 1684). j/pitn in XkaragiM (Philadelphia, i8«6X
■yôosle
Sji the Editor.

The earliest scholarly examination of the whole subject, which has been produced by an American author,
is Daniel G. Brinton's Myths of the Ntw Werld, a treatisi en the lytnioliim and mythsUgy of the Red
Race of America (N. Y., 1868 ; jd ed., 1876). It is a comparative study, " mote for the thoughtful general
reader than for the antiquary," as the author aays. " The tasic," he adds, " bristles with difficulties. Careless-
ness, prepossessbns, and ignorance have disfigured the subject with f abe colors and foreign additions without
nuniljer" (p. 3). After describing the character of the written, grapliic, or symbolic records, which the student
of history has to deal with in tracing North American history back before the Conquest, he adds, while he
deprives mythology of any historical value, that the myths, being kept fresh by repetition, were also nourished
constantly by the manifestaUons of nature, which gave them birth. So while taking issue with those who
find Wstory bniried in the myths, he warns us to remember that the American myths are not the reflections
of history or heroes. In the treatment of his subject he considers the whole aboriginal people of Amer-
ica as a unit, with " its religion as the development of ideas common to all its members, and its myths as the
garb thrown around those ideas by imaginations more or less fertile ; but seeking everywhere to embody the
Brinton gives a long bibliographical note on those who bad written on the subject before him, in which he
puts, as the flrst(iSi9)to take a philosophical survey, Dr. Samuel Fanner Jarvis In ^ZHscourse on the religion
of the Indian tribes of North .^MKrica, printed in the A'. Y. Hist. Soc. Colleclions,ai.{if,xi). Jarvis con-
fined himself to the tribes north of Mexico, and considered their condition, as be found it, one of deterioration
from something formeriy higher. There had been, of course, before this, amassers. of material, like the Jesuits
in Canada, as preserved in their Relations? sundry early French writers on the Indians,' the English agents
of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, and the Moravian missionaries In Penn-
sylvania and the Ohio country, to say nothing of the historians, lilie Loskiel (Geschichte der Mission, 17B9),
Vetromlle (Abnakis and their History, New York, 1866), Cuslck (Six Nations), not to mention local ob-
servers, like Col. Benjamin Hawkins, Sketch of the Creek Country (Georgia Hist. Soc. Colkdiom, 1848, but
written about 1800).
If the placing of Brinton's book as the earliest scholarly contribution is to be contested, it would be for
^. G.^rpiei'sSerfentSymiol in America {^.Y.,i^!);* but the book is not broadly based, eKcept so far
as such comprehensiveness can be deduced from his tendency to consider all myths as having some force of
the centre of a system.^ With this as" the source of life, Squier allies the widespread phallic worship. In
Bancroft's Native Races (iii. p. 501 ) there is a summary of what is known of this American worship of the
ailer says : lagei of the Afofui Indians o/Ariiona, ai'ih a dacriftum

only differ- of the maimers and cmlomi of tkii ^culiar feofli. It
in gtneral, milk at account of the laUel dance of the ,

PueHs of Santo Domingo, Neru Mexico, etc. (London,
j6); Nico- i8S4
symboUsm " He refers to D'OrbiKny (VHo-nine Ami

ncam}. MUller (A nor. Urreligion/ni. and Squier (Serfen
SymSol) as lupponing Ibe oppoung view. We may fiiL
hke supportFrs of the sun ai a cennal idea in Schoolcnfl
TvlDT, BnuMur. Cf. Bancroft'. JVaiiwJ?o«Jaii. "O i
ihe case, there is a striking t

" The Ihoughls of primitive
hitmanil
t differei
think ihiir ihaughts ought t
olBveb
.S« Vol. IV. p. ,5^
> Such are Saiard's.fful^
111 Perrol's Mhnoire mr
les Meeu
ligton del Sauvagcs, inBoh
ring hi.
10 1659; Llfilau'a Mceurs ,
like.
• BancTofKiii. 136) says:

"It doe.
Handing Mr. Squier's aiHi
nioD to
hipped
Mexico." Cf. Brinton's Myiks, d
Srrfent WoTshif (London
, IMS);
Snahe-danee nf the Moguls of A riz
Hosted by VjOOQIC
geaeralive power. BrioCon doubts (Mylhs, etc., 149) if anything like phallic worship ceaUy existed, apart
from a wholly unreligious suiiender to appetite.
Another view which Squier maintains is, (hat above all tlus and pervading all America's religioiis views
Wheni
craft in tt
I headlong way sanctioned, we have included nearly all that had been done by American authors in this field
when Bancroft published tha thud volume of his Nalivi Races. This work constitutes the best mass of ma-
terial for the student — who must not confound mythology and rehgion — to work with, the subject being
presented under the successive heads of the origin of myths and of the world, physical and animal myth?,
supplemented by special works pertaining to the more central and easterly parts o£ the United States, and to
the regions south of Panama. The deficiency, however, is not so much as may be expected when we consider
the universality of myths. "Unfortunately," says this author, " the philologic and mythologic material for
such an exhaustive synthesis of the origin and relations of the American creeds as Cos has given to the world
in the Aryan legends in his Mythology of the Aryan Natidns (London, 1870) is yet far from complete."
. In 1SS2 Brinton, after riper study, again recast his views of a leading feature of the subject in his American
iera-mylAs ; a study i« Ihe naliwi religioru of the weitern continent {Philad., 1882), in which he endeavored
to present " in a critically correct light some of the fundamental conceptions in the native beliefs." His pur-
pose was to counteract what he held to be an erroneous view in the common practice of considering " Amer-
ican heroôds as if they had been chiefs of tribes at some undetermined epoch," and to show that myths of
cence of an historic event." He further adds as one of the impediments in the study that he does ■' not know
of a single instance on this continent of a thorough and intelligent study of a native religion made by a Frotes-
tanl missionary." 2 After an introductory chapter on the American myths, Brinton in this volume takes up
succes^vely the consideration of the hero-gods of the Algonquin: and Iroquois, the Aztecs, Mayas, and Ihe
Quichuas of Peru. These myths of naHonal heroes, civiliiers, and teachers are, as Brinton says, the funda-
mental beliefs of a very large number of American tribes, and on their recognition and interpretation depends
the correct understanding of most of their mythology and religious life, — and this means, in Brinton's view,
that the stories connected with these hemes have no historic basis,'
The best known of the comprehensive studies by a European writer is J, G, Miiller's Geschichte der Ameri-
kanischen Urreligionen (Basle, 1855 ; again in 1S67), in which he endeavors to work out the theory that at the
south there is a worship of nature, with a sun-worship for a centre, contrasted at the north with fetichism and
a dread of spirits, and these he considers the two fundamental divisions of the Indian worship, Bancroft finds
him a chief dependence at times, bat Brinton, charging him with quoting in some instances at second-hand,
finds him of no authority whatever.
One of the most reputable of the German books on kindred subjects is the Anfhropologie det NaturvSlker
(Leipzig, 1862-66) of Theodor Waltz. Brinton's view of it is that no more comprehensive, sound, and critical
work on the American aborigines has been written ; but he considers him astray on the religious phases, and
thai his views are neither new nor tenable when he endeavors to subject moral science to a realistic
philosophy.*
' This monotheism is dtnied b; Brinmn iMyiks of the monolhelsm and henotlieiam, which is ihe temporary pre-
Nem World, 5=), " Of monotheism, either as displayed in eminence of one god over the host of gods, and which
was
'>Meu">nd"Hawln<m," which, as Brinton says, have de- and on Protestant missioni the dcstnictian, o! the
Indian
nived Morgan and others, being but the French " Dieu " race," ^mrr. ff<riJJ&fAi, pp. >o6, 33S. .
and "Le bcm DIeu" rendered in Indian pronunciation > UnloRunately, Btinlon enlorcei this view and others
iMylhs o/ihe ffrw Wof ;rf, p, si). The aborigines insii- with a d(gree of confidence that does not help him 10
con.
Teicueo (»iV. p. S5)- enough as the last refuge of ignorance " i.Amer. Hero-
~&tiaAtSi^{,ArclUeel. Ts^, i8j), eiamining the ^:i/, o^ Mytla. z,%).
Motolinfa, Gdmara, Sahagiiti, Tobat, and Durjn. finds no in its broad aspects the subjecl of American myths.
The
speaks of supreme ^^1 ; and Bandeliet ihinki that Ixllilno. made 10 Giiard de RIalle's La Mytkalogit
ComfarfeiYmt,
torts and disfigures Torquemada. 10 ; Lubbock's Oriein <J Civaimlum, ch, 4> S. « ! J, P-
Bancroft (iii. 19S) accords honesty to IxtlihochEtPs ac- Lesley's Mat^s t/rigin and destiny^ ch, JD^ and for the
count of the reliôn of the Tezcucan ruler If cEahualcoyoll, geographical
as reaching Ihe heights of Mexican monotheisIEC concep. Mankind, cT
tion, because he thinks his descendants, if he had fabled, general way, Brinton's Religims a
wouki never have ended his deKripIlon with so pagan a aim (N, Y,, 1876), Reference mai
Hosted by VjOOQIC
• THE MYTHS AND REUGIONS OF AMERICA. 431
In speaking of the scope of the comprehensive work of H. H. Bancroft we mentioned tiiit beyond the higer
part of the great Athapascan stock of the northern Indians his treatment did hot extend. Such other general
worksaaBrinton'sAO'Mja/MeAf™ Worid, tbi sections of bis ^miriian I/inf-AfytAs oa the hero-gods of
the Algonquins and Iroquois, and the not wholly satisfactory book of Ellen R. Emerson, Indian mylhi; or,
Ligendi, Iraditions, and symbols of lie aborigines of America, compared tvith those of other cauntrirs, in-
cluding Hindostan, Egypt, Persia, Assyria, and China (Boston, 1884), with aid from such papers as Major
J. W. Powell's " PhiloEophj- of the North American Indians " In the Journal of the Amer. Geografhicat
Seciety (voL viii. p. 351, 1876), and his " Mythology of the North American Indians "in the First Annual
Rtpt. of Ike Bureau of Ethnology {iMi), 3.-ai R. M. Bonmn's Origin of frimilive suferstilion among the
aborigines of America (Philad,, i8StJ, must suffice in a general way to cover those great ethnic stocks of the
more easterly part of North America, which comprise the Iroquois, centred in New York, and surrounded
by the Algonquins, west of whom were the Dacotas, and south of whom were the Creeks, Choitaws, and
Chickasaws, sometimes classed together as Appalachian?.!
The mytliology of the Aztecs is the richest mine, and Bancroft in his third volume finds the larger part of
his space given to the Meiticin religion.
Brinton (Amer. Hero Myths, jj, jS), referring to the "Hisloria de los MSxicanos por sus Pinturas" of
Ramirez de Fuen-leal, as printed in the Anales del Museo National (ii. p. 86), says that in some respects it is
to be considered the most valuable authority which we possess,' as taken directly from the sacred books of the
Aztecs, and as enplained by the most competent survivors of the Conquest.'
We must also look to Ixtlibtochitl and Sahagiin as leading sources. From Sahagiin we get the prayers which
were addressed to the chief deity, of various names, but known best, perhaps, as Teicatlipooj and these in-
vocations are translated for us in Bancroft (iii. 199, etc.], who supposes that, consciously or unconsdously,
Sahagiin has slipped into them a certain amount of " sophistication and adaptation to Christian ideas," From
the lofty side of Tezcatlipoca's character, Bancroft (iii. ch. 7) passes to his meaner characteristics as the
oppressor of QuetzalcoatL
The most salient features of the mythcJogy of the Aztecs arise from the long contest of TezcatUpoca and
Quetzalcoatl, the story of which modified the religion of their followers, and, as Chavero claims, greatly
affected
Brinton {Myths, i.o) tracks ihe Ddoge myth among the
Bancroft (vol. ii
i. ch. 6-1!
)), who is the best source ior

Indians, and Bancroll ipves many instances of it l,NaiiDt
reference, ^ves al
so the be
lire field; but amo
ngwri™
.in English he may be .uppls
" Le IMlugs d'aprii' les Iraditions indiuines de VAmirique
nientldbyPrescot
l(i.ch.j,
introd.); Helps in his .Vox.!*
du Nora," in the Re^ A miricalni. a hilp for its extracts,
Cm^st (vol. ii.
); Tylor".
s Primilivi C~ll«n; Albert
/.^/religioK^
We And. sufficient data of the aboriginal. belief in Ihe illustrated by lie natfut religlerts ofMixito and Peru,
future life both in Bancroft's final chapter (vol. iii, part i.) trauilated by P. H. Wicksleed (London, 1S84, being
the
andin BriDtDn>sjl&(;(i,ch.9. Brinton deliveredanaddress Hibbenleclure-. for 1^34)1 on Ihe aDilogjes of the
Meiican
on the "Journey ol tlie soul," which is printed in the Pr^ belief, a condensed natemenl in Short's No. America of
ceedinssii'si., iSSj) of the Xumiimatic and Antiquarian Antif., 459; a popular paper in The Gataiy, May, 1376.
Sodety of Philadelphia. Bandelier intended a fourth paper to be added 10 Ihe three
' In studying the mylholOKy of these tribes we must primed in the Peaioify Mta. Refts. (vol. n. ), namely, one
no
depend mainly on confined monographs. Mrs. E. A. Smith " The Creeds and Beliefs of the Ancient
Mexicans,'Whlch
Re^. Bureat, 0/ Elhn^gy. Charles Godfrey Leiand has
Among the French, we niav refer 10 Ternaux-Compani'
covered The Algonquin legends o/New England: or.
Essai sur la tkfogonie Mtxicaine (Paris, .840) and the
myths tnd/olk-lore 0/ Ihe Micmae, Passamaqmddy, and
works of Brasseur. Klemm's Cultur-Ceschichte and
Penobscot tribes (Boston, ,«S,). Brinton has a book on
MUIIer'9 Urreligionen will mainly cover the German
The Lenhpiand their legends{f\a\iA.,xi1,^',3y.iia^t-aaj
views. Of the Mexican writers, it may be worth while to
refer to the Life andJoumaU 0/ Dapid Braina-d. S, D.
name J. M. Melsar-a Examtn comparaliva enire lossigme
Feet has a paper on "The religious beliefs and trjditions

of Ihe aborigines of NonhAQ>erica"inlhe yofHwo/eîAe
los que ixislen en las manuscrilos Mtxicanss (Vera Cruz,
rSjl).
"Animal worship and Sun worship in the east and west com-
pared" in the ^wh-bob jlni^MriM, Mat., iSM; and a
The Daluilah, or life and legends of tkt Sioux aromd
Torquemada says there were 80,000 thronghout Meiiio ;
Fori Snelling (N. Y., iS«) of Mrs. Mary Eastman has
while Clavigero says that a million priests attended upon
them. Bancroft (iiich. 10) describes thi> service. There
this periodical will be found various studies concerning other
The history of human sacrifice as a ^rt of Ihii service is
tribes.
' Bandelier, Arckaol. Tour, 185, caUs it the earliest
with the later writers. Bancroft (iii, 41J, 44>) gives some
556), Las Casas in his general defence of the natives
Altec myths in Alfredo Chavero's "La Piedra del Sol,"
places the number of sacrifices very low, Zunirraga says
likewise in the Anales (vol, i.). Cf. also the '■ Ritos An-
the practice, ai ia disputed by some, certainly made much
Espafla,"as printed in the Coleecim de dac. ined. para
yGoosIe
432
their history.' This struggle, according as the inietpreters incline, stands for some historic or physical rivalry,
ot for one between Si. Thomas and the heathen ; ^ but Brinton explains it on his general principles as one
between the powers of I,ight and Darkness {Am. Hera Mylhs, 65).
The main original sources on the character and career of QuelialcoatI ate Motolinfa, Mendiela, Sahagdn,
Ixliilxochitl, and Torquemada, and these are all summariied in Bancroft (iii. ch. ^).
It has lieen a question with later writers whether there is a foundation of history in the legend or myth of
Quetialcoatl. Brinton (Mylhs 0/ the New World, 180) has perhaps only a few to agree with him when he
calls that hero-god a " pure creature of the fancy, and all his alleged history nothing but a myth," and be
thinks soTne confusion has arisen from the priests of Quetzalcoatl being called by his name.
Bandeliei (Archsol. Tour) lakes issue with Brinton in deeming Quetzalcoatl on the whole an historical
mada says came in while the Toltecs occupied the country. Bandolier thinks it safe to say thab Quetialcoatl
began his career in the present state of Hidalgo as a leader of a migration moving southward, with a principal
sojourn at Cbolu la od g ts and p ts p T bsta u th » tak byJ.G.Miiller,
Frescott, and V. k
joft (ili. fi ds th C
wmination h Q la (
ler in his Arckxolegical To
QUETZALCOiTL
I d Am V g
Tylor {Primitive Culture, ii. ZT)) calls "the

7 HuitzilopochtH " (Huitiiloputzli, Vitzilipuh
Bd by Boturini {Idea. p. 60) as a deified ancieti
ill), the god of war,' the protector of the &

,1 war-chief. Bancroft in his narrative (
eity, the hid-

iii, 2S9, 294:
'ti del Mtme Nacimal, ii. J47 : Baucrof t, iii. 210,
coall, Ihe Meiican Messiah " in GintUman

uli. 336.
■,M,f..n.s.,
tlier Ihinfca Durin the earKest 10 connect St.

er agrees with Iillikoctill Ihal QuetiBlcoalt and
were one and the same, aid Ihat Ternaux erred in
!lh™r«p«live]yOlnieeaiidToltecdnIi«. Cf.
•% Paltnqtii. ,o,IA. a. D. Daly OD " Qnelzal-
' For the later views in general see Cla

Brasseur [Natiim! Civil, i, 153], Prewoil
cmfi (iiL ii«, .63; V, n. ™, jss, =57). »i
a?*).
' The god Paynal was a sort of deputy

M. H. Bancroft's tf^live Rês.
vigero, Tylor,
(i. fa), Ban-
Id Short fa5,,
war.god. Sen
r a diawingin Cumplido's Meiican ed. o( PrcaCoie:

a. Eng. iranit. of Chamay, p. 87-
■»-—'"■ ■"»■•■""■".■--■
:re (Nadaillae,
vGoosIe
THE MYTHS AND RELIGIONS OF AMERICA.
433
IT. 559) quotes the accounts in Sahagdn and Torquemada, and (pp. 300-322) summariies J. G. Mailer's mono-
graph on this god, which he pub)ishcd in 1847. and which he enlarged when including it in his UmligieiuH.
Aco3ta's description of the Temple of Huilzilopochlli ia transbted in Bancroft (iii. 191). Soils follows
Aco^ta, while Herrera copies Gomara, who was not, as Solis contends, so well informed.
As regards the Votan myth gf Chiapas, Brinton tells us something in his AmtrUan Hera Mythi <Jia, with
references, aij); but the prime source is the Tiendal manuscript used hy Cabrera in his Ttatra CrUico-Amc-
ricanoX No complete translation has heen made, and the abstracts are unsatisfactory. Bancroft aids us in
this study of worship in Chiapas (iil. 45S), as also in that of Oajaca î, 44E), Michoacan' (iii, 445}, and
Jalisco (iii. 447)-
THE MEXICAN TEMPLE,*
" The religion of the Mayas," says Bancroft (iii. ch, 1 1), " was fundamentally the same as that of the Nahuas,
though it differed somewhat in outward forms. Most of the gods were deified heroes, . . . Occasionally we
find very distinct traces of an older sun-worship which has succumbed to later forms, introduced according to
vague tradition from Anahuac." The view of Tylor [ABahuac, 191) is that the " citiliiation," and conse-
quently the religions, of Mexico and Central America were originally independent, but that they came much
into contact, and thus modified one another to no small extent."
in Feaiody Mui. Rcfl
! Short,
if Congi
in the CeltKuiK dt doc.
Mexican temple : one of this type, and th

(Casena, i,So), iL 36, 34; Eng, tr. by Cull
VOL. I. — 28
3 Calrccisn dr Dlcxmtnliri,
y Google
Modem scholars are not by any means so much inclined as Las Casas and the
other
recognize the dogma of the Trinity and other Christian notions, which have be
n tho
what the Maya people in their aboriginal condition held for faith.
The most popular of then- deified heroes.were Zamni and Cukulean, not unlil;
lylh
two names, and quite likely both are correspondences of Quetzaicoatl. We can
tives on this point among the elder and recent writers. Th be mm
nity
alth
appeared in Vucatan. The centres of Maya worship « ama h
The herogods of the Mayas is the topic ot
says that " most unfortunately very meagre soi

legends and hints of their history have been sa
^rica» Hero Mpks, with
i respects the material, he
Only ftagmeiits of iheii

THE TEMPLE OF MEXICO.*
zaUon," The heroes are Itzamni, the leader of

ways; and' Kukulcan, the conductor of [he secor
to Landa's Relalion, Cogolludo's Yucatan, Las Casas
missionary Francisco Heraandei. and to Hieronimo Ro
The Kukulcan legends are considered by Brinlon t
Hemandei's Report to Las Casas is the first record ol
oiigh the Ol
dMay
e Quetzaicoatl and Kukulcan herogods a
■ the west. For the first cycle
Historia ApslogctUa, involving the reports o£ the

lan's De la Ripublica di las /ndias QicidiHtaUs.
be later in date and less natural in character, and
them. Brinton's theoiy of the myths does not allow
and tt
vould p
ilue of " Chac Mool," unearthed by Le Plongeon at Chichen-It

believe that some positive connection did exist in p
)).! "The Nahua impress," says Bancroft (iii. 490), " i
is still more strongly marked in the mythology. Insteai
Ztaschri/I /^r Elhnolegit, pritEtly service. 1

, p. k ; Aucoiii'< YucatoH lore, sh Brinlnn ii
• After plale (reduced) in Herrer^
. show that the .
ing the older form

iriau 0/ EthnQhsy
Hosted by VjOOQIC
THE MYTHS AND RELIGIONS OF AMERICA.
435
d[ worship, as It seems to have done in ttie northfrn parl:i of Central America, it has here nnd there passed bf
many of the distinct beliefs held by different tribes, and blended with the chief elements of a system which
- is [raced to the Muyscas in South America."
The main source of the Quich* myths and worship is the Pafui Vuh, but Bancroft (iii. 474), who follow*
it, finds it difficult lo make anything comprehensible out of its confusion of statement. But prominent
among the deities seem to stand Tepeu or Gucumati, whom it is the fashion to make the same with Quetsal-
coatl, and Hurakan or Tohil, who indeed stands on a plane above Quelialcoatl. Brinton {Myths, 156), on the
contrary, connects Hurakan with Tlaloc, and seems to identify Tohil with Quetzalcoatl, Bancroft (iii. 477J
says that tradition, name, and atlributes connect Tohil and Hurakan, and identify them with Ttaloc.
TEOYAOMIQUI.*
Te presenled, after a cut
following Nebel.in Tylor-. A«aku^
<ria«, Jan.. 1883 ; Powell's Fir,l R,

ront after Nebel, and the
other views after Lten y Gama. I
the Mu«o Nacional.
* The idol dug up In the Flaca in Meiico is

ing the Mencan goddess of war, or death, C
£l&ii„ 131: Bancroft, iv, 511, s"3. giving the
lArck. Tour, pi. v) gi«i a photograph of it as
Gallatin {Am. Ethit. Sac. Trans., i. jjS) de

symbols of her attributes are found iu the upper part of the ilatue ; but those from the waist downwards relate lo
other
deiiies connected vrflh her or orilh Hgltiilopochlli." Tylor (.4 MSaat, 111) says ; " The anriquahes think thst the
figures
in It stand tor different personages, and that it is three gods; Huitiilopochtli the god of wir, Teorai^niqut hii
wife, and
MicUaotecutli the god of hell." Lion y Gama calls the statue Teoyaoniiqui, but Bandelier, Archatl. Timr, 67,
thinks
j'ts proper name is rather Huitsilopochtli, Uon y Gama's description is sunnnariied iu Bancroft, iiL 399, «ho dtes
also
what Humboldt Cmi, etc., ii. 153, and his pL jaiijsays. Bancroft (iii. jqj) speaks of it ai " a huge t«mpound
statue,
connecting link between, the mother goddess " and Micllanlecutli, the god of Micllaii, or Hades. Cf . refereDcei
in Ban-
croft, iv. j.j.
yGoosIe
430
R^nton's Nanrt of Ihi gsdi in the Kichi myths, a moHagrafh on Cenirat Amiriaat mythology (;?\SaA.
Am. Philos. Soc, iSSi), is a spscial study of a part of the subject.
Brinton {Myths, etc., 184) considers the best authorities on the mythology of the Muyscas of the Bogota ■
region lo be Piedrahita's Historia di las Cmquistas dtl Nutvo Rtyno de Granada (1668, foUowed by Hum-
boldt in his Vuis) and Simm's Notuias hiitoriales dt las Conguistas de Tiirra Firme en el Nuevo Seyno dt
Granada, given in Kingsborougb, vol. vlil.
The mythology of the Quichuas in Peru makes the staple of chap. 5 of Brinton's Amer. Hero-Myths.
Hera the coiresponding henvgod was Viracocha, Brinton depends mainly on the Relacion Aninyma de
las Castumbres Anllguos de los Naturales del Pi ^^
of the fables and religious customs of the Inca h h
TEOCALLI, OAXACA, MEXICO.*
volume, Narratives of the Rites •

Garcilasso de la Vega ; on the tepi
Inquiries made in different parts of
idolatras de los Incas & Indios," printed in the Coleic
■d Laws of the Yncas (London, 1S73) ; o" the Comsntarios reales of
i made to the viceroy Francisco de Toledo, in 1571, of the responses to
uch appear in the " Informacion de las
de doctimentos intditos del anhbio de Indias, sxL
198 ; and in the Relacion de AntigHedades desle Reyno del Piru, by Juan de San
Brinton dissents to D'Ortogny's view in his Dhomme AmirUaine, that the Qui
rowed from the older mythology of the Aymaras.

Francisco de AviJa's "Errors and False Gods of
for tha Hakluyt Society in the volume called NatTsi
of a part of the subject.
Adolf Haitian's Einjahr aufRelsen — Kreuzfahrten zum Sammelhihuf ax
der Ethnohgie, being the first volume of his Die CullurlaKder des Alten .
section " Aus Religion und Sitte dcs Alten Peru."

itinSquie
-I SyiHiol, p,
vGoosIe
ARCHÔLOGICAL MUSEUMS AND PERIODICALS.
By the Editor.
The oldest of existing American societies dealing with the scientific aspects of knowledge is the American
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, whose Transacthni began in 1769, and made six volumes to 1809.
A second series was begun in 1818.1 What are called the Traniaclions of Iht HhlQtical and Literary
Committee make two volumes {1S19, 1S3S), the (iist of which conUtns contributions by Heckeweldei and P. S.
Duponeeau on the history and linguistics of the Lenni Lenape. Its Proceedings began in 1838. The Amer-
ican Academy of Arts and Sciences was instituted at Boston in 1780, a part of its object being " to promote
and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America," S and its series of Memoirs began in 1783,* and
Its Proceediags in 18+6. These societies have only, as a rule, mcidentally, and not often till of late years,
illustrated in their publications the antiquities of the new world ; but the American Antiquarian Society was
founded in rSis at Worcester, Mass., by Isaiah Thomas, with the express purpose of elucidating this depart- ■
ment of American history. It began the Archaologia Arnericaaa in 1820, and some of the volumes are still
valuable, though they chieSy stand for the early development by Atwater, Gallatin, and others of study in
this direction. In the first volume is an account of the origin and design of the sodety, and this is also set
forth in the memoir of Thomas prefixed to its reprint of his History of Printing in America, which is a part
of the series. The Proceedings of the society were begun in 1S49, and they have contained some valuable
papers on Central American subjects. The Boston Society of Natural History' published the Boston Jour-
nal of Natural History horn 1834 to 1863, and in 1866 began its Memoiyj. Col. Whittlesey gave In its first
volume a paper on the weapons and military character of the race of the mounds, and subsequent volumes
have had other papers of an archxological nature ; hut they have farmed a small part of its contributions-
Its Proceedings have of late years contained some of the heat studies of paleolithic man. The America
Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin (New York), began its exclusive work in a series of Transactions
(1845-53, ''ols. i., ii., and one number of vol. iiL), but it was not of long continuance, tiiough it embraced
among its contributors the conspicuous names of Gallatin, Schoolaaft, Calherwood, Squier, Rafn, S. G.
Morton, J. R. Bartlett, and others. Its Bulletin was not continued beyond a single volume (1S60-61).' The
sodety was suspended in iS;i.
The American Association for the Advancement of Science began Its publications with the Prsceidings of
its Philadelphia meeting in iS^S. Questions of archieology formed, however, but a small portion of its
inquiries « till the formation of a section on Anthropology a few years ago.
The American Geographical Society has published a Bulletin ( 1852-56) ; Journal (or Transactims) (1859), '
etc, and Proceedings I1S62-64), Some of the papers have been of archsological interest
«: vol. i. Basic's Abenaki dicliOnaryi vol. v.,

mi's plan of ihe Marieiu mounds, etc
eocietT published the original eduion of S. G.
KUê ; J. Madison on Teuiains of f ortiRcaliona ID the west ;
Morion's Inîry into t!u dUtbiclite characliristki ef
B. S. Banon on affinities o{ Indian words. If em series!
which glances al Ihdr moral and ioielleetuil diaracter, their
lumuli ; C. W. Short on an Indian fort near LeiinglDn,
phyvcal condition.
iv., J. Hedtewelder on Delaware names, m.
» Field's Tnd. BINiox.. 00. .564-
' It celebrated its lenlennUl in iSSo.when an impromptu
address was delivered by R. C. Wlnlhrop, which is primed
iu.,J.C. Nott and L. Ai^ssiioD ihe unity o( the human
race ; vol. v., CoL Whilllejey on ancient human remiini in
Ohio;vnl.vi.,J. L. Lecoule on the Califoniia Indian, j
1336. For a record of the inleresi in archxological siudies

vol. li.. Whittlesey on ancient mining at Lake Superior;
about 1790, 9H Reforis of the American Philosophical So-
Morgan on Iroqums laws of descent ; D. Wihkm on a ani.
dety, xili. no. 119.
form type of Ih* American cranial vol. idii., Morgan on
the wealem eouolry 1 vol. iii., E. A, Kendall and J. Davis
antiquity of nun in America; W.De Haia on lhe»rch»-
olozy of .he Mississippi Valley ; W. H. Call on Ihe AlvOu
yGpogle
43^ NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.
The Anthropological Institute of New York printed its transactions in i. Journal (one vol. only, 1872-73)-
The Archaological Institute of America was founded in Boslon in 1S79, and has given the larger part of
its interest to classical archaology. The fit3t report of its executive committee said respecting the field in
the newworid: "The study of American archiBology relates, indeed, to the monuments of a race that never
attained to a high degree of civiliiation, and that has left no trustworthy records of continuous history. . . .
From what it was and what It did, nothing is to be learned Chat has any direct Ixaring on the prioress of
civilization. Such interest as attaches to it is that which it possesses in common with other early and unde-
veloped races of mankind." Appended to this report was Lewis H. Morgan's " Houses of the American
Aborigines, with suggestions for the exploration nf the rains in New Mexico," etc, — advancing his well-
known views of the communal origin of the southern ruins. Under the auspices of the institute, Mr. A, F.
Eandelier, a disciple of Morgan, was sent to New Mexico for the study of the Pueblos, and his experiences are
described in the second Report of the Institute. In their third Riôrt (i88i) the committee of the Institute
say : " The vast work of American archeology and anthropology is only begun. . . . Other nations, with more
or less of success, are trying to do our work on our soil. It is time that Americans bestir themselves in earnest
upon a held which itwould be a shame to abandon to the foreigner." Still under the pay of the Institute, Mr.
Bandelier, in iSSi, devoted his studies to the remains at Mexico, Cholub, Mitia, and the ancient life of
certain regions of Vucatan, but the results were not fortunate.

The Institute began in i83i the publication of an Amtrican Series of its Pafers, the first number of which
embodied Bandelier's studies of the Pueblos, and the second covered his Mexican researches. In 18S5 the
American Janma! of ^rchaologyviis started at Baltmiore as the official organ of the Institute, and occasional
papers on American subjects have been given in its pages. The editors were called upon to define more par-
ticularly their relations to archsology in America in the number for Sept., 1888. In this they say : " The
archeology of America b busied with the hfe and work of a race or races of men in an inchoate, rudimentary,
and unformed condition, who never raised themselves, even at their highest point, as in Mexico and Peru,
above a low stage ol civilization, and never showed the capacity of steadily progressive development. . . .
These facts limit and lower the interest which attaches ... to crude and imperfect human life. ... A com-
parison of thdt modes of life and thought with those of other races in a similar stage o£ development in other
parts of the world, in ancient and modem times, is full of interest as exhibiting the dose similarity of primitive
man in all repons, resulting from the sameness of his first needs, in his early straggle for existence." The
editors rest their reasons for giving prominence to classical archaology upon the necessity of affording by such
complemental studies the means of comparison in archaeological results, which can but advance to a higher
plane the methods and inductions of the prehistoric archieology of America,
The American Folk-Lore Society was founded in Jan., iS83, and The Journal of American Folk-Lore
aborigines.
The Anthropological Society of Washington is favorably situated to avail itself of the museums and
apparatus of the American government, and members of the Geological Survey and Ethnological Bureau have
been among the chief contributors to its Transaction!,'- which in January, 18SB, were merged in a more general
publication, TAe American Atsihropohgist. A National Geographic Society was organized in Washington in
1888.
There are numerous local societies throughout the United Sutes whose purpose, more or less, is to cover
questions of archaological import. Those that existed prior to rB;6 are enumerated in Scudder's Catalogue
veiling upon archsoltîcal methods,^
The oldest of the sdentiSe periodicals in the United States to devote space to questions of anthropology is
Silliman's American Journal of Science and Arts (rSiS, etc.). The American NaluralisI, founded in 1867,
also entered the fieid of archieology and anthropology. The same may be said in some degree of the Popular
and Transactitms, iRjo; Davenpon (Iowa) Academy ol

^citna, Preceeditigs,i«iT, Si. Louis Academy of Science,
Transactiixs, 1856; Kansas Academy of Science, Trata-
aciions, tin ; California Academy of Sciences, Proceed-
i Pmceedings, ings, 1854, dc, and Memoirs. 1S68, etc, ; Geographical
iS^g, etc. ! Connecticul Academy of Arts and Sciences, Society of the Pacific, ils official organ A'aibioi, — not
to
of Natural History, become in .876 the New York Academy In British America we may refer to the Natural
History
of Sdencea, Atiali, i8J3, etc. ; Prxeedings, 1S70, elc. ; Sodely of Montreal, publishing The Canadian Natural-
Tramacliens ; the Nnmismalic and Antiquarian Society irf, 18J7, etc,; the Canadian Institute, Prueitdings i die
of Philadelphia, Pmceidings ; Wyoming Hiitoriial and Royal Society oE Canada, Proceedings ! the Nova Scotia
Geolcîeal Society, Pruceediig! and Collrdiims (Wilkes- Initllute of Natural Science, Preceedingi ami Tramac-
barre, Pa„ 1884. etc)! the Oncinnati Society of Natural liens. 1867.-001 lo mention others; and among period-
Hislovy, Journal and Prccredingi, 1876; Indianapolis \i3\s lilf. Canadian Monlk/y, (ke Canadian A aliûarian.
' AislracU
of:
t/ie Trai
om prepared i
Powell (WiSt
lingll
eic).
. » The Blude
11 find sc
eoeral help, at ll
the publicatio
[such as
; the Peabody
of Science (Ss
Jem,
Mass.),
Memt
>«..,.869,etc-;
stitute (Sulein
,, M:
tt£.], Bnlletin,
1869, and Pr,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ARCHÔLOGICAL MUSEUMS AND PERIODICALS. 439
■ Scuncg Msnlkly {1S77, etc.). ScitHce (1S83), a

contributions, however, since 1878, his been Th
Peet. Its papers are, unluckily, of very uneven value.'
The best organized work has been done in the United States by the Peabody Museum of American Arche-
ology and Ethnology, in Cambridge, Mass., and by certain departments of the Federal government at Wash-
ington.
The Peabody Museum resulted from a gift of George Peabody, an American lanker living m London, who
instituted it in 1S66 as a part of Harvard University.! \i was fortunate in its first curator. Dr. Jeffries Wyman,
who brought unusual powers of comprehensive scrutiny to its work." He died in 1874, and was succeeded by
one of his and of Agassii's pupils, Frederick W. Putnam, who was also pbced in the chair of aichKology in
the university in 1SS6. The Siforls, now twenty-two in number, and the new series of ^fecial Pafers are
among the best records of progress in archaological science.
The aeation of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846, under the bequest of an Englishman, James Smithson,
and the devotion of a sum of about ¥31,000 a year at that Ume arising from that gift, first put the govemmenl
of the United States in a position " to increase and diffuse knowledge among men." *
The second Etport of the Regents in 1848 ccntains approvals of a manuscript by E. G. Squier and E. H.
Davis, which had been offered to the Institution for publication, and which had been commended by Albert
Gallatin, Edward Robinson, John Russell Bartiett, W. W. Turner, S. G. Morion, and George P. Marsh,
Thus an important archsological treatise, Tki AncUnt MonuminU of the MUsissipfi ValUji, {omprising
the resuUs of exttitsnie original surocys and explarationi (Washington, 1848), became the fitst of the Smith-
sonian ContribiitisHs to Kitaaledge. The subsequent volumes of the series have contained other important
treatises in similar lieids. Foremost among them may be named those of Squier on the Aboriginal Ma-rat'
mmtsof NtwYork{io\.i\., 1S51); Col. Whittlesey on The Ancient Works in Ohio (voL iii., 1851); S. R.
Riggs' Dakota Grammar and DUiionary (vol. iv., 1852) ; I. A. Lapham's Antiquitiet of Wisconsin (vol. vii.,
1855); %.¥.Yi3.tai.'iArih<ioiogy of the United Slates (vol. viii., 1856); Branli Mayer's Mexican History
and Archaology (vol. Ik., 185?); WhitUesey on Ancient Mining on Lake Superior {va\.x.ai., iS(,i); Mo>
fpia's Systems of Consanguinity of the human family {yal. xm., 1S71)! — not to name lesser papers. To
supplement this quarto series, another in octavo was begun in 186a, called Miscellaneous Collections: and in
this form there have appeared J. M. Stanley's Catalogui of poriraits of No. Amer, Indians (voL iL, 1861) ; a
Catalogue of photographic portraits of the Nn. Amer. Indians (vol. Itiv., 1878).
Of much more interest to the anthropologist has been the series of Annual Reports with thar appended
papers, — such as Squier on The Antiquities of Nicaragua (,iiii)\ W. W. Turner on Iridian Philology
(1852) ; 5. S. Lyon on Antiquities from Kentucky (1858), anif many others.
The sections of correspondence and minor papers in these reports soon began to include communications
about the development of aichsoliîcal research in various localities. They began to be more orderly arranged
under the sub-heading of Ethnology in the Report for 1867, and this heading was changed to Anthropology in
the Report for 1879. Charles Rau (d. 18S7) had been a leading contributor in this department, and no. 440 of
the Smithsonian publications was made up of his Articles on Anthropological Subjects, contributed from
iSbj to iSt! (Washington, 1882). No. 421 is Geo. H. Boehmer's Index to Anthropological Articles in lie
publications of the Smithsonian /BihVvWon (Washington, 18S1). Among the later papers those of O. T.
Mason of the Anthropological Department of the National Museum are conspicuous.
The last series is the Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, placed by Congress in the charge of the Smith-
sonian. The Reports of the American Historical Association will soon be begun under the same auspices.
Major J. W. Powell, the director of the Bureau of Ethnology, said that its purpose was " to organize
anthropologic research in America." ^ It published its first report in iS8r, and this and the later reports have
had for contents, beside the summary of work constituting the formal report, the following papers: —
■ The tendency of general periodicals to questions of Ihij Th* early management of the Smithsonian decided
Ihal
kind is manifest by the releltnces in /'.w/<'i /srfî:, under Ih.
such heads as American Aniiqnities, Anthropology, -Archie. Ihi

dogy. Caves and Cave-dwellers, Ethnology, Lake Dnell.
in^, Man, Mounds an<i Moundbuilders, Prehistoric Races,
Italhered iToin the Reports of the Museum, nilh summa-

ries in those numbered i.. li. and Kin.
• Ct.-^fiiaiCsimsm'i Memorials of the Clan o/stss.

Harvard College, p. 60, and the contempoiaTy tributes
from eminent associates noted in Poeli'i Index, p. 1434.
• The documentary history, by W. J. Rheeg, of the

Sndlhsonian Instltntion, lomis vol. xviL of its Miicellaneom
Colbelians. Cf. J. H«iTy on its oi^niialion in the Pro- Tbi
ciedings of the Ara»r. Asso. for the Adv. of Sdence, vol. i.
A Catmogue 0/ Ike pxhltcaliotis of the S. I. wUh an
alphaielical index of articles, by William J. Rhees (Wash-
the
" iinowled
tae"(
ndtr meai
-A science, and from
start gave not
attention
to archeology a. a
nee. Wh.
snlhe
Bureau .
)f Ethnok
igy became a part of
the
iHI?i/0rfiindudel
i papers neoessarily
oricat as >
1 archzolo^cal. the
i way was prepared
tor
a broader
Ing 10 Ih
gnlficamr
ecogni
lie allied field of research the
pre,
of the !
imilhsouii
jfCongr
ess »hich
in Dec. 18S8, made
. the Ame
Historic!
li Associai
isted without
lion.
conducted by Cyrus
Thi
long the
Pueblos 1
Jan
ajor Powell himself
anally the
body of
ilic lieids I
A-^
.vill.,,). It would
see
proft
ission •' t.
L, orgaoii.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
— Skr
;td. o( the
mylhologyotUie
North Americai
1 It
idLii
ihropologic
. daU. — H. C. Y*
can lodbii!
1.— E.S. H0LDE>
1. Stu.
aie. in C,
bjln
di.n iribts
.olhtUnittdSt»as:i
lluslraled
bythoi
Amtri
> compared niih ll

,pl«
iplsinlhe
Ao
. A. S. GBtsChet,andS.R. Ri
. Smii
■H, Myths
of the ItoqiioU, -
H. W
. Hensh,
Mati
■HBWS, N,
ivajd siL.ersmiih>.
rattd
âlogue c
.(the colkctims,
>bl.iae,
1 from th.
le-wriring. -C. C.RovcE. Cessiom

:•. — J. C. PiLLiHG. Calalogueof lit:
New Mexico aod Ariwia in .879 ; — lllustraied calalogue ol the (olleclions oblainsd from the Indians of New
Mexico in
iSSo,
Vol. iji.! CvBus Thomas. Noks on cetrain Maya and Meiican manuactipta. — W. (C.) H. D*i,i,. On mask!,
bbrels, and certain aboriginal customs, vrilh an inquliy into the bearing of Ihdr getgraphical distribution. —J. O.
Dok-
SHV. Oniahi jodoli^, — Washington Mattmkws, Navajo weavers, ~ W, H. Holmhb. Prehistoric texlile fabrics
of tbe United Slates, derived Iroio ioipressioni on polteiyj — Illustrated calaloeue at a portion of Ihc collections
made
Vol. ». : Cmos Thomas, Bunal mounds of the northern sections of the United Stales. — C, C. Fovea. The
Cherokeenation of Indians. — WAsmseTON MuTTHHWs. The Mountain Chant: a Navajo ceremony. — Clav
Mac-
Caulbv. The Seminole Indians of Florida.— .flfri.Tii.LYE.STHVBKSON. The religious life of the Zutii child.
What is knovrn as the United Slates National Museum is also in chai^ of the SmiUisonian Institution,'
and here are deposited the objects of arch;eological and historical interest secured by the government explora-
tions and by other means. The linguistic material is kept in the Bureau of Ethnology. The skulls and phys-
iological material, illustrative of prehistoric times, are deposited in the Army Medical Museum, under the
Surgeon-General's charge.
Major Powell, Vfhile in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Kocky Mountain Eegion,
had earlier prepared five volumes of Centribuliims to EthHolsgy, all but the second of which have been
published. The first volume (187;) contained W. H. Dall's "Tribes of the Extreme Northwest" and
George Gibbs' "Tribes of Western Washington atid Northwestern Oregon." The third (tS??) : Stephen
Poweis' " Tribes of California." The fourth (1881): Lewis H. Morgan's "Houses and house life of the
American Aborigines." The fifth (1881) : Charles Rau's " Lapidarian sculpture of the Old World and in
America," Robert Fletcher's "Prehistoric trephining and cranial Amulets," and Cyrus Thomas on the
Troano Manuscript, with an introduction by D. G. firinton.
Among the Reports of the geographical and geological esplorations and surveys west of the looth meridian
conducted by Capt, Geo. M. Wheeler, the seventh volume, Refsrt an Atchreological and Ethnological Col
Uetions from Ihi vicinity of Santa Bariata, California, and from ruimd puiilss of Ariiona and New
Alexieo and certain Intirior Tn'iej (Washington, 1879), was edited by F. W. Putnam, and contains papers
on the ethnology of Sontliem California, wood and stone implements, sculptures, musical instruments, beads,
etc. ; the Pueblos of New Mexico, their inhabitants, architecture, customs, diff houses and other ruins, skel.
Indian Languages and their classiHcation into seven families.
The Reports of the Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, under the charge of F. V.
Hayden, brought to us in those of iS74-?6the knowledge of the ciiff Jwellers, and they contain among the
miscellaneous publications such papers as W. Matthews' Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians
and W. H. Jackson's Denriplioe Calalogue of photographs of No. Amer. Indians.
There are other governmental documents to be noted : The Exploration of the Rid River of Louisiana in
iSji, by R. B. Harcy and G. B. McCIellan (Washington, 1854), contains a vocabulary of the Comanches and
Wltchitas, with some general remarks by W. W. Turner. There is help to be derived from the geographical
details, and from something on ethnology, in the Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad from
the Mississippi River to iki Pacific Ocean (Washington, 1856-60, in 12 vols.) ; in W. H. Emory's Report
ttc the United Slaies and Mexican Boundary Survey {Washington, iSjJ'-sS, in a vols.) ; J. H. Simpson's
Report of Explorations across the great Sasin of the territory of Utah in rSj« {W^hington, 1876I ; J, N.
Macomb's Report of tie Exploring Expedition from Santa Fe to the Junction of the Grand and Green
Rivers efthe Great Colorado of the West in rSjg (Washington, 1S76I.
There were also published, under the auspices of (he government, the conglomerate and very unequal work of
Hosted by VjOOQIC
ARCHÔLOGICAL MUSEUMS AND PERIODICALS. 44I

Henry R. Schoolcraft, liislorical and Statistical Information nsfecting tht kistory, eonditions, and /roi-
ficti 0/ the ludian Tribtsof the United Stalls, collected and prif arid under tht direction of the Bureau
vf Indian Affairs (Philad., 1851-57, in 6 vols., with a trade edition of the same date). An act of Con-
gress (Match 3, 1847) authorized its pubUcation. As reissued it is called Archivts of aieriginal tnaailedgt,
containing original pafers laid before Congress, respecting the Indian Iriies of the United Statts (Phil-
adelphia, 1S60, '6S, 6 vols.)' H ^'■^ the following divisions: Geaeral history. — Manners and customs. —
Antiquities. — Geography. — Tribal organization, etc. — Intellectual capacity. — Topical histoiy. — Physical
type. — Language. — Att. — Religion and mythology. — Dernonology, magic, etc. — Medical knowledge. —
Con-
ation and prospects. — Statistics and population. — Biography. — Literature. — Post-Columbian history. —
Economy and statistics. An edition of vols. 1-5 (1856) is called Ethnological researches respecting the Red
Men of America, Information respecting tht history, etc. The sixth volume is in effect a summary of the
At a recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a committee was charged
with preparing a memorial to Congress, urging action to insure the preservation of certain national monu-
ments. There is a summary of theit report in Science, xii. p. 101.. >
Of all European countrie!
voyages,delagiographii et de Phisloire,traduits defoutes les langues Earofiinnti ; des relations origi-

nales, inedites? the publication of which was begun by Malte-Brun in 1S08 and conlinued to 1814, and the
Nouvellei Annates des iôyages,he%ao in 1819 and continued with a slightly varying lille till iS7o,are sourres
occasionally of much importance. At a later day, Edouard Lartet and others have used the Annates des
Sciences NaittrelUs as a medium for thelt pubLcations. We hardly trace here, however, any corporate move-
ment before Che institution of the Soci^t^ de Geographic de Paiis in i8ao. In 1824 it bsued the first volume
of its Secueil de Voyages et de Mimoires, which reached seven volumes in 1864, and had included {vol. ii.)
an account of Palenqu6 and the researches of Warden on the antiquities of the United States. Smce this
society began the issue of its Bulletin in 1817, it has occasionally given assistance in the study of American
The earliest distinctive periodical on the subject was the Revue Amiricaine, o{ which, in 1816-17, three
volumes, in monthly parts, were published in Paris.3 In 185? a movement was inaugurated which engaged
first and last the cooperation of some eminent scholars in these studies, lite Aubin, Buschmann, V. A. Malte-
Brun, Abb* Brasseur de Bourbourg, Jomard, Alphonse Pinart, Cortambert, Leon de Rosny, Waldeck, Abb*
Domenech, Chatencey, et'c. The active movers were first known as the Comiti d'Archiologie Amiricaine,
and they issued an ^HMBfliVe (1863-67) and one volume, at least, of ^rfei (1SS5), as well as a collection of
Afemoires sur I'archeaiogie Amiricaine {186;). This organization soon became known as the 5oci4t* Am«-
ricaine de France, and under the auspices of this name there has been a series of publications of varying
designation.* Its Annuairt began in 1868, and has been continued. The general name of Archives de la
Secieti Amiricaine de France covers its ojher publications, which more or less coindde with the Sevtie
Orientale el Amiricaine par Uon de Rosny, the first series of which appeared in Paris in 10 vols., in 1859-
65, followed by a second, the first volume of which (vol. jti. of the whole) is called Revue Amiricaine, puUii
sous les auspices de la Societi d' Ethnographic et du ComitS d'Archiahgie Amiricaine, and is at the same time
, the fourth volume of the Actes de la Socilli d" Ethnographie Amiricaine et Orientale. The whole series Is
sometimes cited as the Memoires de la Sociite d'EthnograpAiefi The series, already referred to, of the Ar-
chives de la Sac. Amir, de Prance is made up thus : Premiere sine : vol. i., Revue Orientale et Amiricaine;
ii., Revue Amiricaine ; iii. and iv., Revue Orientale et Amiricaine.'^ The nouvelie sirie has no sub-titles,
and the three volumes bear date 187;, 1876, 1884.
Serials, ibjj-iSTb, published by the libruy of Harvard

Univerally in 1879.
• Sabln, xvil., no. tsjm. The Congris Archtelogique

de France begin lis S&nces g^n^raleE in 1834, but Ihs In-
paralive iUustratioD. The two volumei of Mhhoini de la

SocUtt Ethtiolegigat (Paiia, i8.i-4s)i:ontlin nothing benr-
ing; directly on American atrhsolc^. Much Ihe same may
be slid allhe AnnalnArckiologigiiesfondies par Didren
ahUi'm iSupindcontinuedtoiSTo; otê Bnlletiit Atthô.
linuation, (tit Bulletin An:iiologl.;ue Francois UU'^Si);

md of Ihe Axnales ol the Institut Arch jologique (1844,
, - = etc.),
. Schoolcraft's rivalry of Geo. Callio and hi) ignor- < Am. Atdiq. Soc. Froc.,k\m\, ii7b.
of Cillin'i work is commented on at some length by « A Fev*e Elhaograpkiûe was begun in 1S69. A So-
laldaon in the Smitkionian Inst. Report, 1SS5, pari atlA Elhnologiqne, publishing Bulletin (1846-47) and Jff-
P- 373-383, moires (.S4.-4S), a > dislinct organi.alion.
For full details of this and other publications menrioned • S. H. Scudder, in hi. Calalogue 0/ Scientific Serials,
iLs paper, see S. H. Scudder's Calatogue of Scientific no. 1518, endeavors to put into something like otdetiy
1 B.
P. Foait'aDescriflii
■:e Catal. Govt.
Pui.,f.y,i;
Field's
Ind. BiMiog., no. i
379; AlUbone'i
5 Dictitnary,
iii. p, .1
)SJ, for reterences am
dims. Some
of ibe condemnation of tht

imid its ignorance, confusioi
i> Diudi 10 be picked QUI n
sweei^ng, tor
hich ia of imp
ortance. d.
Parkmi
,n's7,«i«, p. !,„;
Wilson's Pre,
iilloric Man.
ii.ch.n
,;Btimon'.^,A,,p.
40. CLonScho
olcraft's death
(with a
porttaii) Ifitlorical
Mag.. April,
1865; Amer.
Anliq.
Soc. Proc., Apnl, i!6

. Drake'. Indian 7
ribes of the Uniud Slates
(Philid.
.. .S»4> i<, with «sn
the tide-page being an unworthy 1
ackn^ledge
libliographical
' Hosted by VjOOQIC
The student of comparative anthropology will resort to the Maieriaux four I'hisloiti fesitnie el philota-
fhigui (later /™w/iM tt nalurelli) di thomme, the publication of which was begun at Paris in 1864 by
Gabriel de MorlLHet. and has been continued by Trutot, Cartailhac, Chaulre, and others. This publication
has contatoed abstracts of the proceedings of an annual gathering In Paris, whose Comptes rendu liave been
printed at length as of the Congris international d'ânthropoiogie et d'ârckkologie prekisteriquss (JS65, etc.),i
Lôn de Rosny published but 3 single volume of 3 projected series, Arduoes paliographiques dt I'Orient
el de rAmiriqut (Paris, 1870-71), which contains some papers on Mexican picturtwriting. Rosny and
others, who had been active in the movement begun by the ComitS d'Archfologie Amiricaine, were now in.
strumenlal In organizing the periodical gathering in different cities of Europe, which is known ss the Con-
gris iKternalional dts Americanisles. The first session was held 3t Nancy in 1875, and its Comple Rendu
was pubUshed in two volumes (Nancy and Paris, 1876). The second meeting was at Luxemboui^ in 1877
(CDBi/*rff™rf«, Paris, 1878, inavob,); the third at Brussels in iSjg (Compte J^mdu) ; the fourth at Madrid
in 1881 {Congreso inlernacional de Amerieanislas. Cuarta reunion. Madrid, 1881)1 the fifth at Copen-
hagen ( Cma/ft fleB,^«, Copenhagen, 1884); and others at Chalon*sur-Marne, Turin, and BerUn. The papers
are printed in the language in which they were read.
The Memaires de la Societe d'Ethnographis (founded in 1S59J began to appear in iaSi,and its third volume
(1882) is entitled Lei Documenli iirUs de PAntiguUi Americaini, compte rendu d'une million scittiti/ipu
en Espagne et in Porlugal, par Leon de Sosny, avec utu 4ant et 10 planches. The fourth volume is P. de
Lucy-Fossarieu's Ethnographii de t'Amirijut Antarctique (Paris, 1884). In the second volume of a new
series there is an account by V. Devaux of the work in American ethnology done by Lucien de Kosny as a
preface to a posthumous work 2 of Luden de Rosny, Us Antilles, itude d' Etknographie el d'Areheologigui
Americaines (Paris, 1886).
Latteriy there has been 3 consolidation of interests among kindred societies under the name of Institution
Ethnogiaphique, whose initial Rapport annuel sur tes riiompenses el encouragements decernes en iSSj was
published at Paris in 1883. This society now comprises the S0C1616 d Ethnographic Soci^t^ Amfecame de
France, Ath^nie Oriental, and Socifl6 des Etudes Japonaises
In England, organized efforts for the record of knowledge began with the creation uf the Royal Soaelj,
though certain sporadic attempts had earlier been known, America waa represented among its founders m
the younger John Winthrop, and Cotton Mather was a contributor to its transactions, and there has occasion-
ally been a paper in its publications of mterest to American archieologists 8 The Society ot Antiquaries
valuable papers in them. The British Association for the Advancement of Science began its Re/arts with
graphical Society began its /o«rHa/ with a preliminarv issue (1830-31 in 2 vols.), though its regular series
first came out in 1832. Its Proeiedings appeared in 1855, and both publications are a conspicuous source in
many ways relating to early American history.' Closely connected with its interest has been the pubhcation
begun under the editing of C. R. Matkham, and called successively Ocean Higkivays (1869-73, vol. i.-v,),
with an added title of Grofrfl/iiVfl/^ffiwiBai (1873-74), and lastly as The Geographical Magazine (-laX. i-îi.,
i874-?6)-
The Ethnological Society published four volumes of a Journal f' between 1344 and 1856, and resuming pub-
lished two more volumes in 1869-70. Its contents are mainly of interest in comparative study, though there
are a few American papers, like D. Forbes's on the Aymara Indians of Peru. This society's Tranjadions
Meanwhile, some gentlemen, not content with the restricted field of the Ethnological Society, founded in
London an Anthropological Society, which began the publication of Memoirs (1863-69, in 3 vols,) ; and in
this publication Bollaert issued his papers on the population of the new world, on the astronomy of the red
man, on American paleography, on Maya hieroglyphics, on the anthropology of the new world, on Peruvian
graphic records, — not to name other papers by different writers. The Transactions and Journal of the
society, as well as the Popular Magasine of Anthropology (1866), made part in one form or another of the
Anlkropologiial RcvicTu, begun in 1863, and discontinued in 1870, when the Journal of Anthropology suc-
ceeded, but ceased the next year. The Proceedings of the society make one volume, 1873-75, under the title
of Anlhrofotogia, and the soiiety also maintained a series of translations of foreign treatises, the first of which
amnjement the exceedingly devious devicM of Juplicstion ' Its publications began in 1665, Cf, synopsis in
ScBd-
of this and allied pubiicitions, der's Catalogue, pp. 36-17, Cf. C A. Aleiandtr on the
' K Revtu Ânthropologie was begun at Paris, under origin and. history of ihe Royal Society, in Smithsmian
the direction of Broca, in 1S72. A Sodritj d'Anthropolo- Rsft.. 1863.
HDrtillet conducted L'Homme from i33j 10 1837, when he ican subjects 1 e. g., the Journal 0/ lie MancheiUr
Cio-
devote Ihemlelves to a DictloHKaire die Sciences A nihro- ' Nol lo be confounded with The Elknologicid
Journal,
pdogiqttes and to a BibUolhiqve Anihrofolagiqui. vol. i., 1848-44, and vol, ii,. 1854, inoiiiipiete ; and The
' Roany ied April aj, i«7i. Eiknohgicai Journal, 1 vol., 1865-66,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
es of BcUrage r,
ptr phihsofkischtn Antkrofolegit ,-
j) Magaan wis |
lublislied at Altenburg in 1796-9?.
bhandlungia in
TS04, but it was not till long after
ARCHÔLOGICAL MUSEUMS AND PERIODICALS. 443
was Theodor Waltz's Introduction to Anthropology, ed. from the German by J. F. CoUlngwood (1863) ; and
this was followed by a version by James Hunt, the president of the society, of Professor Cirl Vogt's Ltctur/s
on Man, his flail in Crtatian and in tht history tf the Earth (1864), and by other works of Broca, Pouchet,
What is known as the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland united some of these separate
endeavors and began its Journal in 1371. The Quarterly Journal of the Giolagiial Seciity has also at time*
been the channel by which some of the leading anthropologists have pubhshed their views, and a few papers
of archiological import have been given in the TraHSOitions (1SS4, etc,) of the Royal Historical Sodety.
Professedly broader relations belong to the Traniactions {Cemftes rendus) of the International Congress of
prehistoric (anthropology and) archsology, which began its sessions in 1866.1 xhe latest summary is the
Archaelogical Review, a journal of historic and prehistoric antiquities, edited by G. I,. Gomme, of which
the first number appeared in March, 1888, which has for a main feature a bibliographical record of past and
current archffiological literatLre.9
It is, however, in the volumes of the Kakluyt Society's publications, beginning m 1S47, in the annotated
reprint of the early writers on American nations and on the European contact with them, that the most
signal service has been done in England to the study of the early history of the new world. They are often
referred to in the present History.
In Germany a Magatin fiir die Naturgeschichte des Minschen was published at Ziltau as early as 1788-
1791-
Wagner published at Vienna, in 1 794-96, two vo

and Heynig's Psychologisihes (sugleich Anfhtopdogi
The Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaft began it

that date that Buschmann and others used it as a channel of their views.
Vertuch's ArcMvf&r Ethmgraphie und Linguistlk <W^mar, 1807) only reached a single number.
The Zeilschtift fUr phystseht Aertte, which was published by Nasse, at Leipzig, 1818-M, was succeeded
hy Xhe Zeitschrifl/Ur die Anthropologie (Ijîpzig, 1813-24), and this was followed by a single vDlume,/<i4r-
iiieher fiir Anlhropologif (Leipzig, 1830),
Bran's Bthnegraphisehis Arehiv was published at Jena from 1818 to 1829.
It was not till after i860 that the new interest began to manifest itself, though Fechner's Cenlralblatt fUr
Pâturwislenschafien und Anthropologie was published at Leipzigvi 1833-54.
Ecker's Arehiv fUr Anlhropolagii was pubhshed at Braunschweig in 1866-68, which came In 1870 under
■he direcUon of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, which also began
a Correspondensblatt in 1870, and a series, Allginuine Versammlitng, in 1873. This is the most important
of the German societies.
Bastian's Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie was begun at Berlin in 1S69, and later added a Supplement.
The Anthropologische Gesellschaft of Vienna began Its MUtheilungen in r870; and In 1S87 the Pi^his-
totische Commission of the Kab. Akad. der Wissenschaften at Vteima printed the first number of its Mit-
The VereinfUr Anthropologie in Leipzig published but a single number of nBericht in 1871.
The Berliner GeseUschaft fUl Anthropoliîe, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte continued its Verhandlungen
for 1871-71 only; and the Goltinger Anthropologischer Verein made hut a bare beginning (1874) of its Mit-
[n all these publications there have been papers interesting to American atchaologists, if only in a
ve way, and at times American subjects have been frequent, especially in later years. The public
>iogical and geographical societies have in some respects been at times of equal interest, but it
m thought worth while to enumerate them.*
r, Th. i., Leipzig, 1S62) has er

ated the literature of Amerii
The interest m most of the other European countries is more remotely American. The Museum of Ethnog.
raphy at St. Petersburg is not without some objects of interest.'
< C<, J. R, Banlelt on ao Antwerp meeting, mAmer. ' The third voluloe of Sastiia'i CullarlUnJrr dr! Allen
Atiliq. Sec. Prac.. i8«8. America (Berlin, iSie) comprisei " Nachtrage und Etgiln-
■ Such penodicals as Nalia-e and Popular Sciencr Sr- lunjen aus den Sammlungen del Elhoologiichen Huic
view show how anlhropol"gical science is attracting atten- urns.''
lioD. > Conerts da Amiricaniitet, Cemfte Rendus, KuKy,
• See Scudder's CaMogm, ii. 171-

vGoosIe
In Sweden the Antropologiska SSllskapet of Stockholm began » Tidiskrifiia i9;5; but it affords little
assistance to the Americanist except in comparative study.'
The student wiil find some suggestions in a little tract by ]. J. A. Worsaae, Dt Forgattiiotiim del muiies
hiilorUn-arcAeolagisuei dam U Natd et ailleurs. Traduil far E. Beauvois (Copenhagen, 1885), which is
extracted from the Mimsiris de la SOiiiti royalt dcs antiquaircs de Nord, rSSj.
There has begun recently in Leyden an liUernatioHaUs Archivjur EthnsgrapkU. Herausg. van Krist.
Bahnson, Guido Cora [rfc] (Laden, 18SS).
In Italy the Arikivie fir P Antrofulogia et la Etnologia was begun at Florence in i8yi, and was later
made the organ of the Sodet^ Italiana di Anlropologia di Etnologia. There is an occasional pa.per in the
Bellelline delta Sockti Geogri^ca ItaUana, published at Rome.
In Spain the Sodedad Antropoldgica Espaiiola began at Madrid the publication of its Revista de AntrsfQ-
hgia in 187S-
The session of the Congtia des Amiricanistes at Madrid in iSSi gave a new life in Spain to the study of
American atehaology and history, and out of this impulse there was begun a Biblioteca dt loi Amerlianislas, ■
fvblicala D.J-usto Zaragoxa : fitWorZ). ZuiriVOTflrro; and the series has been begun with Ot^ Recardacuin
jterida, discurso del reino de Guatemala, an hitherto unpublished work (1690) of Francbco Antonio de
Fuentes y Guzmin, edited by Justo Zaragoza ; and with the Historia de Vsaeiuela, being a third edition of the
work of J036 de Oviedo y Bailos, edited by C. F. Duro.
prevented the further exportation of archaological relics. It was founded in 1824 by Fathers Icaaa and
Gondra, but it owes its_ creation largely to the skill of Professor Gumesindo Mendoza, its curator, by whose
death it lost much.' There is a tendency to draw to it other collections. There jvas a beginning made to
publish illustrations of the relics in the museum sixty years ago, but it came to little,' and it was not until
recently the publication of Anales del Museo Nacional ds Mijki,via.s begun that there seemed to be a
proper effort made. The periodicals Revista Mexicana (1835). and Maseo Mexicano (1843-45) bave done
farther south, the Regisfro Yueafeco, only ran to four volumes, published at Merida in 1845-46.
' The most conspicuous archxological repository in South America is that of the National Museum at Rio de
Janmro, whose published Mkmeires contain important contributions £0 Brazilian Arcbsology.
• Cf. Oscar MoDteliuSi Biiliugrafhie de PeircMeleffie ology. There are aomo private collections menlioDed in
frihiitdrique de laSuide ^tvlant It rqe siicle'iuitii d'uH the Architet dt la Sac. Amir, dt Frame, Nmrs. Str,,
hohn, 1375). Sat!e del Anliîilis Amtrkainei (PariB, iStol covets a
' It is described byTylor in hk Anahuae, ch. 9; by part of the great Paris exhibition of thai year. Someilring
ErocltlehurM in \ai Mexico ta-day, zti. ai ; by Bandelier in is found m^.T.SKveois FUkI CAifs, a guide In Mha-
th« Amerieait Antiquariat (1S7S), ii. 15; in Mayer's iorie arekaology as iUvstrated in tkt Blackmirrt Museum
Mexkc; and in the soramary of infoimaiion (fifteen years [at Salisbury, England), London, 1870.
old, howerer] in Bancrofi's Mexico, iv. 553, etc., nilh ref- > There is an account of Mendou in the Amer. Antiq.
erenqej. p. 565, which includes references 10 the Uhde col- Soc. Prx., April, 18IB, p. 173.
leclion ai Heidelbei^, the Christy collection in London • Coieecum de las Anligliedades Mezkaitas qia ecsislen
(Tylor), that of the American Philosophical Sodety in rn el Msato Naiiotat. lilograftadas for Fnderico IVai-
Philadelphia {Trails., iii. 570), nol to name the Meiican ^rf(MeiiCo, 1827— fol.|; Sahin, iv. 15796. See miscel-
Henry RlUUps, Jr. (.Proc. Amtr. PhilosoPhkal Soc.. %\\. Rates, iv. 565.
•a* Tke editor must he understood as appreaeking the furelyarekttologicalsidt of the study o/Ahorig.
America, as a student of the literaluTe fertaining to it, rather than as a critic of phenomena. He has
proceeded even in this course -without consultation with Professors Putnam, Haynes, and Briuton, 1
Mr. Lucien Carr and with Senor, fcaxialceta.
HSsted by VjOOQIC
INDEX.
Abaii<ay,2j6.
Abbnl, C. C, associatu thf mdc ini.

plemenB af TienloD wilh Eslumos,
1d6. 366 ; hil discoveries ia Ihe Dela-
ImfUmtKt! in. the rniir-drifl at

TrnloH, 33]; Suffaitil palxdilkic
impteiKeHts /rum tMi vaifty 1/ tkg
AmeiicaDs, 169 ; on the tertiary man,

387 ; raeardies in Ihe Trenton grav-
els, jSS; Rnds a molar Io«h, jBS;
and a human jaw, jSS ; A«tiq. .
Man in tht Dtlawart Valliv. iSt
EvidttKes of the Antig. Bf !mr
3S3; on archvoLogical &aiida, 403
Pnmilivi Industry, j(S, 416 ; 1
Atlantic coast pottery, 4.9.
Ahbolt, BriifDistriptim, iv,.
4heBn,J. K, Tkeatram Euyofirur.

xicxUi. .y«G«t(ried,J. L.
ffisteria, 15^, 262 ^ correspondt with
83; on the Eskimo lanûê, 107;
Mtudis stir six lansves, 415. 417:

' Ckiprita, m; Examim
A^m"™'
■I., iq. 94.

earlier than, j8
lelnng,J.C.,intv,
ih^mer./Tn.. A/a
îiart, l>aria Hi,lB,
naviglted, 71 minration
America, 116; lU people
Agassii, Alet, Crtatii <!f
A^Miz, Louis, on the lut
liwYiew" atlicked,' j « i
Skelclus, }g4.
Agalharcides, Geoerafiky, ;
Agneaeniap(.SS4).J3-
Aii-!a-Chapelle, treaty, 306.

Alabama, ahell-heapi, j9ji moundi,
Alaîlac language, 418-
Aiauca, 77, caves, 3gii Indians, 31S.
Albany, treaty at (1674), io4i (tM4),

A&.,P.,3^.
Albtn-noE, _f. de, Lgngua Chiafantca,
Altyti,Comei;B,A'j™iw»Vm'«,iiiv.
AlcedlTkntl'de, fliW. ^ »kj-., ii.
Alcobisa, 16;.
Aleutian islands, as a route from Ada,
Alexander, C. aI, on the Koyal Sod-
AUani, La.
asfS
Aê^', Ed»
John, hii library, lill.
Allen, Joel A., Wari, ™ <A< iirim
B/CU. .tc. .0?.

Alien, ZKhariah, Cimditiim ^ In-
Allibm*,^l?A., idi.
Alligator mound, 409.
Alloys of metals, 418.
Amegluno, F., La Aniigliidaii dil
iarly refer>
"1SÛ'froZ,'i?i
19, 76; Basque! in, 75;

— , . :b by drifting reiada, 75:
voyage to Fonsai^, 78 \ maps of

roum from A«a, 81 1 by the Poly-
nesian islands, 8t; state of culture
369; climate, 370; autochthonous

man io, 171; held to be, later than
Europe, the home of tnan, 177 ; stone
age io, teterences, 377 i elhnolcjical
3S3; eariiest land above water, %u\
384 ; bibliog. of
anUqulEiea, 415; ar
Africa, Asii, Oiinae, Jews, Madoc
Man, Northmen, Phanldan, Set.
thian, Tartar, Zenl, Vinland, elc.
Vmeiican Academy of Arts and
\m"ric™'Anfti. Soc, Catal., ivti;

founded, 371, 4371 Arckttsl&gia
Anurieati Attfkropologiiit 438-
^^^Sx^^^S, lÂdva
menl of Science, 437 ; would protect
American Ethnological Soctelv, 310,

' I pubncations, i^.
m tolk-Lore Sode^, 43's.

in Gcographii
:>ii.
ArU, 43!.
A mtrieatt IVaturatut, 4|S.
American Philosophical Sodoty, ihdr
publications, 437-
Amtrican Traf:rl/,r{nA^),a=a,i}0.
Amencana^ J ; blbhographies, 1; deal-
Ampirc, Promtnadt tn A mfri^m, Br,

Anihuac, hisloTT of, 1)9 ! Blip of, in
Ciavigero, ia lacs,, 144^ its linuts.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
446
ADCborcna, J. D., on Ihc Qukhua

ADcieata, their knowledge of AmCTrca,
Ancon^ bunals at, 376, 37% } cut a[
found in Ctliioraiaj J33.

Andrade.l. M., 1701 Calatogta, 414^
Andree. Richaid, eikHOf. Paraililtn,
Andrews, Edmund B., on Eeological

evidence From the gteal lakes, 381 ;
on the Ohio monnds, 401, 407, 408.
Anglian, lohan von,™.
Angnnd, L., on Waldcck, 1^4; Lts
ADftuiiu islarid, 496.
AnimftLa, domestic, hirdly known in
AnnaiiS Arckiotffffiûes, 441.

Anratm/ Scitmr, 418. ■
Anthrofitiloeis, 443,
Anthropoto^cd Institute of Great
Anthtopol^fckl "instilutfâf New
A nihropotoguai Rgview, 447.

Anthnqiological Society of Washii
ton, 43S.
Anthn^logyandila method, 378,41
Antichthoncs, q.
ADlilles.reniuantsof Allau[ia,44. >!

Aulillil. island. 3), 48; biblioe. 48;
Bianco and Piiigani maps, 54.

Antipodes, ancient views of, 9, 31, 3
Antiattarisk Tidsskrifi^ 04.
AntidDitv of nan. J-n Man.
Antlsell, 'nH>s.,7S.
AotoDto, Nic., B^. ffiipafl" Km
Apalacln^Z^j 431-
Apes, Wni.. Xîmrdam i/Ckrisl, 11
ApoOonius Rôdiu!
Apponyi , Li&i-ariis of S<m Fr<a
Aprosjios, 43.
Arabian gec^raphers, 4S.
istitute of America
160, tjB":
Archtroioekitl Rfjriev, 443.
Archer-Hind, Ed. Pistol Timirtu
46.
Archimedes, his elobe, 3.
Architecture oE Middle America, 17C
i»! in Peru, 347-

ArcMv/Ur Ethnografhie, 444.
ArchivB del Aêrei, x\x.
Arckivui fer PAnlhrsfi/logia, 444.
Arctic peoples. Sn Eskimos.
Arequipa. 177.
Argi!lite.4ij; spear-points, 3Mi «wr
A^pni
if them
Arê, Dukeof, iVjiftfTw/îf:4, 301.
INDEX.
hisscientificlreatises, 34; his iUi
ence in the West, 37.
Arm.n' Hîgi MtMc, 178.
Amiy Meilcal Mumuui, 440.

Arnold, Gov., his stone viudmill i
ArriaKs, Jos^ de, 264 ; ia Idelairi
Arroyo deli'CuesIa, F.,Mitl«a lar
A^^n'^fVe. 36!.
Arthur, King, in Iceland, 60.
Arthur von Dacuig, iniii; His,
Ind. m-i^«/., «xiit
Atitndel de Wurdour, Lord, PUtie'
aSm,"
la Co., Ohio, mounds. 408.

i America, 59, 71
by Humboldt, 371; tesiimouy

jade, 417 r ancient views of its Ei
™st, ,. S,, Fousang, Monge
Aspinwilll, Thomas, his library, i
Atlrolalie, 37.'
%'^ 33; history of the
Atwaler, Ca\e\i,riMaxiâitN. If.,
»3 ! an"lhe shdi5ifiips of ê^Mut'
S^Jl/ 0*w, »8 ; '^rili«JI', 39S ;

Tour fc Pra/ra du CAuth, a^B,
; aids in establish-
Avila, F. de, 7641 bis Indian mythol-

ogy as translated by Markham, 436 ;
hTs chapter on the Qulc'
^sayacatl.
Aielsen,
S16, 4=8, 443; Ian

.y^L.'il!,ôn'Mitla, 1S5.
.latlan, Fon, 408.
the early maps, 49 ; slatne in, 49.
tongue in the north, 138; their mi-

gration maps, 138 ; their cradle In
uie north, 1^7, liS, in the sovlh,
ijq ; arrive in Heidco, i^ ; Raa-
kii^s map of their dOninion, 144 ;
divided into Haikans and Tlatslul-
cas, 146; confederatitm formed, 147 ^
Tlolzin, 163 ; their priBLes,'i93 ; the
'helped in
lieroglypj
les of it
jed, 703 1
a:
fJûT"*"
""ê>?co'
13S ; its situation, 13! ; in the soulh,'
0, John, Un
Backer, Louis ,
48; Ma. BO/iitf., tS.
Backofen, J. J., MidUmi
Bacqoeville de la Potheri
PAtKiriqia, 311, 314.
Baffin Land, 107,
Baguel, M. A., Raaspris

Amiriqses, 369.
Baily^John' C«(. Ami-.
on the North-
aird, S. F., on she

ake, j., Posidsttii
albca, M. C, Mis.
r/lalelt AltstrilL,
Baldwin, Cornelius, on burial cists.
Baîn, a C, 390; on the mound-

builders, 401 i ftllici «/ Moand-
builders, 403.
Baldwin, E„ La SiOlt Coiintji, Hi,
BM«in,]oT\nD.,A«c. Afei-Ka,îi,
B^lesteros, Ordenantas del Peri,,
unity of the race, 375'

Bancrofi, H. H., aids to Inbliag. □(
Indian lanfuagea, viij buys the
Squier MSS., «ii, 772; bis fibrary,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
-villi u i hit Nalae RaaSt vui, j6d,
erepcu, 414, 41J : LUerary Undfr-

iaUags, viii; H*«-*j. viii ! hii Cin-
CkmtiiUri, ii i criiiciied, ii ; fij-
Co/irt-™^!!: on MexKsn hiaiory,

ISO : on Sinanln, kt; dd Clgvigero,
lis: on Maya history, 166; «m-
densu the P^fial Vuh, ilA: on Ihe
aoc. Mexican iiui£nifi«Dce, 174: on
tbeit warfare, 175; attacks Morgan,
176; hia estimate of Prescott, sbq;
on (he niouDdbirilders, ^401 ', on the
general sourws of aboriginal Amer-
abongipal arts, 4»t»: on Americaa
Bandelie'r, A. F., on eariv Mencan

chionology, ij3,i5([on theToltecs,
Torquemada, ij/i on IiIlilxDcbill,

1J7 ; promises an ed. of the Ctrdex
CAima/firfiiKa.isSi on the Pb/kI
HUUTy o^ Sianiih A imrka, 167 ;
'^> >75! ^MHrv rf landi, i6qi
ArckaeliiâlTaia-Bt'McxicB^t^
lusp
I i MoHraoâ pu^, J74, 175 :

TsoilMeiicari]fe,T7;l ad-
11 far
eiidars,T;g; Stiidia otBut CMula,

J So: Arckaffiffir- êlts an Mrjn'co,
iSi ; on Milla, iS; 1 on the Mexican
painttnes, ass; on the Puebto tuins,
3?6i Stdtaiary Ixdiaiii d/ JV™.
j/Mi™,396i Jt«w. '/'■«;?! 396;
his use of aourcea, 413 J BMh>z.»/
Qoetzalc
' 438.
n Monotheism, 430 ; <

\ hifl laljors
IJarber, Hist. Cell. Mais., la,

Baibet.E. A.,39S,4i9i Les
fiuebios, 397.
Barda, annotates Garda, 369.
1^,34,8;,
Bamaid, M, R,,g;.
Barranca,;. S.. OSanta, iSi.
Bairandl, A., 409.
Bairienlos, Luis,âi:<.Cns'uiia,4a5.
BaiTOw, John, V'oyagcs Ma He Pelar
ii; drawing
04 ; Ptrim,
, edits the Murphy
[ Di^ton .
•I Xarr,
9. J96i
Banlett, S. a, on Dartmouth College,
Banon, Benj. Smith, Mew Vieais, 76,

371, jqS, 434; on the Madoc voyage,
110; hie liiîstic. studies, 424; on
the location oi Indian tribea, 311^
portrait, 371; his caroer, 371 1 Ainer.
A9dig,, 371 ; Ohtervatioia, 3gS ;
thoughl the nwunds built by the T0I-
\at: on the Ohio mounds, 407 ; od

lMniIi« of Indian vn>rds. 437-
Bartrara, John, Tritvek, 39a, 410-
Bartram, Wm., Travtls, 398, 410.
Basadre, Modesto, 114; Riquisas

Pcnamas. =44 i on Tiahuanicu, 173-
BasalenquB, San Augustin tie Me-
erGetchulUe
.rJ,T^t
\riflfir ElhiuAisie, 44] \ Cultur-

IS, h'. W", Ethtieg. of A meriea.
Beauchamp, A. de, CeHgalle du Pi-

Esd^mp, W. W., 3JJ, ^î■
Beauloy, M., Mex. lOaitriUie'is, 180.
BeAumes Chandes cavea, )S7'
Beauvois. Engine, L'Elysie traniat-
idntûe, 31, 47; UEdetty 33, 50;
on St. Main's Toyage, 48; on Ilie
Irisli discovery of America. S3;
MarUand it EsceeOaid, %% : Les
nlaliet! dee Gaels owe le Mlxifur,
Sj; Ancien Evteii du Neuviau
Dicouvertei del ScandiftaTies, 96;
Les derttiers Vestiges du CArittid^
Hisvw darts le Mariland, 97; Les
Cslmies Esav^nnesdu Ma.rlUand,
tj. Lis Skmlatgs, loj.
Bechet, ^. C. R., TV// to Mexks,
Be'cfc^, J. H., 403; M^niism del
Naltuas. 119
Becfcmth, K. W., 3'7-
^>:cn>3an,\.C.,Hist.0rbislerTani?n,
Be^, De JVs/Kra Rerum, 37.
Be^che.G., his books, liii.
Behaim on tlie Seven Cities (island),
Belle^rde, Abb^, xxxv.
Belt, Th. , Stale imi/e»ieiits, 388.
Bettran de Santa Kosa, P., Idiar
Belt?™!, jrc, PilgTimage. J69.
Belt, Thos., 'on the fr'Sion giave
M Centres af Anc. Civila
ia bDolo, 414; his lingnisdc

s, 426: Afusfyticat Alphabet
17; his papers, 426; memc
rinton. 4161 on llie Maya Ic
Bergen, t%.
Beraer, H., Friiftiietdt des Hiffar.

Cesck. der Wisi. Erd/amde,' 3l>',
GeagrafkU. aS.
Beristain .de Soma, BiU. Hitf-
i«:halt. 44
Berlin, A. f,, 3.7.
Berlin, Altad. derW
Geseilscbalt fur Anthropologie,
Berlin tabk*, 10^" ' ** '

Berliom, £. F., Les Atlaitles, 41
Bemard, Vaiaês, lotxv.
Bemhardy, Cj, Eratastimica, ji
Bmî^Dr., «o.""'' *"'

Berthelot, A titiq- Canarienius. 1
Berthoud, K L, 397; Natekei
dinKS, 31&I on human relics in
omirg, 3S9 ; Cnet VaOey, Colin
Bertonio, L., his Aynura gram
Beughem, C„ Bibl. Hist., i.

Bianco, Andreas, bis map ('436), jo
T/u Atlecs\ip. 'M .<7a
BihIiwraphieB, Americana, i^Litfre,
0atis ipoo/raacs el ok desSKl.xx

Biiliateea de les Americanistm, 44^.
BiMiethiaut Unguistiqiu Amir., vu
theZeoi story a fraud, iia.
|i!.S
k, 3S8.
Jilialne, Recuett de diners Voyages,

iiich, Sait. Boyle, 311.
Hrchtod on Atlantis, 43.
bIîuo^ f o^'in C^»^ An

Blackett, W. S., Last Hislari
Blade, J. F., UOrigine deTia
BlaL'e, C. a, on Peruvian skulU

Blake, John H., his Peravian .
"/
odfijfi,"j! 1
pel. Arliclis, 439.

Bohn, H. G., i^
Bolivia, map, J09.
BoUaetl, Wm., on the Men:
neviiie, 1-, ae,_ 370.
landi (1M7I, 57. S8 i map oi Scan-
Hostedby VjOOQIC
448
Boryde St. V?Drent,T'BTi;«/i'Vi
Brucani, G.,' Oinigchnitci, 318.
BoaaanEe, Hector, xvi.
BcaUHi, piinle UbTancs, 11 Public

Library, 1(9 cataloeuoBT xvii ; m cei>
trc of aludy in Ameiicui hiKojy,
BcaUti Aihenxuin.'iu cUal., xvii.

BDSIon Soctcly of Natural Hieloiy,
tongues, vli ; his coijecilons in Mej

ican historv, 139 ; its viciasitude?
Afttig. CtUiîteSt J90;
BouiKEois, AbW, on lei

BourEc,j!G..i-*ifcJ
Btadfonl, A. W., Amtr. Aniig., 376,
Biahiii, Ger, it, 116

Bralneid, David, his Lifi, 431.
Braniford, JTF^ ntif. at Panlalcim,
Brvsseur de BovrbourEÂfab^^ bia aids

ID lii^datics, Tii; hts wHtLnES and
les^ tftnîtgs A 9tiir- , vii I his library,
ica,4], 167; on the Atlantis Ihec^,
NorltlEii«D and their trttcea, 94, 99 ;

on scattered traces oE tha Jews, 1 16 ;
on the VoEin mylh, 134; an the C!ii'
cbinuca, 136 ; dd the Nahua migra-
£jili yaimy, ijs ; on Ihe Tollecs,
1(3, 171 ; chief sources oE. 171 : uses

Ihe Cairx Ckimalfapiica, ijSi the
Ccdex Gomlrrt, ti&\ descriKs Au-
bin's collectiDD, 161 ; his own collec-
tioii, 163 ; cdiia Ltmda's Rtlathnt
164, 1&5, 2Do^ JUitiifH scieniijtpu
an SBxiqtu, 164, '70; oix Yucatan
history, 16c ; edits the Popid ViJi,
09, 16& ; Dtairt. ntr Its mvlhti de
I'Anliq. Amir,, 166; his theny of
caudyuH, 166 ; aOiiichiHS.îe?;
TIS7 ; on Oalaci, 16S ; on
Gozman, 1*8! l»rliai, ■
Eitalmi riisltiire, 170;

Jlfyrjutâni 17a; Lrilrexp'
Pintraduclicn a Fkhairi
^mh7or MS?', 17 ' o'
r. fun
Valdeck'i
iTt h Li-m dt Rem}, xoo ; Landa's

alphabet explained, ix: futile al-
lempls at interpreting the hieroglyph.
Rtttutuii, aos ; SyMinr grafUfm
Mtyti,m^, 4ij\ his J?dMfr/ on the

MS. ■" ---■ - "-- •---'-
P/rtsi
ji; iiW.
Ihe r
Sffi.2
Biûf. the besi observer uf' Indian

Bredtenn^, H. H., on Indian popu-
SB,.,..
Brecken ridge, in.

Bredsdorff.T. H.,
Brenden. .S'm St. Biandan.
Brenner, Oskar, qS; GrdrJaKd, 8;;

hia mapotOlaus Magous, isj; Dii
HihU KarU dis O. MagHtis, 115.
Btet«chneider,'E.,%iiM^, (to.
Kautik dir A6n, 34.
1, James
ipl. of Asti
■s Bit. Am
Dbiary, 1 ;
Btigham, W, T., Gualemala, 166, 19

Brine, Liodesay, Ssi-ad CUUs .
Brinley, Geo-, his library,
""!°4°*: 'on'JVlgonquin"'
'ao/ChaatBalam,
I of Lands, la; \ on tlu /V/W
Volanic Emini
--■■-siion,i6j
— - -' ''i _
._, . Naikm/ihtGod!
Kkkl Tnythj, 167, 436 ^, Annals Îkg

CaichifKth, 167, vi<,\ on the eth-
nology of the Cakchiquels, 167 ; on
Nicaraguan history, 169; on Bras-
seur, 171 ; on Lan<la*ft alphabet, iod ;
AiK.PhantticAlfk^l of VtaMnK,
101, 417; Grafkic sfdfnt 0/ /He
Afajraj, zoi ; Pimttic cltmtitls,
lot ; Iktmemk -millud, »i J on the
^^<!'f"niiulâ''on 'he 'Indians,
E" 350 [ on Theo. Wailt, 378 ; on

Nicaiagua iDDlpiinls, 3S5 ; Fle-
ridian PeHiHsuia, 391, 3« ; on shell
heaps, 393 ; opposes C^rrs views on
^Hdjr of prekist. Chromlogy, 411,

tism, 4iz; Prchiit. Ankacloj
s«/M.
'ailry, 4j6; tlahnaalan-
iTUtft, 4s6 ; CaJkkigvil language-,
toe language, 417; on the Nicara-

gua tongues, 42S; Manpu duUect,
//at. UgiKda/llu Chaia-miaJcBjiie

trUti, 396 1 on Ihe Sbawaiieea, 316 )
dlan, iii : jî;*f"?/*!tV«o »W(W,
Religiaus I
sf lie Sou
BiilainTlhe'/Jind of Ihe Blessed, T

Sritish Assoc, for the Adv. of Scien
Brocklehursl, T. U., A&xke Ts-day,

B™5'becl!,"j.j 109.
Btooks^ Ch. Vf ., on the emigiitiona 10
wn, G. S,. Yarmmilkt 11
Briihl', Gustav, Csflan

Brunet on Be Brv, mx
Brunn, Sai. Sakica, .
BrunsoiC'AlSed, 408.
Bruya^ J., R^jlc^> )
Btyce, Geo., on Man
Inadie,
n, G., on S.
thezeni 1,. ■ Jr J^^S^, V

Buchholti,' Dii i/nmeriscie Ea
BUthner, L., Dtr Mmci, 3S3 ; .
Lickland, 1>
uckle, 1/
i. Miss
■s. Ole
"'^7'iT^^t„-on
tmenis, 3B7 ; on bones nom
^ 'the statue of L«E Eric-
1 the Northmen, 98.
[fi^Mion 'oTpotleryj
Hosted by VjOOQIC
K-kS
Bureau' o( Eiimoiogy, Rifarlt, 139.

Burgfii LoTfiDzD, pFegiacial Mtm, ■^^.
BuiKoa, F. dc, CA^-. Descrifcieit, i58.
BurEart, J., Jf«^H» » JtUxlca, 1S3,
Burke, L., 46.
Burke, J,, at Chicben-llia, 190.

BBfDty, J»s., C^nw. Hislory nf Da-
s, d R,, kiissuri, 409.
n'R/F^fy/linM r:«iB'<-,84, 85,
isihnann,'/. C. E., Dk Sfm-tx dti

AzMisciia Strailu, 1^1 Du
Lautveriiidtrw^ AOrt. Uthiir.
1^; hia HngLilstic atudies, vii, âS'
Bullet, J. D., Pnialark it-bcumU
S; on copper implemeau. fiS

i/rrA£iii WucDBiiB, 418.
Boder County, Ohio, iDounds, 408.
Cakchiqueli, [d GuaKn
Câveras County (Cal.) cave, 39a.
Calderon, J. A., on Palenqii^, 191.

Calendar £aks, 179 ; stone of Me>ieo,
a,'aS»^..tsd™.,,*
Calilomia, gold drill, 3S4 1 its fndiani,
81, 318: an island in San»D<a
map, 18; alleged »niar;Telic9,]ji ;
Ihe Nahll^' ijj, i5T liogufslic

eoiJusion in, .38 [ polKij, ,19;
Callendi^f ^h^,V,tRy*r, ixivl.
Campbell, John, Vstares. 1
C^pbell, John,.3>?^56,
Jinguutic affiliations wilb
CiDaaniles, antBtoia <Jl ihe Anieri-
Canada, Indians. 311 ; their arts, 416 ;

library of Pariiament, iviii ; mounds,
Cmutduin A ntiquarian, 438.

l.'anadiaDlnsiitule,438; Arni.Hifls.,
Caiaxdiai JixrHii/, 4)8.

CoHiuiiait Monthly, 438-
GwaiKw Naluralisl. 438,
Candollt, De. Ging.
d'^. H., â«
Capel, VonttUtutgtH dtt Nordtnt
Capella, MarcianiiB, Dc Nuftiii, elt,
36.
Caradoc. 109.
Caidilf giant a fraud, 41.
Carellc>yAnconaCr,ZiT^f^]EN( J^jv,
Cirelie, K,Z« limps tnUhislfrif Kit

Cmy, Amer, JUiantK, jia.
Can, »9. ■
Caiibs, oiixin of, 117 ; desceudantl o
the Cbicbiniecs, 136.

Carignano mapliiv. cmL), s3-
Ca&iillo y Oroico,
Srkji UiirA,
via ttePauw, 3
Catrasto, C. OllaHtB, li
■a.'p.'de.'l'KiK:.
C,Bl^'¥^^«e"
irolTof Msl.' i6jt™
m Ae ™un&f C.
:aspari. Otto, i/rrllckicUi dtr

Mtnickkiil, Si. 383,
;aspi, Marquis de, »;.
Caslaing, Alphonie, tts /tin dan.

Pattitq, fientvienitr, J38 1 Syitimi
map(i37jl, 4'
Ha de ta dictt
"û'Jh, T^'
Am. UU. i
r±z
the Welsh Indlauiiii
o Hebren cnslonia
116 1 Li/ad and
6; Lif, emeng llu
Indian iiil>u. 3
;auchi3, ja6.
:;avate dnllinKS,
Ulor:
'yW
anl-q.,:
Sm Yno.
99; nup of, iiy Malle-
Dn, Guatemala, L- „
Central Ohio Scientific Assoc., 407.

CeKlralUall JBf BiUisthttmBim,
Ceramic art. Stt Polterr.

Chac-Mool. statue, 180, 190, ^\^.
Chaca,f24; ruins, 334; deacnbed by
ChacoCaltanlsgj, 356.
berlin, T. C, tJwi'/oeit/ rfr^,

Cli^mplain, hli friendship irilh the
. IlKi'eM on its disf, 14!,

ChireiKey, H, Ai, MiIangti,rA\ La
hittgue Baaeur, 75 ; Jlfytfu de PV-
tan, 81; Djttnicktd tl Qtalalcsk-
Ko/l. 81; afyii d'Imtt. .141 CiBi-
litatilH du Mfxi^titt 176; an tha
Maya hieroglyphics, 105 ; Fragmtnt
d'tHscriflim faltntuttni, lai; hia
lingtiistTc iludiea, 415; M^tanrtti
416, 427; Ckrestomaikit dt laloH-
gar JItiiya, 41-r: Dii mall tH Itagua
in Mexico,
olsirj, find! Buddhist tno*
I the Tolleci, 141:
Amir., lib, 1*6,
r6j f^"^
Xtv., 177;
InciiHl Cfliii, 177; "
■"Hosted by VjOOQIC
ChMe, A. W., 44
Chaia-nii»-k4>kef itibeG, ]j6.
Chavero, A., SaMagiin, 157; Mlxi

dlnxvii ae les Sielos, iti; qh 1
CilendirSiDDe. i7y; hi>oldvie»
Mexico, iGa ; Zr2 Fiedra dtl S,
data, Fiaodaco de, in Pen, 160.
Chekill,,3.6.
Cliellean penod, 177.
Chelly, Caflon, cflff-houBes, 39s.
Checooks, 99. Jm Chinook,

Uberokui, Timtieclalie on, 33 i £n-
be niDund' builders, 401; couocil-

liouse, 403 1 sources o( tlieir blslory,
326 ; their case with Geoisii, i^fi.
Chiapas, 431 i^s! concen

sources cd its histojy, 1
Chi-Chen, 186,
Chichimecs, baibarians o
adopt the Nahua lonnie, 14a; h

alliances, 141 ; aulboês, iit: ;
MS. on, 1S71 MS. annals, i
EEoealogy of Iheir chiefs, 161 ; II
Tanguan, 426.
Chicben-IlzB, 434; position of,
1S8; Chamayal, i&( Le Plong
ChicomoitQc, ij&
Chil. Dr., on Atlantis, 46.
ChilQ, 177.
ChiOitothe, niap,4ri6.
ChimaJpatn, Dojntngo, note:
Christianity introduced into Green-

Christycoilection, 444.
Cboluia,' temple built by the Olmeca,
178; »hen built,' t^;
Cicuf^^Pecos), 3^'"™
a«a de Leon, P., as an
anc- Peruvian history, i
Cindonati!ât! Hist, Sa
Cincinnati tshlet, 404!
Circleville^ So. momds.
V'&.. Onon.
Clark; W.
Clarke, Hyde, Legtndsf Atlantis,
hio, mounds, 408.
mil
toratiODS, 1^ ; 1
Chnmeto larguagt
Clavus, CIauîus,'his map,
cd™onl, eollegi
Qiff- dwellers'
Clodd, I
Cmlex GaiJra, 158.

Cadix Mendoia, 103.
Colorado, expe^rtions in, iq,

[Tolumbia River Valley, cenire of mi-
Cidumbus! Christopher, ace. of bis

voyages, lii, juiv, miv, iixvi ; be-
lieved he found Asia, 1 ; inherited
^mtDil, A. J., 409.
1. J., 4
ConantjH, S., 177,
Concacfaa, ruins, tm, III.
Conchucus, ij7.
Condamine, C. M. la. Visage, 171;
''d'e5''Amîica-
Congris 1
jogfis
: , 43S.
mound, 405-
Conljaelus, a.,DeviU-tiiiretabU^ 3;
Conybeare,C. A. \.,Plaa b/ Jcihm
Cope, Edw. D.,.*irioMK aHrfC«"B-

Copenhagen, Royal Soc. of Northern
Cordeiro, L., Lgt Poriueais dam la

dirmvfUdi_eAmMli.,S^
C0dex Mcxicamu, ,6!, 107.
Cordova,' H. de, first sees the VotataH

CcdtzPirtiiafms.iBT, cut, 507.
luios, 173.
C^:r Tr«-^, aoy. ed. by Briseur,
Cordova y Salinas, D. de, 264.

Coreal, r rancois, Vetaefs '45
Coguilndo, Ymathan, 16;; Let Irts
Corlear, i8q.
Cornelius, E., 410.
Cornell UniverMly, F.parks's library al,
ColiD, Albert, miu
S^ns, ttoAian. found in AmeriQ. 4'.
Cimii, C M., 16$.
;olden, Cad»all«!er, among the Mo-
hawks, 289; Pi^! IxditH N,^li0HS,

3.4; editions, 3=4; his career, ji..
îlvitS^""^-
Colhuican. founded, .39! seat of
Cortereal, Gasper, lii, iioiiv.

power, 139 ; its league, 140.
Cortereals, theVxix, ™iv.
Secs^f'i"' """"^
Cortes, his lost fiisl letter, ni; his let-
Cnli)n, ^'.'journahn. Jiiiv.
ters, ilv ; sought a passage to Asia,
Jpllaliuaso, J., ItKU Alakunlfa, 168.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Falenqu^, iqi;
k lo CharluV,
igy of tile Middle Ages,
Coun,l>r. J.,1
Cowksl Henry', t-maitucn, 37,.

Coi, Mytkîgy of thi Aryan na-
Coxe, Daniel, V&ya£'is, xxxr ; Carff-
Coczta, ifanHii^ dmairy, ^,
3S6i science oI,j73i tapacily no

sure guide lo mtelugence, iji ; kinds
of, 375; lone-headed, or dolichoce-
phaSc, 375 1 sJion-headed, or bradij-
cepkabc, 375: medium, or mesocc-
pKalii^37s^ CromaAnon skull, 377,
389 J Calaveras afculi; 3S4, 38s ; Tren-
idh gravel skulit, jSS ; Enghis
ikull, iSgi NeancUnhal skull, ]3q,
393 i HndieWsn ahnll, 339 \ mound-
DuUden* akulli, 399, 400, 403.
Crnnlor, coinmenMlOT on Plata, 41,
CianlE, David, GrffHlimd, St; edi-

tions, S6i on Hann F^prip. inR.
Cratea of MaUna,
Crawford, Chat
>WH Me Tin
Crawfordvilie, mounds. 40°.
CressoD, H. T., finds paUolilhic iiu-

plements, 341 : discoveries at Naa-
man's Ciedt, DeL, 363 ; finds [ales,
Creviiil^'j. iiMllî^ and L.

Adam), Langats dt la Tlgitm dis
CtoAw,C<A. Geoije, 318,
Croll, James, CHstaU aad Cssmelagy,

383, 3S71 his theory of climatic
changes, 3S7 ( CttmaU and Tiint,
387; controversy wiih Newcomb,
Hi-
Craiilec'hs in "^^tl"^'
Crook, G., on making arrovi-heada,
CiMby, Dr. Howard, on Geo. H.
I, QbaS'./ruiians
ayas and Na-

a symboliied
mbol of life.
cielsffdia de
Cuoq, J. A., on the Algonqjiin dialecls,
C^^^*\e Money.
Cuscatlan, i63.
CuBhiog, F. Hôn ihe habilalion o!

37B 1 on Ihe Pueblo architecture, 395 !
on the Zuili, ]«6 ; on N. Y. moulds,
405! /•nfWojW/r^, 4,,, 440 i Zwii
jettckiSj 440.
Cushltesof EgTpt, 41.
Cuiick.David, ^ IK. History s/lkf Six
Cvder.lklanasKh, on the Ohio mounds,
INDEX.
ter, Chas. A., •
bibliog, ol He fiiy.
^ l^ns"!. a'S"i5i'viei, Ji9i
tun, Honors, fmagv Mundi, 48,

alos y Figueroa, iJiego, JlfiK^
eiac, //« d'A/ri0u, 43, 47 i i"

di St. Bratidan, 47 ^ Lit ilti
/astifutjf 43, 47; on the Laon
connection with Ada. 77- Sa
Dabhnan, F. C., BUntmark, S4.

Dahlmann, Fersch-mgin, 99.
Dalm, Olat von. SvcarilHs HiH,. 84-
"-■■ '" ■■ on the peopling of '
- "olym
>n the P<
__.f^n*s.i;
cans, 369; against Ihe autochlho-

■6, 11. 781 on the Polynesians,
in the Eskimos, 107, 4371 Aias-
07 ion the origin-'-'- • ■
Ton sheil^la'ia,'
Dairymple, Alex-, Voyaggsîztx^^

Dalrymple, BiU. A mtr, , ii.
Daly, D.. 43i-
Damariscotla, Me., shell heap, 391.

Dammarlin. La Pierre di Tamilm
Daiôith. Dr., on Dighlon Rock. la
Danish liai'tjeds'inan of, 395.
Darwin, Chas., ni!€i„l af

on the degeneracy of the Si
Darwinism, jSt,
DasenI, G. W., A™y 1

IfarscrKtH ia Uttand, Sj
Vigfusson's/«*™&C--
Daui, A., Eludes frikisl
5,Si:
Padilla, Prev. de Saittia
•-■aria hilt.. 156.
LSahel. Aslig. a/CtHl.Am,
V ™V, 78. " " "^
s,, John (navigator), noci.; in
is, John CJndge), on the Dighton

ISr, Early Kian IH Britain, iSî
-ehiBtoric study, 376; on the an-
y of man, 383! on the Cala-
> skull, 385 ; on man and en-
animals, 388; Cavt Hunting,
l^c.
le Sknel
tun and the Biile, 381; Sliiry a/

tie Earn, 381,3861 Or^n of IV
W^ld, 38) ; on the Calaveras ikuil,
38s ; on the moundbuilden, 401.
Da,, St- John v., Prtkistertc Ute ^
D^;?",;,^',^^
I. des ffavigalicn
DeBry,Theodive, parlrait.iiii Vey-
tistus feregrinationHiK, mcl ; Mb-

lioe.f Kxxiii EUnehts, xaudi^ coiu-
teneit eds., xjoil ; his other publica-
tions, xxxiiij abridgnw

original Wyih drawings,
De Bure on De Biy, xiidi.
)e Cosla, B. F., PirâlumilaH Dh-
Birec^Z^ hS^%\ Cel^

bus and IMe etagrafkfri sf Iht
North, 07 ; on D^ton Rock, 104 (
on the Eskimos, loj ; on the Zeni,
De Ferry, H., Li MKonnaii Îkis-
De Yoitlt, litdiaHi qf Cmn.,iii.

De Haas, V/ ..Archaelegy e/the Mii.
sissipfi Valley, 417.

De Han, J. D., 40*.
DoHart,J. M., 409-
De la Porte, Abb*, Vayagear Pran-
Ican ptodncls, 3^; Recherchei

De Tocqueville on the Indiana, 310.
êine, Chas-, his library, n hia like-

ness, xU on James teno., «;on
E. A. Crown&shield. liUl on the
DeSfield, JoC a'<u.
i' i^nd, 49'
Denton, Dae. efN. K, vi.

Derby, J. C^ Fifty yeari, viil.
Desimoni, Cornelia, on the Atlantic
islands, 47 ; Le carte nauticke del
Deijardins, Ernest, Rafforl'ixr kar-
nan, 387-
Deior, Ed., "Palafiiiti, 39S.
Deuber. F. X. A.. Giuk. Jer Sehif.
_JMrtimAtt.OuaH,fa.
rfentKh, Manuel, xiru'.
Deutsche Gesellschaft tflr Anthropolo-

Deiterl fifenry'M., his libraiy, iviij
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Ilia tubliog.
Dhovlcamsiiiii .
hia MS., iji.
TSkSi
See Linguialics.
lii Atones ot ngai pompr
bVBiy, xxxiL
Didron, Ain^, AnnaUt Arckislo-
Di^^nl Baron, on hii Indian allies,
dSiIoh Roclt, held to be Phirnician,

J. 104; Rafn'i vi< ■ ■
various drails of iU i
aMoumof,.04;»'o'l:oft
104; of Iberians, 104;
icy c^ IJie saeae, 97.

DiiDDiOE, E, 0., 408.
Dinwiddle, Gov., oo the IndianB -,
allies, 306.
DioDne, N. E., 317.
Diodorus Sictdus, 14.
Doddjidgt, Jos., Settltm
Dodge, David, 147.

Dodge, I. R., kid Mai,
DodK, Wm. (Cincinnati),
DodSey.ytfjraget, juhlyI.
f&ifne, 163; on the Amer
Donaldson, Thomas, Gen, C.
Doncfcer, H., map of Gttenli
BDngan, Gov., 304.
Donis, hi! Plofemy map, 11
Dorman, R. M.. Pfimilhie Sufersf
DBrpêld, Metrêgie, 5.
Dorr, H.C., 317.
Dorsey, J. O., 4"S1 on the Omaha,

^317; . „
Doi«laM, A. E., J9J.
Dontnbfne, il»i&, i;o, iS;.
Dofle, BnîshlaAmerâ, 31;.
DrakB, Daniel, Catcaiiati, 398.
DnJH, K C, Vewges, nmvi.
Drake, Sir Fnnds, xxiiv, xxiv, mv
mvu ; 00 De Bry, luii ; on Claen
^ S., his deceptlYe India
Triies. 5SO, 44..

Diake, SamuerG.,
Aierig. Raae ef f/^. Ameria
iDraper, IitielUctual develofimertt 0/
Dtaudiiis, Btil. Ciaaica, i.

Dresden Codex, J04, 205 ; e
/. o/MirOand, 39S,
Donbar, W., on Ih
Dddq, Oscar, 60^
Dnry.Jolin, ,1!.
Dussleui, \.., Hist, de la L
Dwigh'l f TbaJ^F . ,Ti..°'"'
Earth, spherical theorj', i ; tbe an-
urei, 4; distribution of land and sea,
tiona respeclinn the unknown parts,

S L a BuppoKd aontbem coDtjnenl,
9 ; site supposed Id the Middle Aea,
30; rectangular map of, 30; ^he-
lidty tauEht in the Middle Aês, 31;
the word ''rotundas*' as apidied, 36 ;
Falhers,yi aSnowledêdbyothm,
lidty tauEfit in the Midffle Aês,

the word ''rotundas*' asapidied,^- ,
a'plaiiein Honier,39.°
Easier Island, 3r.
Easlnran, Mrs. Maiy, DaiOtah, 317,
EÛng, Professor, his likeness, iii;

hbtary, iu i his own books on Amer.
Ebn Siy^,"4;..
Ecuador, map, ioq. '
Eden, Richard, Detudesî^v. Hat.
Eden, Garden of, 372.
Edkins, J,,78-
Ediisi, Oe^rafky, 33, 48, î\ on
Edwards,' jona., on the lost tribes,
htkai,tnBhtdians,\\b\<IBêyi<.
began language, 413.

EfGgy mounds, 408.
Egede, Hans, in Greenland, 6g, 107
GrimlaHd. J07 ; (acs. of lis title, 108
;gede,''la"lf m G.e'^fi
Eggeii, H. P. von, Orx Grdnlande
■Ssferlrjfeds, loSl Ueêr die ûakre
tage des OtlgrSnlasdi, 108 ; on the
Egilsiaga, 88.
Eguiara y Egureii, BiM- Mex. 413.
America, 41 ; analogies in Mexico,

jSi ; built the mounts, 405.
Eiehllial, Gusuve de,on Fousai^, 801
Les trrigines Bffuddhiques delacivf-
Itrdim Lata^mgt, 423.

Eliot, Samuel, Earfy rtU
t/u Ixdiam. i2i.^^
Natiiei, 398.
Elliott, C. W.. NrvEngla
Elliolt.E. T.,301.
inclish colonists in I
tEeij treatment ol II
Engnmeiant aometimes made distinct
EnriqueL Hailin, tries to gather Mex-

ican relicB, 1 CI.
Ens, Gasper, fVest-atid-OsI Indiahtr

Ltalgart, naaii.
Eocene man, 387. ■
Equinoxes, precesHon oT, 3 87.
Eric Upsi, Bishop, 6s.
Eric the Red, his career, 61; saga,Sj,
Eiiiio, I.e Scaierte Arttcke, 127.

£iTlef,,Ed.,on1heZeui,ii4.
Escoina (Bolivia) ruins, ijo-
E^cudeto, Chihiii^ma, 39^,
Eskimos, their boats dtitt to Europe,

61! appear in GreenlandjfcS, 107; near
Behnng^s Straits, 78; described by
La Peytire, 86; known to the North.
men as Sktxlings, lo;; bibliog., 10;,
Lui.s', i'^™|?^™ne' implement'
l,sl mi^'oi^MmV .oS; DepS

on, 3jo; allied to lUe cave race of
Europe. 377, 3110 ; of the primitive
race of Amenta, 336, J67; their
Espana, M. de, Infemu, 183.
Espinosa, J. D., 417-
E^ Institute, ,38.
Estes, L. C, 409-
Estete, M. , 177-
Estienne, jean d', on Atlantis, 4s-
America, m, 115. '

Eten, J77-
Etenal Islands, 47.
Ethnographical collections, 411,
Elknalegiail Timrnal, 44!.
Ethnoh^cil Society, ymrnal, iiti-,
Etovi^ valley mounds, 410-

Ettwein, TraditioHS gf the Indiaru,
Etiel Anton von, Griniand, 107.
' Hififolyiits,
E«nvJohn,'.««c. Hme imfUmnb,
Evans, A. S,, Our Siitlr Rlfnilil,
Ejerflt, Alex. H., in Spain, ill; on
the Norse voyages, 94.

Everett, Edw., on the Norse voyages.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Evbank.T.., Rxi-Biri/irif, id;; /».
Eyibyggji Saga, 83.
FABBicms, Di>url. Cril., 37>-

Fabulnua islands, 46. Sre AtlatHii
Paidhetbe, Gen,, 15.

FaitfieM CchuiIt, Ohin, mounds, toS.
Falb, R., LandArliia', i?!-
Falconer, Hugh, Palctmial. a&mfirs.
PAMli. ...._. ,_,.

Fall River, " Skeleton in Annar "
found, loj.
Faneoun, C. G., Y-Hcatan. i3«.
Farcy, Di , v,i\ Anlif. dr PAuU-
Faria y Soosa, Hut, PortHgugva,
Farquharson, R j., 404-

fxnix, Famslits a/ Si^ck, 75
FaJ!7«-s"^'™"™'"'
Fay,S.L.,joj.
Fechner, CtxtralUiUI, 443.

Feôi, Qutntada, 1S3.
Ffjirvaty Csdex^ 205.
Fomands, Melchior, 370.
Fmer de Conio, JohS, iB ,(
Feudal sysl
m,Aii\ Human Raa^îi\ W,

hjbniht Delngi, 375, 411.
Finxus, Omntius. his map, xxiv.
Finlay, J. B., IVymdelti Mia.
Finley, E. B., 401.

Finlev, I. j;, Ron CotaOy, Okin, .
Finns build the mounds, 401.
Fiorin, Nk., hlsmaiHsS.
Fischir, AbM, edits Ramirei's C
logne, 414^ Bi&i. Mejicana, :
Fiacher,Theobald, edits On j;adiam:
Fiscber, Origim des Amirkab
Pish-weiis, 365.
Fishe, Moses, 371.
Fiake, Willard, Biilisf
Flat-heads, 415.
Jflatemuh Cedrx, 50.
Fleming, Abraham, Regain of Hys-
Flelcher, Alice C, iKdian EducatioH

and Cimliialun, jii ; her slndio
«n the Sioui, 317 i Omtha Triii,
Fielciwr, "Roît., Prtkisl, trtflUnmg,
Flint, Earl
,385,-.
n the Nica
nEcicd with Polynesia, 81.

FTores, I, J,. La liagua dtl Rtgne
Cakchigvel, 437.
Florida, calcareous conglomeiAtc, re-
F1^«''w''h.' 1^6; "''thJ^Mudy ol
FoDdoucc, c' de, Lts tnnfi frilm-
FgnSne, '^d^., Hmj ilu Wprldma

Ptoflld, J74; on the recent origin
Fonlpenuis, A.F. de, Ciaiariis, 116
FoolpnnIK in geological times, jSe ; cu
of one, 3««.
Forbes, D., 44a.
Forbigei, Haxdhuck dtr A lint Glilg.
4,36-
Force, M. F.. on Ihe ntnunds, 491.
Forged rdics made in 'Meiico. iSn.
FoFHemann, £d., edits the Driidin

Cedtx, 105 ; Dli Mxya Handsckrifl,
303 ; Dir M/tya Apfaral iti Dra.
h^nÂrifl.%,^™^''' '^^
Foreler, J. R.. Gisrhlckit dir- Enid,
and Sckigfakrltfi, mvi 1 Entdak-
Fon Charlres, last French Sag at, ji6.
Fossey, M., Li MIxtqm. i3o, 184.
fSmmI J.w!| Pr!kistsrii\i^,!, 401,

413; on the moundbuildeTs, 401,
^; ^vilh WhitneyJ, Giolssr of
Foot Wolfts'^tloe of, .1.
Foii,Luke,onthe2em,ii..
Fra^B, ColKcioa at *'J'^ ii.
Framplon, John, trantlales Monardes,
France, archieolcsical cfiorts in. 441 ;

Conji^ archioic^que, 4,1 1 SocWt*
Anii„g,, it**^Rnmt''^^'ic^^\
Franci'scans in MmIco, 1.4,

Fiinasoos, E. , Ort- «nd WtslJndi-
FtancwuKTM^"' i7>a/j Batqtu,
0. P,, Indies de I'eraFua, its.

lin, B., his papers In MeBiy
Hans, 38,,
English,
h^'l^«'°
fur trade, 3i4-

Fresnoy, Lenglet du, MUkedi, xniL
Frdnlle. Cesmoe, du Me/tn Agt, 38,
76 i Commtrci dt Roiuh, 76.
Freaer.A.'F., Vsyait, 343, 171.
7j;intheZeno map, 1141 diifeient

idcDtilications, 114,115; in Stepha-
Fmhish'er, Dîv; and tlie^dnd of
Froebcl, "«wi Yean' Travel, 410.

Try,}, a.. Army Saer(/ices,3Vi. .
Fuenleal, Bishop, ijj,
Fuenealida, Luis de, le^.
Fuenles y Guiman f. A. de, GkoO.
main, idj, jg6; Recordaciffn Fieri-
„._ea|Cadl.), .3, J4,
Gatfarel, l-aul, L'Ailaniide,xli; Let

isles faniasliques, ]t, ^^\ SeliiiuHa
enire Pane, tncnde el rAmMaae,
i%,bo; Elude tur let rapferli it
Raffurls de I'A llanlis, 44, 46 [ tit

later studies of 11,44,46; blbliog. of
Atlantis, 46 ; yeyages dt Si. Bran-
dan. 4S; his map IJac-iimik\ of
the Atlantic islands, 59; on the Arab
voyages, 73; on Vinland, 97; on the
Newport mill, .0=! on the Zeno
lalapagos, 3i.
^le, G., Upper Mississipfi, 317; hi>

annotations on Laphajn*s A ittig- if/
Hîjcottiin, 408.
Galibi, 438.
Galida, F. C, 171.
Gallindo, j., 191.
Gallxus, Ph., Eruldridien, xtg; nap,
Gallalin, 'a1^, on Polyneiuan con-

on pre- Spanish migrations, laS; on
Iheôlteci, 141 f Nells eK llusemi.
eiviliitd mtliens ef Miiiie, 169,
494 ; Sytapsii aflhe Indian Triiii,
310; his map uE Ibe Indian tribet,
311 ; a Kudent of ethnology, .7*1
on the puehloa, yfi\ on Americin
HaWsworkon %'^^'kes"E!iped„
434; on Teoyaomjqui, 435; founda
Ihe American Ethnologic^ Sodety,
437; coinnienda the work of Squier
^lloway, W,^ SeiencemndGeeler)',
inte, Pedro de, 156; Ckrenica Cem-
ircia y Cubas, Ensaye, 41 ; Allasde

•a Repuilica Me/ieaim, 139; Ptri-
■Hosted by VjOOQIC
Gardtn'beds,'
G^Xr, J. S
o''na'^tQnRKlt, ,03,
, EiKtms 0/ Bnglamd,
Goldsmidl, Edm
Gmnml, G. L^,
GontaJvMdeMa
IIS voyage,
raCorrfa./
G^«.Ju]«,
G^^^^Pad
0,4,4,
Ka.„^ r^„. ™
, od Ihe N
Ganinett. Jjan, 167.
e, Juan, 167.
A. R., Hist, di Cepaiaiam
Gay, Sydney H., on Ihe Norse voyage
Gebelin, Counl, 104 ; Monde trim
Geieer, laârus, Divdopm,Hl rf tk
Gemmus, lsa£ogr, 7! J
GendtOD, Pars As ^«rv

Genesis, a record of thi
Gtograpki C^^c.
Gec^rsphical Society o
438. .
Geology a
Gi^ W
Germany, archjeok^ca!
oier abridees Sano, 92,
their bones jUved* lo be niailfr

s. 133 ; the Toltecs, 141-
LumrKi,*!^', Chinook jargon.
-a/^/j, 333,
:i. Colhlliom, ill.
c. men qf th4 great
rks at IsU Soyalt,
(jila Valley, 39 J.
Gilberl, J. K^.JViii
^'he.34J,3
Glacial Eravi
Gladiatorial
Gladstone, 1
Gleeion, Ca^'chk. '^^'cSi/omia
offion, Geo. R. Sit Nott, J. C.

Giorias del ugundo siglo dt ia com
Goodrich.
GwxUon,
Enjtland, 417,
Gosse, L. A., bifornmtions A, erane,
GosMlin, P. F. J., Giog. flti Gn-

36 ; Rcchercits air la gioir., 36 ; /
del'lKfan, 46 ; on Alianlia, 46.
^ . a, J. L...
Goll.ngeii, AQthropol. Verein,
G0I7, Dmdmo' BiilielAti, zde
Goupil, Ren*, 313.
Go»ans, Wm., bookseller, vij

GraalC W. A., )ieae till osll^slin of
Granados y Galvez, J, f-^V^'d
It, E. M., .
, L. P., 177. 37,.
reek mound, 403 ; alleged
;k allied to the Maya, 417.
Green, John, iiiv.

Green, Dr. S. A„ loi.
" )ck (in Ibe Atlantic), s'.
, Albert a. his books, idii.
Greenland, in the Ptolemy of 14S2,
re,.6q itsôi'lore' 61: ?fê

its in etghth cenluTy,6i \ churdies
'- - " ■aiidWeslByp!,63,
aSSn
as) aiid West Bygd,

JCtopation, 68; Wsh
; by Rafn, 109; by Ciau

.YUs, .17, iig; by Fra Ma
i by Eehaim, lao ; by Sylva

; by Waldsecmuller, lai;
lan, iia; by Frisius, i»;
■r.a"X'"BoX"5z6^''b'"
lio, 116; by Gallalis,' i'»f
IS of Greenland in Colum
t^ outers, lag; «s
H. Donclte,, jsii b
1 ; De la Martmiê
j'^feye'r'
Gregory IV., his bull, 61.

Grenvilie, Thoi., BiU. Grew.
GrilEs, W. E., Armt van
oS»
Joan de, 0,
the
Me.i«in
Giinini'i
^2;4";:"
Grinlind
a. ^-^Gree
Griswold
Abnon W.,
<i. li
rarj.riii.
Grodaod
ageographi
pprehen-
sion, I
•;,"K.-&
Sj.
Grts, Su
rUiMonum
nil lU Mixics.
Grosana
n, F. K, 397
Grote, A
R., 369;
the
Eskimos.
Grotiila,
lug^ on Sc
ndina
Gnanch^rin the cJnanes, 15. "6, 377.
Giiarini langtiaee, 17%.
Gtialeniala, linguislic evidence _oi
■ 3Si 150; the ethnological con-
ii™ sou4e^"?M'" pT^^'vIX',

.; Metnorialde Ttcian Atillan.
Jucnmati. 135.43
Sndmnnd, Jonas
navigaiims drs dim
d, Oiog. iPASul-Fada, 4
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Gunnbiord, hia voya^, Ar ; his I
GuDlliei, SiegmuDd, Hyfalhiu,
Gurnet Held, lu.
:. on the a
mdbuili
Habe'l, s!, on scuLpnirei id Guau-
HMckeC^lii. pfCrmlmt, J7S; J*'a-
Hakluyt, Richai?, ediU PeUr Mutyr,
Vojiagei, xiii ; Primtfall Ifatii-
llwZem,""' " ' '"'' °°
HikEufl Sm. pc^licalions, nxv!!, 443.

Haldeman, S. S., 4371 discovers mdt
inl>enna,,ii6,''
HaJe, Cspt. Chas. R., on the Dighton
Hale, E. E., DD the Madoc voyage,
Hale, Horatio, Irogueli Boell ef
H^', Ns'lhanfjaa'
HaliburtoD, R, G.,
age, 63; on the N.
Han, Jacob, 107.
Hall, James. /-•'■■—
Mail, Joshua,
Hi
Oil
. TrUts, jio.
"l^Zia, 75.
npsiUd, G. S.' B., PerlsHumtk,
rs,
HaDDo, on Ihe coasi of AMca, ij ;
/■mjtftu.jc his voyage, 45.

Hanson, Gardiner, Mt., jii ; NsT-
HBiralTmjflmu, 320.
Hardiman, Irish minilrtlry, ^.
Hardin Co., Ohio, mounds, 4^.
Haidy, Midiel, Lis Sia«dhmj»i, 97.
Hanis, G, H,', Znaif dtntuc Cautil^,
nims, John, yotaga, niiv,

HartiE, X M., on the mounds, 39a;
Ha^nrCen. W. H., on the monnda,
Hairison, Jirkn Howard Paynt, J16.

Harrisee, Heniy, Biil.-Am. Krf., v.
early Basque voyages to Amenca, 7 j.

Hangers, Joosl, yajiagits, jx-ai.
Harvard College libtiiy, rich hi Ame-

ricana, iil; S^ks MSS. in,vii; its
catalogue, xvii,
Hassaunk, F., Sfaniih Amtricaia,
Hassier, Buchdnuktrgtickiclitt Ulna,

Hatfield, R. G., on the Newport mill,
Haumontj, J, D,,£aZ,aivw Tatiaa,
HiJIrd, V 323,
Haven, S. P., on the Northmen, 06:

portrait, 374 ; hil X(/or!., 374 ; Rs
career, 376; Ar^ttaelogy of the
ham Y ««r- ^ ^™^^

Haven, *S. F., jr., bibliography, „
Hawkins, Ben]., Crah CsHHlry,^,
nitkins, Viâf- novL
Hayden, F, V,, EtlaKgrafhy atid
PhiMag) s/thi MissBm-i ValUy,
42 4 : Sttrvey cf tht terrttorieit 440 i
)g the cliff houses, 39s.
,1, 1., Zos^ Bf DiseialiM,tti,
Haynes, H. W.,on mnic frau

on Vlnland, 98 1 on the Mo
in inleiglacial man, 355; at Solutri,

357; oo the En^. trans. ofGrotins,
370; on the Trenton implements,
388; Cepfer imfUmtntl, 418 J on
5?j^.i^;A^n
?e
««
SSS,"i,!i.to
39a, v-
Heaviside, J, T. C„
Hecatieus, 31-
,onD
I^laware Ian
Htinuhringlat 83.
Heller,C.B.,onUin»l, iSg; Stinn
1S9-
Helluland,63, I10-
Hellwald, F. von, on Amer. migra
NaivrîEhickte de~
Arthur,
r. dt Caxlairia,
., Tht SrûSic ej
JI/enic^M, 4*1
!eli;,'*Si^
Enxliah
lenai, G. de, ^
tendetson, Ebe'
[enderson, Geo.
[enmhe^sm,430.
Eeniy, Alex. , Trat^, }iS ; mentions
" T. Joseph, i39i on Lake Supe-

iiSirM! ^V,', on the mounds,
ert, Sir Thomas, Travaili inlii

tiixe'r, ^, AliutK di Mills, igj.
ulu'lwelve labors, II.
Heredn, J. M. de, ed. Betnal IMai,
, J. d', yaw-™/, J7,.

Herjuifson, Bjani, his voyane, 6j.
Hermes, K. H., Enldtchune vm
Caiwg9 d* la4
i, ThtBgB'
-n thfBysi
Heynig, P^ch^tgiiches MafniK,
Hidatsa language, 425-

HLerc^lyphjck, invented^ rja; of Yo
Charencey, 195 ; used t^ Spaniards

not easily read even by natives, joB ',
tin. Nullali's rnmnlfm.nlj} .!«,..
198; phon.
s Alphab
.uês, 19S i 01
3rly descrip
leral refer-
n 0^ the
.; CBdix Ptmia^m.
H^gginson, Waldo, Mimcriidi .

P^W 'SjJ, H- C.f 439.
Hlfdebnind, h1 B. h">i'w, 85.*°
Hildreth,'RichtrS',on the Notthme
ilipidii^'
Hlpparcbus, 34: on (he form of the

//iifiatsicarutn reritm Scr^terta,
Historical tociedes, thdr libraries,
Hobb^ James, Ifild Uf,, 317.
Hoefshin, 78
Hoffman, W.
Holden, Edw
noLueu, iTiiH. n- M., on Atlands- 45.

Hole.the Norse Holi, 99.
Holguin, D. G., his grainmar, 179.
Holm, Uem., on the Greenhuid ruins,
^ gild in Chiriî, î%\ b

ttr^ln'the'Mi^sl'ppl Val
Homer, Arthur, b£i?a1w:,

Homer,hi>>Worid,6! bjside
earth, jS; hii geography, 31
Honduras Indiaas, 169.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
4S6
Hooker, J. D.,Sw^nj.p/^ Vsyari
Hoijluog, A- G,. 3J3.
Hîns, Samud, HinaaliBmui lib
HoreIord,i;. ii.. Dill.
Hospiialiiv. lawsnf, 17
Holchkias, T. P., 409,
Honen, J. C
Hough, F, I
« American abori^nei
Howell, G. R., oii MunMllîv.
Howgate polar unied., 106.

HowEind.'H. R.,^.'
Howley, M. F., iccles. HiH. j\
/owiaLwid.^.
- "^[T^f' "■ "■■ '''"* ''™*'
Ntrllamn. 61 ; Mhmmelh and
FlaidyU, 381; 00 Genesis jSt

Hoy, P. R,, ,oa ; Coffer nuplcm
hS
Huac^chi
HoalU,
Epaphss,
™| on the Eskimo., ,05; on the
.38 !' oi'jh™ 'n,i.™w™^™3^;
on Canen, 13S: 6iiya some part of

Ihe ruins of Middie Am'erica, i7« '1 on
Iht Cholula mound, iSo; ou Mills,
184! desmbes Aiiec MSS.,ao3 I on
America, j™; fj«i de dirdiUh-ts,

a7>,)7'; Eng. iransl., 171 1 yiâgt
ikhin, dtr ^t^r%,i '' AsficU %

JValurt, itt; I'imtif/Valurt,i7i;
on Ihe Chibchas, 281 ; on the origin
ol Meiicana, J71 ; his hibli((g. in hia
Hlr'bold™?^" '''^*^' ■*"*■ ' . .'
Humphrey and Abbott, Piri

MissaA/fi ValU)r, jgj.
Huron River, Ohio, mounds
HolchiilBon.Thoa' hi"^Sr
Hutchinson, T.J,, on Peiuvi
tiei withlSe'lngu'Bh,
; altem^s to chris-
fiUlaiies aiaut Ike
17! allies of the Chancas,
H"K?d. B.
,'a{m. s/halfaniuri/,
jnneclBd wiih the G
Huehufr-Tlapallan, 136, 137.
Huiliillopochlli, 148, '431, 435.
Hulsivg, biblLDf., xii,
Kulluh, Mslrolefii, 4, 5.
Human sactifices, 140, mS, "47, 148,
■8s ; ID Peni, aj?, 138 ! in Itfeiico,

Hmnboldt, Alei.ôn, his libiary.rf;
Utltrmchungni, vi ; Giag. 'du rm^
diicovcTT, 96 ; on tl
?JK,
.. / G., on Ind
■ii; Dcy Fray Zui^.
blblicleca) de Eguiara 'y dt Bt>

lain, 4,3; Col. dt im-Uor,!
lenruas indlgenas, 414; BW. Am.
d^Sis/f jBi., ijj, 414, 416;
:cehnd, visited by King Arthur, I

by Itjsh, 60, 82i by Ifie Norse, (
biblir^., St: millennial celebntii
Ss; books printed in, ,3.94: A„l
^™«-,, 44 i map, by Rafn. 93;
in map u',M, iii HS M'irtelli

map, i:^ ; Ofaus Mannua, ij,, ,;
i2S; Eeb, Miinster,i26; Zeno ma
1:7,128; byGallxus, ,19.
ceCandic Iâs. . See Saga-
dols still preserved in Mexico, igo.
gh, 134-
tgeiao vaffonte, xxxiv.
Ingeraoll, Emesi, 440;
amns, 306 ; on Indian mi

Ingolf in Iceland, 61.
India, supposed westerly route 10, 17.

Indian languages. Sin Lingliistia.
Indians, variety of completion amone

■ 11, JTOi Mbrgau on their Houm!
and English, 383 ; ibeir feudi, 284 j
roquoia, held to b
Wn,. Johoson br
lands to the English in 1726, 3141

sacriiice of the wlÎe dog, 31, : build
the monnds in New York, 402, 105;
Isla Verde, 11, 47, .,.

Islands of tlie BJesI, 13
llzcohuall, .03.
llttiLSîtFîlrV. 146.
I»lliliiochili(«riterl, 1481 branningoi
Hosted by VjOOQIC
JacksoiilCT., Gee/. Rrfort.^ti,

sckaon, Jas., LiiU dt hiiliog. gtag.,
jMksoo'i W, H., among the cUa dwell-
nelacra^ sf tf. Am. Iiiinns,
Jacoba-BeeckmaiiSt L ts Ugs A iiatUiqut,
acobs. Prayi-ng Indiani, 311.

acquet Island. 53,
ikriUeArryHr A nlhrafslaiU, 443.

Japan 'discovered, 52 ; held lo bs Fu-
Jarvis, S. F., jS. ; Rtligiox •>/ lla IiP-
ian, K., oD tlw Homeric islands, 40.

auKil, irans. of £A-i»; 4S.
ly, John, carty navigilor, 50.
eBenon, Thos., hia anlhropokîcal
3g3i DO Amer- liiurinsdca, 434: his

MSS. burned, 414; Nolan Vx-A.
Jeffreys, FrtKch Dominion, 31b.
jeremiai, Dii Saiylari.-Ass)r, Var-
Jesiriunnnr RttatisHs aa a source of

Indiaa hi&tDry^ 3i6{ Ihejr biblio}?.,
Jeirf^^f- K., jiurnil at Nmll^
Jim^nes de la Espada, Mircos, Bib-

tioteca Hii^nf-nitrantariHtt, t6o;
edia SantilJan, 361 ; edld Monle-
unos, 163 ; Bdiig the Rclatan ol the
Anonymous Jesuit, 163 ; CoTtahf
dt lana Eipallalti rams, z6i : Trts
Rtlatima, 263 ; edits Salcamayhua,
366 ; edits Ihe tnfyrmaci0m, for
taandadsib Dan P. di ToUdu, 16a ;
Joliannes, Count. .r„Jon

lobnson, Elias, SLt Nûr,
Johnson, G. H. M., jij.
Jolibois^ AbM, o
/Hdiam, 344 i on the mailing of

airow-heads, 417 ; on the Georeia
mounds, 410; on rock inscriptions,
Jones, David, Twir vUiU, no. 116,
393.
Jones, Geo, Or!g. HiM. 1/ A«cunl
Jorell, bttoi NoKirts da Nard, 6j
Joordain, A..' Tradialiamd'Arin
Joutdain, Ch., Infiutnct d-Ariit
37. 3»-
ywâ/ n/ AmricoK Folk Ltrt.
438.
Journal of A nikropelogi
\^T^,'oidCmlôlt
lattmiila, 16
Jubinat, Ligtndt! di S
K*B*H, 188, 100.
Kabih^Zayi, i36.
KihortoiE, 86, S3.
Kalbfleiech, t. H., his librarr, xvU:
Kain, Peler, on the Norse voysg

91 i TroMh, 315 i on the moun
jsSi on the Eorniation of soil, 361
Karnes, Loid, Hisl. nf Max, 3*0.
Kan-ay-iio, 304.
Kane, Paul, Wandtrinri, 311.
Kansas Academy of Screes, 438.
KaKtm Civ Rniirm. 439,
Keane, A. B..,%^l, ^lo\ EOuwlog)

Keaiy, C F., iasik xf History, 4
Kennedy, Jan.
Kf^Sy,"/* .
rllung dir Erdi.w,
r, Robert, yoyages, ixitvi

— .port, N. Jersey, 363, 303.
Keyser, J. ft.. Prhiiritf. 0/ /**
■ • Northmin, 85 i RtUgunt cf l/u
r.K.., Norgis/fiU.,^.
Moo, 1S7.
, Bnnron's spelling of Qqiehi,
.inesborough, Edward, Lord, hii he<

lief in the lost-Iribe theory, 11&;
ace. of, 1113; his MSS. in Rich's
hands, 103; In Sir Thomas Phil-
ipps% ao3 ; Avtiq. of Mexico, 193 ;
coiHes,30}{EndsnoHSS.in Span,
Klee, Lt Dilugt, 390,
Klemin, AUgim. CuUurgisch. dtr
MiHicUtil, 377, 4j,- AUgim.
CtdOmviisrHicAafi, 377.
Kneeland, Samuei, A«ior. w iciiaiu/,
3j ; on Ihe skeleton in armor, lot,

Kneip, C H., iii,
Knlghl, Mts. a. a., 4;.
Kno., Robert. RaciiofMiK, 369.
Koch uid the Missouri mastodon.
3B8.
Kohl, J.G.,onIheNort
^Jldi^H^Zt
La HaTpe, Voyagts, ucxyi.
La Molhe Cadillac at Detroit, 303.
La Peyi^re, map of Greenland, itii
RclalisH du Grotnland, 131.

LaRoquelteon Ihe Zeni, ita.
La Salfe and the Indians, 318.
Labarthe, Charles, L<t civUiiation
fh-uviinat, 175: Doc. inidili mr
tEfHfinJHinait.iji.
Labat, Nomtau Vofagt, 117,
Lacerda, Jos^ de, Dmdor Livingaom,
.afieri, Geografia, t.
|Sna" <Si. Tek, 184.
ing. ki.,aiim!lHingIa, 91 ; on the
LakfBomevflle, 3*7.
''.akeLahontaii,347.
,ake Superior, copper mines, 4t7.
.iniarck. J, D. A., his transfonnaiion
theory, 383 i PiUoiofkii Zool.,
383.
.anda, Bishop, Relacien, 164, loo;

edited by Brasseur, <<n,; by Rada y
Delpido, t6}i ctllicsl account ol
editions by Brinion, i6j ; hii alpha-
bet. 198; Ita. of part of it, 1^;
exists only in a copy, iqS; pn^
nounced 1 labricatioii, loa. ani
hlsdStruction''J('MSS.*, io^' *"■
Hosted by Google
INDEX.
Laigl J.' t.. 'P<^r<<'sian KalioKl, 8j.
Lsngdon. F, W.,4oS. ■
LaDgebek, Jacobu», Seriiltrrti rtntm
Laogiuj, Mid. £fisl. MUc, 41.

Lii^n du FtnnoT, MfUisdi. i.
Ijnguago. as a lesl ot race, ui, 413;
faDed in the ipaljiolith^c man, 431.
Laoiigtabe(i4S6}, 119; cul,s6.

Lapham, 1. A., onlhe Indiana of Wis.
Lariei and Ch
c-r. 389- ,
laa Casas, JVji
Lalhain, Nat,
I, St/is. AgailaKi-
L'>U!mmtfiisiili, 383.
Lalrobe, C J., RambUt in Mkxi
Laud, Archbp., 205.

Laurebtiaji hills, 3S4.
Lawenaiaiw-Gaddiano ponolano, 5<
Law, A. E., 1ID.
L'EnraDEc, Sir H,, Atmricani
Le Beau, yayagt, "■

Le Hon, H., 7<»t
miffua, 38/; /'.. .
Le Moyne, Florida. xi
L« 'Swc OD tbe Dnidin Cedix, m;.

LeP]aiiE«in,Di.,onAllantis,44; on
the coniiectiDn of the Maya and
Gi^nchîûcatu?ii7| his°stud-
i«i in Yualan, 166, 186 ; liii discor-
Sacnd Mirstti^s, iso,'i8jV^»
vEisfes, 18?; ai Chichm-ina, 187,

100 : on the Maya locigiie, 43T.
Le Plangeon. Mis. Alice, bit MiiSrt
iie-ri 0/ tht Mayas, 1S7 ; Htrt and

fhtrt in Y-ncalan, 187-
Leatdd. Giovanni, map (M4S), s6(
L^î;;B;.fi;^..«^„™,,vi,
Leclercq, Gasthii, jii.
Leconle, J. L., on Se California In-
Leffler.O. P., 8j.

LegendjeH Napoieof
rwiM, 369.
Legis-Gluecksi
Legrand d'Au:
Lfil^niti. Ofrrapkib^
^femenainYaiiisS
m, his career. 6a; his voy-

age to Vinland, 6] i, detctibed, 9a j
Leipiillr MnMum' ftir VHlterkunde,

Bi^-ickl. 443 ; Vrrein/lir AnlAr^
Lelan^h. &., Califiitaia aid Mir-

KB in lit Ft/I. Cinl., 80; Fusang,
So; ^yHUtsgy t^f !h* Alônguim,
«; AJgônqvin lefftnds, 91
the Norse spirit in AlgoDq<
Lelewel, on the Arab voya.

Frisianda, 114.
Le™rLeM^''°3a5, *M.
Lenoir, A., on Egyptian
Lenoi,Tas., his library, >i;

riowby Stevens, xi; his
Uon y Kndo, EfUnmt, i.
ândât
his independ
t,Lc!pafynisU
Letheinan on the NavajoB, 327.
on the' views of the atension' ;
Pirti'il' ""°" '"™^'

Lennus prioled with Martyr, loiii.
L^-Bing on the Grave Creek moun
Lewis, 'S^G*0. C, Aslren. 0/ It
Ancicnl!,36.
Lewis, H. C„ G/nl. Survtya/Prntia
Lewis, T. H., on Ihe mour^, 4^ 40:
'?n^ll
Lennffton, Ky.
Li Yan Tcheou
Librai ■ ■
lj||>rarie3, American, \ \ m ftew Eng-
land, i ; private, of Americaiia, vL
LiS^n relic in America, 40+

Lick Creek mound. 408.
Lindenon, G., voyage lo Greenland,
Liniû, American, bibliof. of, vii,

411,413; affiliations with Ada, 77;
with China, 81; used in studying
of America, by langua^s, 4IZ ; poly-
Little, Wm.
Little Palls,
Little Mian
Uverintite, Geo., on »
U^^ B,, i6j.

Liung, E. P., Disiirlat
Lia™ Adoflo,'i^B^
Lloyd. Humphrey, Can
Lloyd, H. E., io3.
Lloyd, T.G.B., 321.
LocE^'Caleb, Hltt. dt .
Locked Joh
?J.s.5
Longpeiier. A. de, ôlicf

mmi'j, 44,; SrfnsiiA„
Loo-choo Jânds,8o.,
Lorente, S., ftisl. Axlig. del Piru,

V^,^'R^la'dcLlma,2jl"^
LOW, Conrad, Miir Bm)
gist, 379; portrait. 379; Prtkislffric
Blogy, 379 ; on the degeneracy of tiie

sarage, 381: Earlji CondUian nf
Man, 38. i Scientmc Lecl^!. 387 ;
on prebislonc archeology, 412-
Luey-Fossarien, P. it, Ean<i£TaphU
Ludewig, Hermann E,, ^mv. ilea!

Niitery, V', Amer. Aborig. Lin-
\aHguagl, ™, 423.
Lumnius, jT F., is hxirimo Dei fa-
Lunatejo, l)r„
builders, 402.
Lykins,W.H. R.,.
Maciana library (Venice),.!.

Mackenna, B. V., his books, liii.
Maclean, j. P., on Atlantis, 45; Matr
n the Grave Creek
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Counly, «a8.
Uadovius, Bishop of Aleth, 43.
Macomb, J. N., Ex^hring Exftd.
IX Ss<-<
Madura, 48; known to the ancieola;
Madier de I^Dntiaii,' Ctirmsl. kUrar.,

\n\ on Meikzan HSS., 163;
ChroKil. da rsit Attifuts, 100.
Madison, Bishop J., on the mouTids^
MiM^nviUe, Ohio, Aichmiog. Sac.,
Madoc, Princs) his vdjagc, 71; Ub-
ofÎhe°'W'eT^"in' America, 7^'

English eageroess to substantiate
his voyace, 1091 some believe he
went to Spain.iii; his people are
the Mandans, 111 ; pas^ble, bul nol
probable, ..i.
MadHga, F. de, 171 \ v<rfi%t to Peru,
Maeld^^J^H, ™.**'
Mag Men, ,2.
Masazm JSir die Natm-suchickte dti
M^Xn,'^!?^; ixxir, «xv, „xvi,
Macro, Anl
L9, 'Olaus, Hill, c/ Ikr Galhi,
aSen 'Ooiiliyinick, 115.

MagnuKn, Finnj 36, 96^ on Scand-
MagQussen, Aroe. Sg. '
Magnirin, 33.
Manudei nn atone implements, 3S7.
Maillui9','iibl°Wit<"<'<fH' ^"fx^rr,
Mune Indians, 3aa; Indian missiims,
,2S I shell hey,!, 392.

Maisonneuve, AW. Amtr., xiv, xrii
Uijor, R. H., on Ibe Atlantic ialands,

47 > on Aiab voyages in the Atlan-
tii:, ;:: on the Northmen, 96; an
the utes of the Greenland colonies,
Mak,™;! '"■_
Malay st'S^^(£neriga!Ti!°8i. '
Mallei, F, H; Daimmtari, 91 ;
Hsrûrn Aiitiff.,Si, 92,

Malte-Bnm, Aniala dis Voyages,
bihliog., 363; plural-

n ; st^:^ of prehis-
Dls oi ojamon jSj;
..„ ___ in the Indian Ocean,
383; his geolrîcal lemotenesi in

Europe, 130, 3B4; references on big
■miquitrln Anuiica, 3S4 ; in the Gla-
cial age, 387 ; eiislence with eitinct
American race, 429 ; the thoughts of

early man, 419. See Anthtopology-
ilarana, J. I
iarfa;, tie.
hlcimverte! Ji r Ami-
Lei ane. feiif Ici d'A mi-
erre, CtitHBg. & Mtise,
319; (wilhG. B. McClellan) £.Â<-

ralian sf the Red Riser, 337, 440.
Maipy, Pierre, Mhtinres, 301, 317.
Mancheels, 311.
Marietta, mounds, plan of, by

nelH, G., Erdi<
ol the
dinkir-
\ edits Saieamayhui,
..~^^„~d Lima.iii; Travels
rait, "273; on'Ti"hi/an^,'Uj|

«lilorial woA, 174 ; on the Qui-
1 lannuige, a8o{ Otlanta, aSr ;
r 10 Mitre. aSi; Ocean High-
J. «i; Geeg. Review, 44a;
occhi, F. C, fiaei'i m>ii|
ManhTceo. P.,S4,4M.
Marsh, O.C.nn the êwl
40S.
Marshall, O. H., /fist.
Marten, y^yage to Grveitland, xjui¥,

Martha's Vineyard, tia<u on the con-
TCisionof the Induns,]ii.

Martin, F«i«, /^■mu ./ Iragvit,
31. ; Jigî, 313-

Martin, Gabnel, ixiii.
Martin, Henri, Diturtatlm tmr
rAlLmlide, 46; rimii di flatam,
Martin, Luis, 1S4.
Martm, T. H., hisastron, papers, jfi;

Cctmog- Grecgiu, 39 ; Sur te Timitf
Martin of Valencia, 156.
Martinet, J., Quichua vacabulaiy, 179.
ytyagts, 13J.
Martini, t. t. von, Sfnulunihinde
AmerHBoSf 41ft; Gaiiaria, 4aft{
raacher, m; by Heidenhtiiii
Die SMffung, hi ) Poemal
De Nvptr nii D. CbtcIb >
ffrbe ntrvot xxi ; ExtrsH eu /
io, xxiii; Eden's Decades, sciiii

iVllles' Hist, of Tratiayit. udii;
idited by Hakluyl, xxiii ; by Lok,
□dii; OfKs EfiiUIamm, aav;
m the £tbioiHan origin of the tribes
,1 Yucatan, 117! desctibet the
mason, iMo. 1,., on the Newport mm,

103; Rem. o/Kiwiort, loj.
Mason, O. T., on the mounds, 491;

bibliog, of anthrapologv, 411 ; on
anthr^>ology in the Urs., 4ri ; bis
anthropoU^. papers, 439.
, Libra^Ct
Massacbusel
Matsachusit
Massilia foul
Mastodon, c
Mather, Cotton, on Dighton Roclt,

■oj, 104; WonderM'KoTksefGed,
104; on Jews in êw England, .rji
Mather, Saml.,
Mathenhtheii'ltt
Maurer, Kontid, Attnerd. Stracfie,
84; Isla«d, is: IslindiKke Volks-
srtgen, Sj \ on the Zeoi, 113 ; Rec^-
gesck. drs Nardnis, 85.
of northern parta, 110,

Maury, KSreA, 374,
Mavor, Vfyttges, xxxvi.
Maxiniilian, Emperor of Meiico, his
library, yiiL
Maiimilian,Fiince,JC<itr,9i9; Tmr-
Maya d'Ahkuil-Chel, 4i«.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
4do
K«unea, 151; cafcildar, is"i "n""-

Pofid Vnh, thdr sacred book, 166 ;
thdr last pnebJo, t^l\ pictnre-wrii.
ing, 197; meLals amoi^) 41S; lao-
gnages off 427^ dialects, 417; allied
10 the Greek. 437; eenetal refer-
anns, 417; nlôD A, 43]; heto-
a^ffi^^^k, on Florida shell
Mayda, 11M7. S'. 5J-
Mayer, Bianti.on bparks, vii ; Miika,
Majlieivi, the Indian missionaries,
MaE«ei»,i36.
HcAdams, W., 409; Anc. Rati! in

at Missiaifpi ValUy, ,01
McCaul, JohTi,'«9.
McCfaaiies, A., 410.
McClellan, G. B., 440.
Mcaintock and SlrongTs Cycls li

lit., 384.
McClure and Parah, Mtm. „f hi
McCulfoh, James H.. Ris!ST hi im

America, .6<,. 37J; on Ihe m unds
McÛough, John, c^live to th I
McElmo caBon, jos.
McFailand, R. W., 40S.
McGee,W. J., 377; on glacial man,

jysjjjf on AeCoL,„nMa period,
343 ; his lacustrine cKploratioiifl,349;
Mc^nney,
h jMn« 'll^) Jn.
riagt, 380 i StttdUi

McMaiter, S. Y.,ui,
Megiaer, H., Stfl.
FoTHt aftki eccipat, 37

Meiiwke, A„ ed. Sirabo. ,
Mela, Pomponius, his vie
Melgai, E. S. de. 179.

Hekar, I. M., Di ha Tint
In mantacriUa Mtxiâns.
Melgar, Seaor, ii«.
He^nh, 14.
lin^SiCni
Meneodez, Gteg. del Prm.ia.

Mengarini, O. , FlatJaaJ Grann
-, his libniry and caTa*
Mercei.H. 6.,4°;.
MereSdf, a Welsh'bard', .00.

Merian, M.,iiii.
Meridian^ the first, where placed by
Meri\SeTc, îwi-«-h™ ^lii No
ISO de, z6o; Amtln dil

™g the early Americans,'
ink;
°;e;
r - Oco , J. R., =79.
CO IryJ, linguistics of
h d be Fousang. 79, 3o, Si ,
es in languages with Chi-
A aiic origin, Teieretices on,

bscurilies of its pre-Spanisb
olo^, .jj; IheToltecs
n rs Ijj; the courts and the
« B in English! 169'! Ar-

chivis de In Com. Scicii. du Mlx-
iq«e, 370; elhnolo^ of, 171; char-
acter of its ciTilizalion, 173, ij6i the
coTkEedcracy, 173; diverse vjews of
aces, i7(, 176 :' notes oii the tuli^

i;6i astronom; in, i;Fg; idols still
preserved, 1S0 ; superalilions for wiil-
uigs, iSo; origin of the peqile, 375 ;
copper, UBE of, 41&; variety of tongues
in, 436 ; culture, 3:9, 330. Sic Tol-
tecs, tJahuas, Anahuac, Aztecs, Chi
eiiCDlcily), founded. 133, 144; Cla
aUy
sinking.
IWrrdiiiistiii
the
»U. .1
a; BandeKer'5
xif
riptions
tsf'tomî'l^
nearthed, i3i \
of<v
"15
HeJnri
.96,19
i'.li/^ W
Meyer
A, B.,
Meyer
J., ma
of Greenland,
ijBi Gailalin'a'new', 13S; Inbliog.!
Miller, J., Mw'Ki, 327-
Miller, W.J„ Wnw/a/rM^^j, ,03.
m.qu...™, 10..
MtrrfT i/Lilc
Mi4on?<êa
asouri River, lacustrine age 348.

tchell, S. L., on the A^tic ori^n
^forthment joa.
lcliell,A.,4io,
ichell, W. S., on Atlantis, 44-
tchener, C H., Okie An-mis, 407.
.re| Q^. a, 'oUmlayîfu'.
itecs, 136; subiugated, 149.
jljochica language, 117, 175. 276.
Mo^nks put English anni on their
casdea, 304,.334- .
Mohegan Indians, Iheir language, 4^3'
Moke, H.T., îrf. dts fiHfhs A-mi-
MoletH(i>lSetlus) on the Zeno map,

Molina, Alonto de, irt.
Molina, Chrisloval it, in Peru, i6j; ■
Fahhs kid Rilts €/ tht Incas, a6i ;
MDUna, ^^^^r^, viU ; ^ W< d'c ^
MHllûsen, Rsian, 396; Tagi&^h,
Mongolian stock on the
MoiJgols in Peru, Sj.

Monbegan, alleged runes
Monogemsm, 37+
Monoîun in America, .
Montelius, O., BiMitg.
Montrinont,A., Voyages
Montesinoe, F., In Pctu,
in f^'"ii": Jal^m
Till
name, 147; dies, lafi-

■luma <the last of the name),
1 forebodings of his fall, 143 ;
-3 of the conuDg of the SpaniardSi
Monlfciumn, Co^ciio'â^
'lontômery, James, Greenland, 69,
looie, Dr. Geo. H.. at the Lenox Li.
Moore. Martin. 332.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Moosmiillet, P. O,, EitrafStr is

,(«fl-ifa, 88,90.
d^M of ilS di^mikn, J95.

Moravian missions, 308, 318.
Morel let, Atthur, t^yagt, iM( Trav-
Morgan, CoL GeO', 3 19.
Moivan, L. H,, hia A^ntrxuma's din-

«r, 11,1741 attacked by H.H. Ban-
croft, ii, 174; on the cradle of the
Mexicans, 138; his eiaiêtaled de-
preciation of the Mexican nviliia-
I'raquou,' 174'i 'if amis latd Hmat

lift, 175,410! Aficini Seciety, 17s,
3Sa i controYHled, 380 i hia publica-
tions, 17c ; his death, 175 ; on Rau^
views as respects the Tablet of (he
Cross, 105; on centres ol migrations.
SI % on human pr^ress, 382 ; on (he

leblo race, 39JI on the rumaof the
the Animas River, ]^ ; on the social
moundbulldets! 40T; Biu^lhek life

communal, 401 ) on their houses,
^16; on Doê imêmenls, 417; on

hngnistic divisions, 437; on Indian
AATt Besifftvtnr 9f Irtdian names,

437i Hmsis ^ Amiricim Abori-
jrse, Edw. S., Arrow Riitast, f^;

Jn the tertiary man, 387 ; on prehis-
me, Jed. ^Rtfart en Indian affain.
L'homna, 441; Diet. d>! Sciimts

AHtkreioIeriqitt, 443.
M<»ton, S. a, Ing^rii inle Iht da-
donon, Thomas, Jfiw ElJSk Ca-
™b».369.
i^,, H.. on the Quichm languaste.

iIotoiin(i,*'u/ffrii, ij6.
as,tw..^„K,.,.,.
itou1ton,M. W., 409.
Irish, Sj I withtheWelsh, 111; with

the lews, ii5i with the later peoples
KodtT' '• '^f ' "s'^jfwfl^

lil!^tu«"cJ; 397°;'^rly sISh md
tra«lh=rs, 398, 4oa'; field to be ancei
tors of the Aiteca and other soaihem
400 i the moBl ancient, 402 \ beliered
<obc ol the liidian r^, 4°o, 401,
.«; eaHiest advocates of thiTUTw;
40; ; Gnat SeiiMiit mound, 401 1 no
05 1 bj Egyptians, 40^ ; m
found, 410 ; potleiy, 419.

Movers, M PhMiaiir. 14-
M'Quy. Dt^ 191.

Mu3be, B. F.,4ci9.
Muenenhof, Altiriktamkundt, 4.
gion,',7<;:.4»t^. Urr.ligu,«n,%%
410; on Quetialcoat], 433-
Mdfe, I. W. von, ReittH, iSj.
MOller, Wax, on early Menican hi

lory, 133! on Ixtliliochitl, 1E7; (
fan Pirful Vak, i67;onE. B.T]rio
MMi(i,''p. K, Icelandic HiH. 'lî

84; (with Velchow, I.) ed. 5bj
arain..<a\ Sagtxiiitisi!^-'- °-
Miiller, HanMnickd<! M
Muller.Frederik.xn.
lidtucfdisktis'.Aitcrili, 5,
[nnch, V^..ÎN>^si>FsllsHist..
84; Olaf Tr^ggvrsia, 90; If<n-£es
Kangt-Sagair, 90.
lunich, Gesellscbaft fSr Anthropolo-
[unsell, Joel, iv: his publications,

XV \ sketch by G. R. Howell, IV.
[iinster, Sebastian, his map, Ta^\
xxvli ; Kesirtoerajin, xxviii ; trans-

lations, uviiii on the Greenland
[utp^, ^'. C,i his library, ii; his
Cllî,p,t.ix; dtes,ii.
Inrray, Andrew, Gtag- DislrS.Mim'
Mvsts Gujitt»ialiece, 16S-
Mu^scas, myths of, 436 ; idol, iBt ; or-

Myths, not the reflex of history, 4J9;
Naamah CitiEK, rock shelter at, 365.

NadaiilBcîlanniis de, VAmfriipu
Imri dts fables frikii-

; Lisfifis it Ic taiai.
from the' N^W., 137; date disputed',

461
Varboiough, MagiUan Straili, nri».
Natchec Indiana, 316 ^ supposed 6b

scendants ol Votanites, 134.
c Society, «9,
if MoBtrtal, 4)8
Navajoi, 317 ; eipedition

Neander^? rafe,*^ i
■•' 3*4. ,
Ndn" E'S'/mlbe Ojibways, 317,

Neolithic Age, 377', implements of,
377. i'H Stone Age.

Nepeila, 176.
A'eM Btrlinisckt Msnalsscltrifl,vii.

Neumann, K. Y.,A>mrikaHm:kCI,i.
•asiicktn Quillin, 78, 80,
New Eând Hist. Genoal. Sodety,

New England Indian
..?«_• ^^'^L'
y the Northmc
leaps, 19
New Hampshire, Idbliog.,
New' .fe'^y,, copies of doc
T.3B9.
of ruins in, 537.

nan skeleton Eonod
New York Acad- of Sdence, 438.

New York city, as a centre lor tha
study of Amer. hist., ivii; iis Hist.
Soc, libraiy, xvilj Astor Libiary,
New York Stale, local hisloiy in, vj

its library at Albany, xviiil the
French import goods into, for the
Indian trade, 3III its trade whh tb*
Indiana, 31 E ; Indians, 333 ; missions,
Newark Ohio, map of mounds ftl,
N^'c!.mb™Sin»n, opposes Croll'a

lh(ori,i87
Newfoundland, eaiiy visited by the

Basques, 75 , in the early maps, 74 ;
Eskimos in, 106, Indians of, 321-
Newman, J S , SedM:ii, .t.
Newport stone tovrer claimed 10 be

None, 10;
NeEahualcoyotl, 146, 147, dies, 148.
NeiahualFuUi. 148
Nicaragua, early footprint in, sSj ; ex-

plorers of, 107, mythology, 4341
Nicholas V, alleged biJl about Green-

land, 69.
Nicholls and Taylor, Briilol, jo,
Nienhof, Brast Zii-nt tanlreitt.
NiihoS! Martin, xvu.
Nilsson.i'fow ^«. 411.
Niza, Mai^ de, Quto, 168.
N<aY,,tll. m., Amiriim Indiana dl-

Kindanlx,/ Iht LnttrBits, ti6.
Nodal, J. F., on the Qukbua tongue,

18a; OBanla, 181,
NonohualcBS, 136.
NordenskjiSld, A. E,, Exfii. tm

CfMand, S6; his bdief in a colony
on east coasted Greenland, 109 ; por-
trait, 113: on the Zeni, 114; Br'3-
dima Znti. iif, Trtli Carta
frdolumiitnaa, 114, 117; StaditH
Hosted by VjOOQIC
4(52
huneert, T14; finds Ihc

IS 0! Greenland, ii7i his
Npnh Caroii
S' 6j^ 'aôi'S^ aO
alkged yiails 10 j^
NOTlSweilcoMl.lhE
Nordwtst KUsU,
Norlmanus, R. C,
NortonT lories B
■"in-lwland, Sal
.iDcrica, 98 ; IheiT
ecogniied in UiE
Be'r\in'ûseiini's
IxuSf ■2a
NohTJ- C. (i.ilh Gliddon), Typisqf
Mankind, 373; Plask^ Hal. of
thi Jtvn, 373 j Indigenffui RacrSt
.Sacrificial Stone. iS^; on coinpie-

inenta] signs in the Mexican giaphic
system, Iî on Mexican feather-
Teotiiiqaan, 181.
O'BBrEH, M, C, Erammalical sketch

of theAbnalcciij.
(maherly. Islands sf Arrxn, 50;
Oajaca, 119, .(33 ; sonrcea of its hisloir,

Ai ; luios in, 184 ; teocalli at (view),
O^Ddo, Juan de, his Quichua dk>
Ob«, t'.'^.^Tra^ls îSiki; .70;
Ocean, aocient views of the, 7 ; depth
o(,3S3.
Ocean HigkwaJfSt 443.
Odysseus, voyage of, 6; his wander-
OgaUala Sioui, 317.

Ogill^, Amiriat. i, jociiv.
Okia Arc'haelogical axd Hiil.Quar-
Ohiol'ai^Company ti74S),fo[mation
<«ii<i,
INDEX.
English attempts to occupy, 311;

franlierlife,5i9; Indians, 316.
OJBia, A. de, describes piiedwelilngs,
OjKays, 3=7-
CHaf, Tiygf!vesson,6j; saga, 901 edi-
Olaus Magnus, 5s; Hiil.de Guniiioi
Siflml. 67.
OUvarBi,A. F.,i«i.
Ollantai or Ollaniav. 425 ; drama,
a74, a4a, 2S1 ; diSeient lexts, iSi ;
Onas,
V-
Ond^
tdo, Polo de, i
Pem, afe, 261 i
R,la
o"k»I
yi^
°il
369; found in
Orbig
y?A,'d^'i'A,»,
\^xpTii:^'k
3., IndioHS,
313" S^l/ord,
Oidoilei, Ramon de. La Crtaci,

Cain, etc t«ai FaltM^, 191
Oi«, L.G. de, i?iA«i,'c,3i7, 28a,
Oregon, Indians, 118; monnds,

shell heaps, 393.
Oroico y Bena, Helped by the c

tions of Icaibaketa and Rai
^ lenenas de i
■ ; 8k. Unhe
OrteBS, C. i-., ed. Veytia, 159.

Ortelius.nu theZeni.iiilMdsPlu-
taieh's cominent to be Amerip, 40 :
mapof the Atlantic Ocean (1387)' sS;
Pachicot3,J.dV^!l£'ffjrnPflti/'j>.
PacifiTbcea''pS™''j'^P^"e!= '""="
Pacific Raiitoad surveys, 44a-

Packaid, A. S., on t]>e Esltimos, lo;
Nyr imiek. lande, nt; tii'nr,

ôrlât, jox; Senti/^t It mm
™,4rf.
ii.irasKUano language, 4"S-
Be, J. R.. 410.
ijkull, C. W., Samimr in Iceh
Temcje of the Cros
Temple c
by Waldi
l; plans,,
Palin, Du, Study n/ kiiroglyfUcs,
Palmer, Edw., 4091 on i cart in

Palmer, Geo,. Mignttiens frsm Shi-
Palom'in"i6o.
Palos. Juan de, 155-
Palszky, F.,374.
PmdMy!'M.' C, Yahama language.
Papabucos, ,36.
PaS^sus!êoph„o» Ihe plurality of
the human race, 372.

Paradise, positioned, 3<, 4?-
I^vey,''d?°'H. de, FouSang, So;

NoBHelUs frcmlts, Soi Plaliiu de
Bagata, 80; replies to joBiatd, So.
Paie)a, F., La Lengua Timuquana,
Pa*reili, Bart de, his map (145s), 56.

Paris, peace of (1764), iij, 313; Sfr
ailt de Gric«Taph» founded, 441;
Rraail de Vsyaga, 441 ; Sullelii,
Parkiân, T., Califomia and lie
Eufland'h, ki^lk' AKiriia. 3.6;
Sal&. 3ii.
PaIlllStier^&.l.,8i.
Pannunca, 17;.
Paisons, S. H., 4J7.
Pardons, Usber, on the Nyamics, 323.
Passatnaqnoddy legends, 431.
Patin, Ch., iui».
Patlison, S. R., Aec of Man, 3!?;

Earth a,^ ihe iV„Td.if.i.
Peaie,T, R., 4o9,4'

Pecb, Nakuk, 164.
Peck, W. F., R!H:he
Religian a/ the Mimmllaiiiders,ta\ ;
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Pennsylv'auw, Indian! in, }o6, 3iy,
mounds, 405 ; sellleis of, 3071 Uuar
Pentlaud, J. B,, map of Ijlc e Titicaca,

Pe«y, SUôp, (d. Milla's Nurthtm.
Maya MSs"' 163.' '

Ptr«, Pio, Chrm. Varalcca, 164;
Periegctes.'D., Prrifbii. 39-

Peringskitild, ed. HeiBtskrintia, 91.
Periionius, 21, w.
Perkins, Fred. B., his ikelch of
Pernell^'i?.V™nô«'™'De Pagw,
370; SxamiHiijoi .Di PAntirifiit,
pimiie, T, M., 408. / ~~

Pmol, Hic^ Mh«în/, 4x1.
Perlnisei, E., i* T^JW ati /«car,
P«iu! G. H., (Ifc*. Otrm. HUt., SB.

Peru, Mongol! in, 8a; sianls in, 8.;
in, 82; Jews in" usiVmanite's"^"

13*.1 civlliiMion in, 205; Evidences
sacriiices, zai ; deitjr of, 223 ; Pima
K' nasty, 2ij, 11; i ils people, 2271

iiii[iu Tdcco, 221; Inca dynas^,
kings, 233; origm of lhelDcaa,>2^;

IheiT rise under Hanco, az^: Ibeir
aîu] home, z^j thrir subjuga-
eiubli^ Ibeir potver al Ctuco, 228 ;
their telUioii, aja; lieiief in'a Su-

233 ; pl^n d^the Temple of the Suni
n Ihe I- ,-.
tbeit batds, 341 ; dances, la ; mu-
stages of il, 247; Lhdr Ihatchii^,

lhJ'l™iam^;,^; S'vmmV'U
ruing of a village, 251; Uib^vrs,

■ ■ : < diUdren, 15.;
au,.:
a^ ; han^ng gajdet
uon, 2S3i peculiar ^.».,.,..,,, .^j,
their flocka, a53; their roads, is4i
361; ttaveJbng, 254 ; map of roads,
354; coloDial 9yBiem, 255; military
eis, 2(6 ; ponery, 256, 257, ajS ;
sind dyeing, 257 ; clolh-malting, ij8 ;
toty, a» ; the conquerora as authors,
poeliy, a6i 1 chronok^, 16a ; efforts
wiileii, 26s; Rtlmimut dairif-
Iiîmnacieiui reapectinj the usur-

pation of the Incas, tf>%\ peiiigrees
■orks d It
1,273; on the geography
pecê of the coasts, 375 ; native lan-

guage, 278 ; iron in, 418; eiothioi,
420 ; mylholiny of, 436-
ôciiel.O.tGl'ct.dirErdlBmdi.it,;
Erd-Mt-d Vsl/artuHiU. t»: on the
Arab voyage^ 7a ; Gfsch. des Zt^
alters drr Enidtek., 96; portrait,
351; AdkatuiiimeeK ---- -" '*
»/A
IE Polynei
-, 38' ; ■>
s, Si ; Ra<^
a, Uranolegi^H, 6,
Peters, Richard, on
84.
Peterson, J. G„ 84.
LOldt, BUI. BiSliag.. i
Peyriie, ii
adamita, 384
384.
Peyste
«ffUiT, 31..
riiaUic symbols, 3i, 195, 429,
Philadelphia libiaries, iviii.
Philip, King, his war, 297 ; prisoner:
in. 289.
Phillips, H., jr.. 13;. 444 ; on Ihc
alleged Nona Scoda runes, loa.

PhUlips,J. S,,j7a.
PhiUipp., Sit Thomas, ijs; receivei
some 01 Kingsborqugh'sMSS., 103;
CatalsgtUt 203 ; his copy of Kings-

Philoponos, bTrva lyfii Iraniacia
Photography of the Yucatan ruins,
Picaid, Pmilss idolairts, xxxiii.

Pichardo, J. A., and the Botutini
Pickering, thai., his ethnolcw. map,
'^ge'V- aijtribtithi, 381.

lnB,]oho,«3. , , ■,
Pickering, Joht
„.*03, 400 '

Pictographfi
y/ik
Maya method, lot ; P. Martyr^s do-

scriptioDS, 103; in Kingsboruugb's
l&eo^, Wm., Traditiinis of De-cue-
PUB durelhnga, 364.
Pillars of Hercules. 2S.
PnUng, Jas. C, amine- Indian Lan-
Pim, Bedford, DeltHî, ^97.
Pimentel, F., i.tnrttae iitdirenat dt
Pinart, Alphonie, Les AUatOti, 78;

Calalwnt, 414, 433, 425; Ceitceiett
J. ,.■ .—.■.- ^ aJW, dllingMii.
Aa'sed., ,,3. '
I, Jk lion y Knelo.
of,S4i ('J73l.JJ.SS,
Plato, on the f«in of the earth, j
PMatda, 3 ; Timana, 3, 15, 43 1 on
the Atlantis story, 15, 41 ; his works,
PlatzDiann, Julius, Grammatiien, liL
See Tertiary and Quaternary man.

Pliny on the foim of the earlh, 3 ; AW.
Pbocene nun, jSj. See Pldslocena.
Plurality of races, 37>,
Plutarch, De PladtU Pkaîeikervm,

3; his Satutnian conliueni, 131
M<^lia.%i; on Solon, 41.
Poinsett, J. R. , A-ftej «■ M$x{a. .80.
Poisson, J, B., AnimadversieiHS, 370
Polo, Marco, >iiv,ii<iil,iuv,xiavi.
Folybius, 34; on the brunches of the
PoiIiir^T 'OÂni^dade; de Jn
ber of warriors, 3 13 ; posts captured,
Ponloppidan, ôruray, ga,

Poole, wTf., 43; on Donnelly's Al-
riaal!,_,l\ on Weise't Ditc. 1^
Pillar Mag.' ef Anllcrefelegy, 4^1.

Poptdur Science Mmihfy, 439.
Poftdar Science Hiviiw, 443,
Posi,C. F„ in Ohio, 3".
Potato in Peru, 21.1.
Potter, W. P., 4™.
Potter. Eariji Hill. Narragatatll,
Potter's wheel, 419.
Pottery, colleclionsof, 418, 419; piper
In Florika, jSo. _
Powell, Davia, 199.
Powell, Ma). J. W, , In the Colorado

caflon. 3(^; ponrail. 411; Survey
of the Jfacln ill, ririaH, 412 ; Ann-
ReMte Bur. Elknal., 4» ; on the
mound-builders, 401; views on lan-
guage, 423 ; EveiuHen îangtiage,
433, 440; on Ihe Wyandots, 337,440-,
Xa-a. Amer!^ndiane.w; -»&-

llmleey of ike Ns. Amir. Iidiani,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
464
I HintfHtUge-
pKadaiDiKs, 184.
Preble, G. H., on Nor« ahipa, 62.
PrecesBion of the eqiiinf>xee, 3^7,
PrehisLoric arcbzolo^, caoDDa of,
Prehiauric time, uuial divisions of,
Si jjc: „■""•"■'""'"
Freuoct, W. H., on the Nonhmen,
Banurei, 163 : on the Meidcaii civit

izaiiflo 174 x his relative use of early
Spani^ writers in his Pent, a&j,
369; his library, 269; oil the Mex-
!ao connection with Asij 375.
Prestmch, on cataclysmic force, sSa ;
on the age of man, 3S1; Ok Ou drift
— ,.4.?... .•„./ .,_ jg^j piM,
Pncel J.k, ^58.
Pnihard, J. C, Risearchi:!. jio,4il.
Fnesl, jostah, A»ur- ArUia.. ijj.
Prune, W. C, on Cowans, xv.
Prmoe, ThM„ his library, i.
Prinz, R.,^* Selimu PliilitrM/aiai-
Pritl.'jos.. OldiK 'i
Procius, I
3j; Com-
,'ti.M.
i, Rffit Cffltriiy, Ohio,
Pyramids in ?
Pythagoras, 3,
Qoariich, Bernard, the London bi

QiiaterQary mao, the earlieat, ]3y.
QualrefageideBrân,A. de.Zfj/Wj'-
Biiifoi, 81 ; Crania Eikica, 37J ;
Sact! kuKiaiius, 374, 387; //»«..»

^/<i«i, 374; Nai. Nisi. ^ Man.
374, 387, 4111 Liiirotyii it PAn-
tkroiâgii. 378; Hommti/eisilti,
3S9,4ti; Rap^t sur U progris de
PAstikrapoiogig. 41 j.
Pneblo Indians, arts oi, 416 ; pottery,

4T9: connection with the Ailecs,
437; general ^references, 3971 their
their connection with the mound-

buitdeis,K}- ttWZuBi, Maqiii,elc
PneUo iôn, mails oi, 394, 397.
Pnlgar, F?mando del, xidv.
Poiren, Qarence, 397-
Polad^, F., Human nrnt and lirir
P™peJy°'R., ^mirr-lHKfila.si?-
Puquina, 174 ; langiaoe, ia6, jEo,
Purcbas, Samuel, iniii ; on the Zeoi,
Patoam, C' E,, 4041 AuOtttiicit^ 1/

tfu gUÛifd piftt, 404.
Putnam, F. W;, on the California Ir

iâns, 33S; on the ori^n of Amei
icana. 37s ; on Ihe Trenton imple
■■; PalaMIki
^y;
m shell h(
Kentucky mounds, 4'° i in Caxsmo's

SUaidard Knl. H!ll.,t\i\ on the
edits the archaeological p

,•?■£!.;
Rada y Ddnido, J. D, le la, publishes

Landa'sAr/ffiTiofi, 16;.
""'lesque.'c.'s., on Atlantis, 46: on
tatritr, 86; autqg..S7i Ameriias

''"g-s 87; ed. O^ Tryegvessoii'S
■ica-a. 94; bibliog.,
fntt'iicia of K^fn,^.
, ElJ-tru, 173.
Raln-sod, i«o.
Ralecn, Sir Wajiet, on lk nry,
Kamirer, Jos^ F., edits Duran'
Icrria, iss; on Sahagiin, (<'
collection of USS., IS7, '63;
on Preecott, 161: Biil. M-r.,

Ramtrei de Fuenleal, Jfiit. .
Mixicitnos per rus PlvtwaSt

Ramon de Ordoifei, Hitt. dtl
134. Set OtioSa.

Ramu»i) edits P. Martyr and
taale, S,, Abrutte iangna^t 4^-

*an, Chas., on Diehton Roclt 104;
on the PaienquS 'Tablel, 195 : on the
prepress of study in the hieroglyph-
on'lllinMan.o^da,'4o8; Arti^lii,
ments of a^îcnlture, 417; Prehis-

iaris-JishiBg, 417 ; on the slocfc io
\rchai>li>g. Coll. Iîhl U. S., 440;

.aiidarSin Seulfluri, 440.
ylinson, Geo., Aniif. 0/ MaK,-i%i,
Read, Harvey, 4
Read, M. C.. ^
Ohio, 407 1
mounds, 410-
Reade.John, 318
Reck P. G. F, V
'Holds, E. R., 416; ShtH-hea/'i a
'ewtttre-, Jtfd., 301-
rnolda, H. L.,ir., mial Ari c.
ic. Mixics, 418.
i, BU,t.Amer.,'A.
R™airA™'de, iiUl. gin.

_,/«£«.. ,68; pniised by Tielp
Hosted by VjOOQIC
465
Guanche skuJls,
Rivme,' Albert,' 6
tte EthiLJFraikiqitt, 441.

— 4tt Sx. Savanles, jH.
W. J.p Hiitmy sflhi S
«.,A
Eialle, G. de, La Mytlalnril, 43a.

Rib»,Juande, .55-
Ruardo, Ant., 17S.
rI«! a' 1^Msf<îfi-Qm Ns. Anur.
RichT b^Hdiah, his caner, iii: diea,
boiough, joji obHinj his MSsT,

Kj ; helped Prescotl, 2G0.
Riggs, R, S., 4^3 ; Dac^t^ ittng-ua^,
4J4; on the Dseolah myihs, 4ji.

RieollEl, CDniincHl by be Fenhes,
Hil™dsen, K., 107.
Kink, Hinrich, Ejiimtiite Evctityr.
the EakiincQ, 106; hit publicationfi,

i<i6 ; TdiVf 0f lit EiUmff, 107 1
TViifi, 107; 00 their dulectg, 107;

their orû and descent, id? | their
pmuitlve a1»de, 107 ; their tradl-
tiona, T07i Qitgrittianderra, 131.
Sii Gnmliiid.
Musei
on the (iorse voWei, 9" ; his iieilly

correct view.of the anc. Menican
eiyilizalion, .73; «yere on CJavi-
êro, r^S; dtsbeLieved in pte-Span-
pmtrail, 169; on the Amet. Indians,
tUrtoIAinerlcana°4i3; Wsllibliofi.,
Rotnn, ZoKiiMK. 3^.

Robimum, Conway, Dite. m tin if til,
Robinioa, Edw., 439.
RoUnnn. Lifi in Cali/iiniia, jsS.
Rock insiri^^'i of the Indians, 104
Rock shelUc at Naatoan's Creek. 16;
RMlt-wriling, 105.
Rocks, cup-nke caviliea in, 417.
Rojas, Chahda, iSo,
Roman, G., j6j.
Roman, H., RifuUica it lot I,
Rom^n coini, in the Danish
[<1 Giog. Hal., BoUtHim
io; Lttdx.Krit.de Pantig-. ,
i^, aoi, 1071 on Landi'a Alpha-

bet, 20*^ Ltihriittrtsjiritrattvts,
201 ; A rchivtiftUâphipU!, »t ,
'CI ikiMairt atUi-Celimii-

fHi'v,30i,4i3i hibliog.iQi; porttail,
lu t on the C«Ux Ttllermia-Rf
mtniii, 10;; on Biuscur-i ad. ol
the Coitx Troana, J071 discover!
aruizology, ao? \ on jade indu&trlei,

417; RtwH OritnlaU It Amiri-
Roue, Irving C, id6.

Rothelin, AbW, Dt Bry, uidi.
Roti, his map of Greenland. 11a.
Rouiow, Ract! kamai^s, 39a.
Rowbothain, J. F., Hiit. of Mutie,
Royal Gmgraphical Society and its
Royal HislDiicaTSoc. Trxxs., 443.

Royal Society of Canada, 418.
Royc=. C. C.,'on the Cheroliees, ji6i

Indian Ctuima of land, 440; on
the Shawaneea, ji^
Ruchamer, /femaniti. landtt, ix.

Rndbeck, on Atlantil, 16.
Ruffner, E, H., Utc Cciaiirr, 137.
Rufns in Middle America, notei on,
Runes, alleged ones in Nova ScoHn.
loi; cuBof,66,67; êof,»iref-
Runnels, 'M. 't., SoKicrMoH.^Jf. H.,
RuoeOus. DUiin^lu,^!. 40.
LaAnian, 34^
Rutlenber, E. M., //Bfl!iDri
dilHU, 31 -
Ru;.ton;li
Maine,j2j.
>ac and Foi tribea, v;.
iacrilicUl Stone in Meil
87, f.«
Ubfiog., -i
•dtje FlaU^mii, 88, f
ibsatditiea
Sti Notthmen, Iceland, eb
iSi'vS;,,.....,*,!.
ij6; ponrait, 156; hii Inie 1
156! biblioe., iji.
aJiiuraun, Inci, Dc. J., i8i ; R.
Saldamando, Y..'Y,,Lia Anliim Jt.
sailaid.lJ'.r^,,,^^,.
Sale, Ant- de la. La Saf^dr flf
SallBhury, Stephen, ir
ianboraton, N. H., Indian forOfic*-

ianiordTfietieli/'uf. Unitid SlaUt,
Sangon, Guillaunu, on Atlantia, 16;
Santa, J7J- '
Santaiem, Hiit, dt la Coimct., 381
Sanulo, latino, bis liuip (ijoAJ, jj')

Saiana, 'S A^^Mig. dil Ptru, 161,
islands, 268 ; Vinge al eatrtcko dt
MaÛants. itiS.
Sars, J. E., Nîkt Hist., 85.
Saian^D. J» Man Satamiio.
Sannairio. Stt Man,
Saunders, Trelawny, map ol Pern,
Saniiure, H. de, Ruinti iPiau anc.
vittt. I Si.
Savage, A. D., 196.
Savage, Jos,. 409.
Sawklns, J, G., iU.
Saie-Eisenach, Diike o[, U5.
Saio-Granimalicns, Hia. Danka, 9t.

Scandinavia. Stt Noithmen, nor-
Schaefer, Eiîiieltbmg, tic, 3 ; Gt-

stall and Gfisu dtr SrA, if, PIH-
Ittloeut, s,
SchaBhtlcDke Indiana, ]a4.

Schellhaa, Dit MayahamUeftrift, 205,
Scherer, J. B,, RicAtrcJut, 76, 414,
Sclieraer, K-.tTaMimnrîi, 1661 £ai

/fill, dtl Orietn dt les India, i«6;
QnirigitA, 107. ^
Sefilera, F„ Vn Enigmi, 16.
Schlaontwelt, 412.
Schmerling, Dr., Rtchtrcha tur Iti
iclUn, 384 1 Anltiv/vl, Miiludn,
Schinldt, Jnlitia, Co^n amd Qftrigu^
Schneider, C. E, C, 41.
Schoebe], C., among the puebloi,_347>
Schanhig, Gerhard, ôrfii Riia
Schonlandik, 129.
Schoolcraft, H. R., BiKkt in tht In.
InHfnn TriAet. 320, 376, *w, 441 1
Hosted by VjOOQIC
466
c»lled ArcAivt! nf Ahtrlgina!

Kaffnttiigt, 44E i and Mtknelaâl
Rtsttrcia, Ml : F. S. Drake'i ed.,
GritrJ€ Cntk Mouitdt 403 ; kepori
mounds, 410 ; oa Florida pottery,

419 \ bis linsuislic studies, 434 \ dies,
Schrader, Namttfi atr Meere^ ty

SchiilU'SeUBi±, CaiC, Dit Aarr.
Schnallu, F., on the Eskimos, 107-
Saw'ValP^, map of moimds, 406.
ScoSem, John, S/ray Uanri, 38],

Scolvui, Jic, Ilis landfall, 119- £'■
Skolno.
Scoli, P, A„ 350-
ScDti, Sir Waiter, on the Sagas, Hj.
sSldd^,' S* ^Kl'J. V SûMifi,
ScuU, G. D., edits Raditsoit, 3<8.

Scylai on the Atlantic, aS; Perfflus
Sea of Darl
Sebiilot, Paul, i/^Mfcj, J
SeiMca, t. A., QutsHaaa* Nat., i

works, js i on llie westward Mas^
17- bEB pTophecr. 29; his Ultii
Thule," n ; fa!s Miia, a;,
SetKca Indians, s}:, Dtigin of 1
Septon, J., 8s,

Se-quo-yah, 326-
Serpent symbot. 401.

Serpent, worship of, 419.
SeTcTcl™, i.a.
S««n Cties, idand of, 31, 47, 48.
Sewan, Samuel, on Homius, 370 1 P>
Sewell, Stephen, on Dighton Rd
Stwfc," N. S., on the New Jer

gravels, 3}4i their implements, 3 ,
on the disappearance of the masto-
don, î OD Ohio Valley
Shea, yG.. Liirarj' of Atiar. L

gitistici,*^\\ Caiholic MissienSji
on the Indians ol Nova ScHia, 3:
Iranslatea Minin's,?-^**!, 313 1
■he Wisconsin Indians, in: P.
FrasfaifOiUHla^, 414 \ Lib. of
teatt, ^Y^ French Onondaga Diet.,
Shell-money, 4».
Shell-woA 4.7.
Shepard, H. A., .
iS:ls."i»o....„,.„,
^jeVenEa y (ionsora, C de, his chl

Dol«v of MeiicD, 133 ; collection 1
Silliman, yaa-nal ef Am, jii. S
Silluslani, 1361 Chulpas al, 14S; c
cainti, 164 ! La Itngm Mixicai
Simnis, v'imt and Rji^s'Xii.

Simon, Mrs. B. A., Hofe nf Isr^
116; Ten THii!.ii6.

Simonin, L„ L'lmnmt Amiriai
375. 33'-
Simpson, H. F. M., Prehisl. ef the
North, 85.
Simpson, J. H., Na^Jo Cmnlry,
Sindlns, Paul &., StanSmatia, 96;
ScoKdin. Raas, 96.

Sinkers, 4J7'
&ioui,3i7. ,S'fr Dacotahi.

Silgieave, Capt, I-, EifeditisR, 396.
Sii^y, B., language ol the San Anionic
S. E. J., 3ji.
the Labrador coast, 76. Set
ibslewski, 5., his catalogue, xiil ; bii

Sobrai,'&.™y., La, idiimias. vii.
Soci«t« Americaine de France, 176, '
SociÛ d'Antbroôgie, 390; BiU-
Sod^t^ d'Ethnographie, Mimttires.
ic'itt Elhnogia^que, Bulletin
ilinus, Pelyhistsr., 35
„^llais, W, 1., 106,
Solomon, his Opliir, 81. ^«Ophir.
SolDiTiiHi, Joan de, pMitiia Indian.
on the Uuliy o
ScolTi
SktsHoi
244. J^KCra
SlaSn, Von, B .
Slafler, E. F., Vcyages eflht N=rl
SmBll,'john, on Thule, iiS.
Smedl, C. de, 48.
Smith, Alf, R., ivi.
Smith, B,, 169! on the Dighlon Roi
Smith, C, H., 369; B«naii Sfîei.

Smith, Ethan, I'mi' t/lhi Hibrgais,
Smith, J. G.,^ Wo, 45.

Smith, John Russell, >!i.
Smith, J, T., Narlk'mn in Nia, Eng-
land,-fi: Disc, a/ America bji the
SmitCi W.' t'.. 4to.
Smith, J. v., 3^.
Srpith, J06-, Frunds' boohs, iv\l',
AniiûalUriana, xvii; Bibl. Qua.
heriiiica. xvii-
Smitb, Wm., New Vorh. 3=4. .
Smyth, Thos., i/naj' of Ihe Hiaitan
Danish tculptor, 65.

Soap-slone quarries, 416.
Lrchulogists, 3S2 ;
1S2.
ulheni States, Indi
ulhey, Robert, Ma
Spambour, J, M., 41.

SpaA^ J"™^'. "'' .
Spineto, Hieroglyfkics, loj.

Sniiibe^jen sometimes called Green-
Spiielios, Theoph., Elnalio, iij.

SforiiHg Rti,iefv,ii3. .
Spotswood, Gov,, on the frontier posts,
Spiengel, M. C, Eurafaer in Nurd
Squier, E. b., on ZeHetmanu>s Cel-
licatiooB and librury, vii, viii, 169,

wi,tH\Scr6eHiS3/iHbol,jfi% notes
on Zcstemnnn, S3 : on the Grave
Creek inKiiption, loii Caialegue
0/ his lOrar}', 169! CentralAtmr-
S-" .'— CeUectUn of Dxi., 169;
Calendar Slant, 179!
, to Mon
D the I
at Lake Tit
KioEsborough's h
114; at Chacha,
Algonquins, gas; on early

of the Pueblo race, 393 i
ivUiicd Naliov of Nevr
and California, lAi (mlh
Anc. Mil. of the Missiaipfi
Hosted by VjOOQIC
467
mmmdt, 399: denbia the Giavi

Cre^ lablcl, 404; Ahorig- Ml5
Slatt sf JV- K, 405; A«tiq. e,
ti. y. Stat/, 4051 Mamgraph 4
Altilwrsyî1\ Serprnt Symbol, ^l<i
Squier, Mrs. M. F^ im.
St Bonavemurc, G. de, 4Jj; Cram

mairr Mara, am.
Si- Brandan, ial«od ol, jii his noty

4*1 his islaiul, 48-
si, Louis Academy 'of Science, 438
Sl°â°o, leBend*^,' 48.
St. Patrick, B3.

St. Petersburg, Museum of Ethnog
St. Thornas io Central AmeriUi 137
oonoected with Quetialcoail, tja.

Stadium, length ol. 4.
Stallbauni,ed. DiP1ato,43j on Phceni
Staniord, Com^fid. s/Gtor-, i'3-

Stanley,;. M.,/'arft-flitooyV#./)»«f
Steenslrup", K. , on ^ndinavlan 'mini

86; Osferfygd/nîit \ ontbeGreeo
Slelle.;. P.,410.
Stenstrom, H.,Z>< Amirka, 93.
SlEphena. Geo. , Oldtsl D<x. ittDaniik,

&\ JVo. S«nic Mis., 66; Rimk
Mts. b/ Scand'aiavia, 66.
Slepheni, J. L.. Y-acatan, 164, 176,

ite; prion a Maya doc., 164; held
nspooHble by Mmgan fur ex^gei^
aled notions of the Maya splendor,
154; 'u Ymatau, 185, 1S61 map, 188;

at Uinial, 1S9 ; at Chicben-Itia, 190 ;
his rewills in Yucatan, 1901 at Pa-
Lenqu^, 144; at Copan, 19^
Steph^B, ZrV. ^1** CytHty, ttu
Stephensrall M. F.*!|io. •
Sterling, H. H., IrisA Mmslreltf, 50.
Steiens, E. T., Flint Ckifs, ™, 444.
SteieiiB, Henry, controversy with Har-

risie, 1; buys Humboldt's library,
.... ._ >.__i...„_ ^. g^î y
'ht Crtwninshiefd
y, S'i daSer
MSS.,xiri agent of the Smithionian

Inst., the Bntish Muaeum, the Bod-
leian, xir; ^BnglHkLwvrytJlv\
Amtr.BOIiet'nMir.iiTiBotkriK
til Brit. Mai. , 3t i Hirf. Ifuggrts,
lir; BOl. Amtr., lir; Hiii. and
Grog. }falis, -at; BiU. Gtaf. il
Hist-t xiv; Amtr- Imsts vtUh tails,
xv; Hia. Cotttclbna, iv; owns
Franklin MSS., xv ; list of his Own
put>lications, xv; Bihliog- of êw
Hamfikirt, x>; buys the Brock-
haus collection, ivii; Zenimap, rtj.
s, John, Vsyant, xxi

s, J. K.,Gie.aats,^
i, Simon, xiv.
«<_J|? j \
e/t»f Zuflickad,i.ia.
Slickney,"'c. E?,° MiSsi^' R^'<m,
Stiles, Dr. Eira, on ihe Dighion Rock,
Stockbndge Indians, 311,
Stoddard, Amos, Lauina'a, no.
Stoddard, LmiisiaKa, 39S.
StoU, O., Rtfui/i* GMoama&i, 41S.
Stone, O. M., rtntriffi, 48.
Stone, W. L., on the moundbullden
his' lives of JohnsoD, Biaiit, and Rer
le Ag.
■ in America, oldest Imple-

i!,ed, 361. Stt Filieolithic,
Hcial cleavages of, 3S8 ; chip-
Gtegraphia, c, 34; editions, 34 ;
iranslalions, 34; Gosselin's French
transl., 34; traulaled by order of
Nicholas V, 37-
Strebel, ^..AUMtxiee, in, 410,
StrinhoHA. M.,8j.
Stroll, Otto, OvaUmtOa, 141.
Stmll,'i7K/. imermtrs, iivii.

Stuart and Knyper, D. Mtnai, 3».
Sliibel, A., IflcroMis if A«con.
in; Uihir A/lftmvUiHuckt Gevu-
icmustrr, 37).
Studley, Cordelia A^3»"- .
Sumner,"chas:, Profillic voiai cm-
Swedes, their bliixling
theDi
SweeUer, Selh, on prehist. man, 411.

Swinford, ilfineral Xeiourcfi of Lata
Sufirior, 4.8;
SâiJ''W^^"M^î, ^.
Sylvester, Nttthtm Nrai Yerh, 313.
Tacitus, G.™MM,ia.
Taos, 394. 3^.

Tapijulapaoe-Mixe, 4t6.
Tarajre, G., L'Expleraliat minera-
Tane, xitvi.
Tanar mijialiotis to Ameriei. 369,
TasMn, French geographer, 51.
Tayasil, 17;.
Taylor, A. S., bibliog. of California,

Taylor, Isaac, Al*katcii, 100.
Taylor, }mmy, Diiiuasivi from Po-
Taylot', 'john, on the N, V. mounds,
Tîtlr. R. C, on Ihe Wisconsin
Triiiriama-i
Temple, Ed*., , r^^^ .

Temple, No. Broslifirld,
Temnsky, G. F, von, "
TenXate.H.F.C.,:
,i",V
Teotibuacan, Olmeci at, 13(1 a relt

Tepanecs, 136, i4. '
Tl™ra,''49, ' ''
Temaux-Compans, B,, bis hbnry,

iv; BiU. Amir., iv I ^f}^!,
xxivii, 173 ; hii iludies si Peru,
a73 ; La ttirogamt MLiritaiHt, 431.
Tertiaiy man, 387; evidencei, JSi,
Tenu'll!jn;.D, /-=//«, 4a.

Tetuel, Luis de, a64i MSS. on tba
Peruvians, 164.
Tezcatlipoca, 4^1'; oppressor of Qugt>
Teicuco. growth ol, 140, 1^ ; alleged

empire at, 173 1 old bridge near,
iSa; old buildiiigs, 181-
TeiDiomoc, H. de A., 146; Crimea

ABx; 13s. 1631 MSS. on Mexkin
Theopom'pus of Chios, 11 ; his contl-
Thi^nol, bibliog., xil, ixiivi Vey.
Tfa^'l, Aî on the Jewish migration
Thiersanl. Dahty de, Origin dtt Jtt-

Thon
Cwus,
Wtrk OH lUomd Exiinrali

"-—■-' "mnds, 4ori -■■ —
1 of the
mentations of his
iindbtulden, 40: \ a
Burial Mounds, 40t ; disputes
ês"^
Thompson, E, H,, Allaaiis not a

Mylh, 44 ; on Yucatan, 187 ; on the
Thompson. G, A., Ntw Thiory,-ii.

Thompson, J., >ianslalei De Pauw,
Thompson, Waddy, Ricoll. i/f Mix-
Thomson, Chis.. Enaniry-zii.

Thoifinn Karlsefne, in Vmland, 6);
Thorî^^^ G., his map of VinUnd,
Th'orl'acm^, Theod,, ijo, 13;.
Kohl,, his map,
■ Hosted by VjOOQIC
468
TborDn, OaBtOf dt, 93,
Thorovreood, Ttioniis,/nw( in A mn~
ica, wj; Vindicia yud; iij; Di-
raui Dli, It],

Tfiorwald dd Vinlwid, 6s.
Thm ChinineTi (islindi}, ^.
Thulc 117! discovered, i6i m Sencci,
i9:™rjiM;pcailion, iiS.
'Thurston, G. P.. Si, toi.
Thjie, on MKiobiu? map, .o. Si,
-f hole.
tions, 371, 173; b; Bollaen, 17};
TibulliB, fe^fKj, J. " '' '"'

ridM, Hacroliius; view of, 11.
-_„_ j| Ihe Am ..
Timber brouriil from Vinland. 65.

Titnberlake, Henry, on ibe Cherokeet,
Tinneh, 77-
Hthaci, yu, teal <
Tlici^n fomis 3 contederacy, 14;.
Tlaloc, 4j'j : rain-god, iSa
TlipaBan, 137, 139-
TlapallancD, ijq.
Tllicalans, 149-
Tobar™uan d^ CaSir j- Ramira', ."55 ;
Jt/lmioK.tiy, prinled by Sir Thos.
PhiUippi. 41: Hist, dr Its /ndu»,

To-carryhuaD, 189.
TolIlD, I37t >M-
ToUatzincD, 139.
Toloom, 19A
Toheu, desccDdgnls of Ibe Atianlidea,
139! end of their power, 140; a na-

lun or a dynany, i^; their story,
14a; lh»r later mvationB, 140;
Brinton and Chornaj disagree on
their statiia, 141 i Bandelier coniid-
en ihen Maya, --■- "-'•—'- ■>-
Ws'. a^
CB of their hinory, iî

I ; 'build' the ruing o( Yuci
88*; UisI
I Vinlaiid i
Newfoundln
Torqnemada. instnitlej' by Ixtlilxo-

chltl, 173! on Ihe origin of Ameii-
ant, i6a; MS. necdliy hint, 161!
"- anriia Ind., 157.
Rubio, Irego de,in Peru, 179;
__ his Qui,
ligramnn
they check eiplorati

map, S6.
Tolemlstn, 328.
TotonacB, i.i6.
Tolul Xius, isj ; EourcH, ijj.
Toulmin, Hiny. 110.
Tovar. SnTobnT.
Trade of the Amer. Aborigines, 41
frees, riogsof >sti|iisoI age, i9>, 403.
Crenton gravd bluff, ™w of, 335 1 the

deports described. 33A; skulls found
in, v6: gravels, tSS : traces of man
in;iBS. VDela»are,Ne*Je«ey.
rriTulgiana library {Mill]
Trosa, Edwin, catalogues, xvi.
Tiowbridte, D., 405.
Troygn, Prof,, Haiitâm Iwtatra
Trainer, K. J., xvi.
Triibnei, Nic., BU>1. Hup. Amir.
Tiumlnill, j, fl., on Indian language!
lê%ii; htdi^ Mi!!io<atn Nn

Enpiartd, 333 ; hia studies in lb
Indian languages, 3". 4>3-
Tmtat, £.,4".
Trulot, 44a,
Tiuiillo, Diego de, RtJacjm, 160.
TkI^; T'olônf'm the llama!

1 13 i .4 «;>■. /■(fvMMi, =70 i «'""
the Quichua language, iSo i hisgram
Tulan,'u;,""°'''"'
Tulan, Zuiva, 139.
17a, 174; applauds Prucotl's view'

174; portral, 376; his fnlj," •«
anlhropologisl, 377 ; Earfy HaU 0/
ManhUd, nj, 3811; Sariji Mtxlat
Cmdilian ^ mt, };8; Cetiditisn
tion,378; Primilaie CnUtin, 378;

Atlhraiehgy. 378; Aivr. aificls
of Antkropoloiry, 379; ace. oi,3W:
Ticndii language, 417,

Tiequiles. 135.
Ua Conn a, 50.
Uhle, Mai, ^ ***'
UiiaCDCha. lu, 319.
Ukeri, Cese- dirGruchn, aS, j6, 46
Ule, Olto,2)K Erd,, 44.
U&gk.be?T,6. "'■■"'■
\^î'.^tisil Atlanta, 44,
Urried States Array, RePorU ef Chi,/
Refarts, '396 ;' National Museuml
Upham
■/ in Ml
'?";.,
'"iOkui
URiperger Tra(
UrraUeta, m^
Ursel, Comie d'
Utsila, M., 17s.
iohaluted when the

,i plans, .90.
UileUi, G„ on ToBi
Maya Hist, 15a, 164-
caieer, a6i'i his MSS, use'd by'Car-
Valera, Luis.'ito,
Valrtiy.rligde.i?!-
Valpy. Panegytici veteres, 47.
Valsequa, G^briell de, his map (1439),
S6.
Van^'J^ftiiRb, i. k*??', .4«m»fl
Mor Coiumha, 7S.

Van den Bos, Lambert, Z,r-»eid,K
VanderAa. S,
Van Noort. Olivi
Vamhên, F. de, L'0>

Vasquei, Ftandst
*mme,6ol<withAde!ung), Mitiri-
dalii, 4B ; A tialikuiidirStrachtiir
Sl%i
lis collection of MSS.,
; Oiilfada de Chiaf-
Hosted by VjOOQIC
J^don of De Sou, Jd'j : Ca-mrun-

tarioi EeaUi, 2&S, ^/b-, UKd Bias
Valera, i6si ""ê on Sp»in [hirty
(■- rf., ,13-
eAniiftl C
iromne, .4 A>u;(u mi/ (4(iV
cans, 150 ; begins MHioin histoiy

It A. D, 69;, ij5i u9eil Bntuiiii^
rbu'a labors, "161. '

ViciCi,}. F.,Sagatimi,p.
v£, .!','''"'"'" ""**'''
Vienna, Anthropologlache Gesellschaft,

Mi; Pri(h[at. CommiMuon, ,«.
Viera y Qavijo, J. ie,lsla4dt Ca^ria,

48.
Vigfiisson, G,, Ictlanilic £>ig. Diet.,

Sy,Icilii-«lii Sagas, ^.
Vip], Josi M., 1(5.
VMnw, burial oC 61.
Vilcashuai
iliog., 87., . ,
Gibi^r" "«
logndland, 92, gj/ajr^Si 99! in
Greenland, 91. 9a ; in New Vork, 9j,
,S»"i?
prolDnentioniof AEii<
mentafpiooft, 10.;
101; natves called S
Vi"Ê ^^
laa found in Peru.

\; prophecy ol Aa-
:onli, 33 1 map(<3i<). jji (.).»),

Jis, Oidericua, Hitl. Eeclti., S8.
ethnical trlationSf 42j; fonned ai

tests, 434. Stt LinguiidcL
VoBel, Tbeo , iiiviL
Vcgeler, A. W., 393,403.
Vogt, Cari, lôrlenmgtn, 369! Lie.
VOIcker, HcmrscA. Gtig., J9.
VdIuct od the jnouTid*, 39S-
Von Baer, K. £. , FaJaim Jtt Oifyt'
VosB, 'l?it Stslall dtr Erit, 39.
with Ijuaiemala, 150 ; with YuoUnii,

Vflyagea, coll«€tiot
Vreelaod, C E., A
blblio^., xisL
I, M. E.. 3
tl Mkr
Wagntr G.. D, priginihu, Am.r.,

370i Biilragt imr AKthrapclsga,
wthlitedl, J. J., lltr in Amtrkam,
Wiiu, T., on Peruvian mthropology,

270; Ivainrviilker, 369, 43a, 443;
Antkropotogif, 378, 430! portrait,
jj8; Dk Amtrtlunir, 171, J781
IMrod. to AMi&rop^gy, 370, J78,
Wake, C. S., Ckafliri ™ Mm, 8a ;
SirfiHt Hôrskif, M,.

Walam-Olum, 33^.
Waidcck, rredenc de, buya some of
the Boturini collectiDii, i6> ; Vf^gi
iSSl pnrtniil. iSfi: man of Yuraun!

iSS ; in Yuo
, iiu; libeitiea of
Walkenaer, C. A., Vnagtt, xxxTii.

Walfcendorf, Bishop Eric, 107.
Walker, S. T., on Tampa fciyshell-
beapi, 393.
Walker, AOuiaiCmaily, Ohia, 408.
Walker River caBon, 3;!°.
Wallace, A. R., Anli^. a/ Man i<t
influeoce'on ices, 3781 Trcfical

Naturr, 38J ; doM nol believe In
sunken cDnunents, 383 ; Gteg. Dis-
tritulum of Animals, 183 ; Milay
Arcfupttago, 383 1 on Ifie antiq. of
man, 330,384! /*'—"--■- -"-
Wallace, C M., >
«l imfltmtnls.
WarifH ,' a^MixicJ, 1 8^
Warden, David 6., his library, iii;
Artdt virijltr dts dalgs, iii ; dies,
on' ihe'lirinn of ASlrians,''"9; '\m

IheniounirB,399; Rtchtrcfui. i,\^.
Wr™:k7'c., on the mounds.
w:X°&.'^'f?J^ss;';s?
Wegner, G., Dt Km. Sclaminuhi,
Weigel, T. O., xvil ! on D» Brj.
Weighis used by (he Pemnans, 410.

Weise. A, J., biK. 0/ Amirica, 45,
98! on Atlanli),4:.
Weiser, Gonrad,, mlerpretar, 309; hla
Welch, 'i°'k, 'j^^Ji™ ■ Srlici,
■*psKin Aeaerve nisioncai ooc.,407.

Weilrapp, H. K.,PnMtl<,ricPiatu,
Wlal'ely, Richard, Pilil. Eamama,
iSr ; Origin 0/ Civilimaliini, 381.

Wieaton, Tleriy, fftriAmtn, 93.
Whaler, Gl3™™îhe PttNai, S9S
U. S. Gal. Sumy, 396, 4-"

Wheelock, Eleaier, hisciiarii
. . ity school,
.- ....- Dartmouth CoUcec.
/mtian Ckarky Seiffll, jai)
Whiml
1 Pacific S. X. Rtfti., 1^.
,* rilEe'a drawings in Hanot's Vir^
Whitney, J. D., Climatic Changa,

Ix), 383! aearcbes in the Trenton
pavels, 33^; on ifae neolitbk man
■" ■'- tertiary gravels, ajo; vlewe
'lull, jSj 1 huaccountt
ttrtfiroMt Grtrptlt,
- -■ e/titGrava
theCalavi
t, 38s! disbeliev
Grffvcit,
it Gravel
1 ; disbelieves the prece*

le equinoies as affecting
uu.....^, .^7 ; on the Tienton Imple-
ments, 38S I Giol. c/Lakt Sufinor,
Whitney, W. D., Langu^c, 74;

Scaring cf laxptagi cMi Ihc UnS^
{Mfi rejecting Ike toalf ^ Iht
Whitney, y/'i^'sma cf the laiivt
a/Ma
iitlleaey. Col. Cbas,,on anc. heanhf

the Ohio Valley, 389! Atdiquilf
'ttkiV. S., 301; potnaits,
„„. iciU Wartt in Ohia, 199 j
Wiapcni a/ the Ran a/thc MatÛdi,

«»; on the Grave Creek ti*let,
4114; on the Cincinud tablet, 4041
surveys the Marietta mounds, 40JJ
on the Ohio mounda, 407, 408 : Air
firrt on the arehieolojy of Ohio,
[be Vewa'rlt moundiii'ilS'' 'tmS.^
reraainsIS'^, «^ '"' "^ ™™'

Wic1uteed,P.H., 141,431.
Wener, Charles, Ptrcu it Bdivit,
17'! Lt cammmiUmi dct Incat,
371 ; Lci imtitutiaia Ja PEmtirt
fli./«c«,8a,i7i.
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Wilde, 'sii'V. R., on lacuenine dmll-
Wildtr.TB. G., on Jeffries Wvman, jsa,

WillKlRii, K., Iskatd, eti^, ^3. 96.
WBks, Ridianl, ediu £dcn, xinii.
WUKami, C \ô. '

Winiama, G-i GHaitmala. r<n.
îlUams, H. C, fio.
Amelia, lis; tfi^, 113.

WiOiBiiB, S. W., ofl Foiisane. 3a.
mUianuoD, !«., on the Nonhmen in
Maine, M.
WiUiaiDHD, Felet, Suffr<«ri, 3>3.
WnianiBoii on the AmUc origin of
an^.Vr Carolina,
M>D, Marcus^ Amerwai
WTlBon, Sir Daniel. .£i>if .4 UiHjîi,46;
™.<mô,%Ji on pSliIonôck'
iî on'ihe kuTDn-Iraquins, 311 1

00 the Canada iribea, 3m i CerlaiH
Cranial Fi^rms, 373 1 on Ihe unit;
fiist UHd the word " prehistoric/'

376; PrthUterie Man, %jh, 379,
S5i Prt-A*yan Arner. Min, 377:

twriain Historl). -siT, Iilirgla-
ers, 40a : on Ihe Grave Cr«£ tablet,
404 ; accepts the Gncinnati tablet,
Wilioa, R. A.',Nivi Cengual o/Mix-
wlrninH-', '£!' yJ'a., RwumtrifU-a,
Wimêll, Alex., on Atlantis, 4J, on

the retroceuiion of the fa^ of St.
Anthony, j8j ; PrtadatKilti, 379,
l^ckeU.N. H., CeiJ. c/Mmiamla,
"^kj_ TSeaaiplions"^" Ame'ricaJ''

etc, nil Ptottntys Geogrnfih*.
iiv ; " Pre-Columbian Exploia-
tiotia/^ ni ^ Cartography of Green-
land," 117; "Meiico and Central
America," 133; sources of the hit-
torv of the modern Indians. 316 [
" Propisa of Opinion respecting
America," 36^1 ''Bibliog. of Abo-

riginal America," 413: Compre-
ties," 4rs : " Indnslriea and T^d

the American Aborigines." 4r&;
" American Unguiatlcs." 411 ;
K9 ; " Ardixolo^cal MuEsums and

^riodicnls," 4375 CaUsdar iif lAi
Sfarii MSS., î}.
Vinlhrop, Jaa., on Dighlon Rock, 103.
Vinlhrop.R. C.', 437. '
Visconsm Academy of Sciencfl, 438.
Vissman, Carditial, Ltctuns, 373.
Vittmadc, L,, on Peruvian plants
VoUbeini, aTe., If all hi. dtr Scand.,
Voo'divard, Ashbel, Wantpum. 410.

Vorkshopa of stone chipping, 417.
Vormskiold on the uleioC %e Green-
dim, 8s i ace.
MfsSes, 444 ; J
Wrigl.t, B. M., Geld smamtnU/rs.
Ihigra-ais, etc., 173.

Wright, D. F., 410.
Wright, Geo. F.. oti the antiq, of ms
iriDelamire.^j; MiâldtkegL
0hi<!,i«i\'0hio graiielbtds, 3S3.

Wright, Thomas, St. Brandan, 48,
Wureland, 117.
Wuttke, H„ Erdkatidt, 38, 491 c
Ihe Atlantic islands, 47.

Wultke, Grjt*. dtrSchrift, 305.
Wyoming Hist, a
X«mi.A, F. E. A
Xeiw^ DD Peril, J
Xibalba, 134: h<
Xi-c'^l^l-^S'.'
XiSS?S,' 'p^nd
âqui, 135.
Harrow, H. C, Merlmry C.
Vitta'^ Mmillon, A-™ yî
b'Dumans, Eliia
rjfl tfN.Y.,
. .Si< Mayas; difficulty of the
i8g; early described, r86 i leen by
relief^ los'; had an Ethiopian slock,

370; ctudble for melting copper
used, 4r3 ; folk-lore, 434.
Yucay,,47.
Yuma language, 416.
Zani,douniv.,»J.
Zapaila, 22D-
Zapata, MS. Hist, of Tlaicatla, 161]
Cr«nb:i. dt Tlaic^tlloH, ■6^

Zapotecs, 146, 149.
Zaragora, Justo, .67, 444.
Zarale, Auguslin de, ProB. dtl Ptrn,
Zaca'la, L. de, on Uimal, i36.

Zayi, ruins, iSS.
Zegatta, G. P., OUanli^, iSi, zSi.

Zegarra, Pedro, 181 : Ollaitlay, 433.
Zasbetgtr, David, missionary, 423 !
iTdia,, Diclumary, 413 \ on a Dela-
Ztitsikri/t fUr die AnthroM'rut
ZellH, Sick.d^^Xth. &mÛ,

Zenl, brolhen
[ ; ^lî«
lis; DtiCom — -„.-,
73 ; fac-simile of title, etc., 70, 7t i

their [fia^ perhaps used by fiotdone,
history of the beliefin their voyage,
simile of, iiiiajialteredin Picjemy,
used 1^ the young Zeno, ir4, 11&;

map compared with that of Olaui
Magnu., u6; condition of northern
cart<^raj>hy at the date of the Zeno
Zst&.Hut. divtlttmnit sf art, 416.

Zestermaon, C A, A,, Celetii^tum oj
A merica, 60^ S3-
Zmna ijeltT"^ ™""' "^
Zorti,/'««A'«'.,id..
Zumirraga, Bp.. orders a collectuni a
sof thecliEfdwell-
A. de, OD the Quiches,
Hosted by VjOOQIC
Hosted by VjOOQIC
vGoosIe
Hosted by VjOOQIC
/■ • . \* ■ ■' • ■ » ■«■.■ . : • -
1 •::}?'-■ fX'^--'i'-.'ymS!'4
s
? ■■ ■.. ■•".•■. ■■■ •
le

Miroslav Antic - Plavi Cuperak

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Miroslav Antic - Plavi Cuperak

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

"Narrative and Critical History of America ...

NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL

EDITED By JUSTIN WINSOR

VOL. I. — PART 11.

BOSTON AND NEW YORK

THE INCA CIVILIZATIQN IN PERU.

THE civilization of the Incas of Peru is the most important, because

It is necessary, however, to bear in mind that the empire of the Incas,

210 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

throi^h neglect and carelessness. Authors are mentioned, or even quoted,

MAP IN BRASSEUR'S POPUL VtlH.

• [From the Paris (i774) eiliti™ of Zarate. The

artogiaphy under Ihe S]

312 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

of placing the subject before the reader will be ch. i. — Ed.]

of the authorities in the Critical Essay on the Q3.TAaW.^'sCiographieManiqiicraiiBiinie.^.i)i\).

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU.

paca, which are domesticated

Empts have been made

crease its size under cultivs

' Some years ago a priest named Cabrera, the

* (Cf. remarks of Daniel Wilson in his Prehit-

MARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

The most ancient remains of a primitive people in the Peruvian Andes

no handles neatly UDdercut. B, ^

tax masonrr 1]^ about.

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 21 S

REVERSE OF THE DOORWAY AT TIAHUANACU. )

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU.

a mile distant, containing stones 36 feet long by 7, and 26 by 16, with

lief shown in the pic

his is an enlarged drawing of the bas-rel

■n in the picture of the broken doorway (p. iig), Cf.

318 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

In the centre there is a figure carved in high relief, in an obiong com-

^^^^^ ^MSKSL.'^ ^■'" -^ y.

BROKEN MONOLITH DOORWAY AT TIAHUANACU."

• [An enlarged drawing ot the image

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU.

The masonry of the ruins is admirably worked, according to the testi-

It is desirable to describe these ruina, and especially the sculpture over

' Quoted by Garcilasso de la Vega, PCe. I. lib. III. cap. i.

NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

Further north there are other examples of prehistoric cyclopean remains.

Tiahuanacu is interesting because it is possible that the elaborate charac-

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 221

24. — Eo.] are situated is Concacha, from the Quichua word

^ Cap. 94- " CutKachay" — the act of holding down a vic-

222 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

tier, or the founder of a dynasty ; and by others later.

hence a "dweller," or "abider." Coeha means the most ancient,

oithe World." Mus.].

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 223

J'eru, p. 22,) rienced.

224 NARRATIVE AND CRITICAL HISTORY OF AMERICA.

of the brothers showed extraordinary prowess in hurling a stone from a

There is a third myth which seems to connect the ancient tradition of

' G. dc la Vega. » Piruaf * Salcamayhua

THE INCA CIVILIZATION IN PERU. 225

The peculiarities of the temple of Cacha consist in the use of rows of

The catalogue of kings given by Montesinos, allowing an average of twenty

Garcilasso allows 400 yens, which would make 300 years.

Hosted t)y VjOOQ IC