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MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS LABORATORY

ME-307

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


I.I.T.BOMBAY

July 2016

NAME:

ROLL NO.:

BATCH:

Expt. MM1 MM2 MM3 MM4 MM5 MM6


No.
Marks
Obt.
Max.
Marks
Expt. MM7 MM8 MM9 Total
No.
Marks
Obt.
Max.
Marks

i
IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS

1. The laboratory classes begin sharp at 2:00 PM. and end at 5:00pm sharp. COMING
LATE (after 5 minutes) TO CLASS IS NOT ACCEPTABLE. Students who come late
would be allowed, in the Mechatronics lab, but no extra time will be given for the
experiment and no penalty would be imposed. Students coming late to Fluid Power
Lab. Will be asked to go back and come back on the compensation turn day – please
note that if you come late for more than one class you may not be able to
compensate.
2. There are two parts to the laboratory manual. Part A has your batch no. etc. and the
calculation sheet while Part B has the procedure and other supplementary material. You
are expected to return Part B at the end of the course – if you don’t your grade will not be
uploaded. Part A is yours to keep.
3. Without the laboratory manual Part A, students are not allowed to perform the
experiments since this has your submission sheet. No submission of files or note
books is required.
4. Bring your calculators and other stationeries.
5. Students should commence the experiments immediately after the respective
instructor or TA explains the method of conducting the experiment.
6. You are expected to perform one sample calculation. An excel sheet is uploaded on a few
computers in the lab. And you can check whether your calculations are correct – if they
are, get the TA to verify the calculations. The rest of the results you can copy from the
machine.
7. Conclusions are to be well-thought about and they should be such that the theory taught
in the course are connected to the experimental results.

There will be an endsem for the course – there will be a practical and a
theoretical portion. Endsem will carry 30% and insem 70%. Insem evaluation will
be done everyweek as soon as the expt. is over by the TA. Endsem practical portion
will have 15% and written will have 15% weightage. Marks for endsem, both for
written and practical will be shown to you before final grading. Written part will be
graded by the instructors and practical by the TAs.

8. BATCH NUMBERS AND THE DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS TO BE


CONDUCTED BY EACH BATCH ON A GIVEN DAY ARE LISTED.

ii
CONTENTS

EXPERIMENTS TO BE CONDUCTED IN MECHATRONICS LAB


LOCATION: FIRST FLOOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING BUILDING)

Page
Sl.No Name of the Experiment
No

MM 1 EXPT. 1 - PART A: FAMILIARISATION WITH PC SCOPE AND BREAD


BOARD THROUGH RC CIRCUIT
1-8
EXPT. 1 - PART B: BASIC WORKING OF INSTRUMENTATION OP
AMP (INA 129)
MM2
EXPT. 2 - DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM USING
9
R-C CIRCUIT
MM3
EXPT. 3 - FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM 10-12
USING RLC CIRCUIT
MM4 EXPT. 4 - PART A: APPLICATION OF OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING
AMPLIFIER
EXPT. 4 - PART B: APPLICATION OF OP-AMP AS INVERTING
13-16
AMPLIFIER
EXPT. 4 - PART C: APPLICATION OF OP-AMP AS DIFFERNTIAL
AMPLIFIER
MM5 EXPT. 5 - PART A: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A
DIFFERENTIATOR
EXPT. 5 - PART B: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS INTEGRATOR
17-22
EXPT. 5 - PART C: GENERATION OF A CUSTOM SIGNAL (SQUARE
WAVE) AND STUDY THE RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF RC
CIRCUIT FOR THIS CUSTOM SIGNAL

iii
CONTENTS

EXPERIMENTS TO BE CONDUCTED IN STEAM POWER LAB


(STEAM POWER LAB)

Sl.No Page
Name of the Experiment
No

MM6 EXPT. 6 - PART A STATIC CALIBRATION OF A K-TYPE


THERMOCOUPLE
23-26
EXPT. 6 - PART B MEASUREMENT OF TIME CONSTANT OF A
THERMOCOUPLE
MM7 EXPT. 7 - PART A MEASUREMENT OF MASS FLOW RATE BY
ORIFICEMETER
27-35
EXPT. 7 - PART B NOZZLE FLAPPER ARRANGEMENT FOR THE
MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT
MM8 EXPT. 8 - PART A MODELLING OF MANOMETER AS A SECOND
ORDER SYSTEM FOR STEP INPUT
EXPT. 8 - PART B MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE 36-39
(SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC PRESSURE) USING
SPHYGMOMANOMETER

MM9 EXPT. 9 - DETERMINATION OF GAUGE FACTOR OF STRAIN GAUGE


40-42

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EXPERIMENT 1

PART A: FAMILIARISATION WITH PC SCOPE AND BREAD BOARD THROUGH RC


CIRCUIT

Aim – To gain familiarity with Bread board, PC scope and PC scope data logger through RC circuit

Apparatus – Bread board, wires, oscilloscope connected to PC (PC scope), resistor and capacitor.

Details of Bread board:

Fig 1.1 (a) Schematic of the Bread Board

A
B A
B 1 A
1
D 2 A
D 2 A
D A
1 D Fig 1.1 (b) Equipotential lines
C
1 D C
o 2 such that
Hold the breadboard D the longer side is horizontal.
o 2
There are four independent portions (A, B, C and D) created by three notches as in Fig. 1.1a.
Here, independence means portions A, B, C and D are not connected with each other.
Portion A and D
o Each portion of A and D is further subdivided into two regions as A1 and A2 shown in Fig. 1.1
(a)
Each horizontal line [(shown through arrows in Fig. 1.1(a)] of A1, A2, D1 and D2
represent a single potential. Usually, as a general practice, these points are considered as ground
for a circuit.
Portion B and C
o In portions B and C, each vertical line [shown through arrows in Fig. 1.1(a)] represents a single
potential.
o The above explanation can be better understood through Fig. 1.1(b) showing equipotential lines.
Details of PC scope probe

1
Figure 1.2 a) shows a typical PC scope probe.
o The oscilloscope probe is a passive connector which is used to connect the PC scope to the
electrical circuit. It consists of three parts: a retractable hook tip, a crocodile clip and a BNC
connector.
o BNC connector: It is used to connect the PC scope to the probe.
o Retractable hook tip: It is used to connect the node of the electrical circuit to the PC scope where
there is a need to measure the signal or provide an input.
o Crocodile clip: It is connected to the ground (using a wire) of the electrical circuit in the bread
board.
o Make sure the RED slider on the probe is at the X1 position only, signifying that the
amplification is unity.

Crocodile clip

BNC connector

b)

a)
Fig. 1.2 a) PC scope probe b) PC scope

Details of PC scope
o Click the EasyScope shortcut on the desktop and Fig 1.3 will be displayed on the screen.
o Now make sure that all the probes (PC scope probe) are connected to the PC scope.
o Click on the Signal icon and give the desired input signal (sine wave, triangular wave, square
wave etc).
o The “OUT” icon stands for output of the circuit for a given input signal. Once clicked, its color
will change from violet to light blue which means that the PC Scope can now read the output.
o After giving the desired input signal, click on the “Run” icon. Now press the “Auto Set” icon so
that the interface can adjust itself according to the amplitude and frequency of the input and
output signal.
o Now click the “Meter A” and “Meter B” icons. “Meter A” stands for the input and “Meter B”
stands for the Output. As the “Meter A” and “Meter B” interface is displayed on the screen, click
on the configure button and change the display of the meter as per requirement. “Meter A” and
“Meter B” are interchangeable.

2
Fig 1.3: PC Scope interface

Procedure for giving an input from signal of PCscope:


o Click the “Signal” icon on the PC scope interface and Fig 1.4 will be displayed on the screen
o Select the type of signal, desired peak to peak voltage and desired frequency.
o Click on the “Apply” button followed by the “OK” button and the desired input is fed to the
circuit

Fig 1.4: PC Scope Signal Generator

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Procedure To use data logger:

Play/Stop

Fig 1.5: Easy Logger Interface

o Click the Easy Logger shortcut on the desktop of the computer and an interface identical to Fig
1.5 will be displayed on the screen.
o Now make sure that all the probes are connected to the PC scope.
o Click on the “Run” tab and a drop down box will appear. Select “SigGen” and give the desired
input signal.
o On the top right corner, there is a “Sample Interval” dialogue box. Set the sample interval to 1
millisecond (or any other desirable sample interval).
o After giving the desired input signal, click on the “PLAY” icon. Once the required data is logged
into the easy logger, click on the “STOP” icon.
o Click on “File” tab. A drop down box will appear. Export the input and output signals to a
“*.csv” file format for further calculation by saving the file. Whatever signals (input and output)
are visible on the monitor, would be exported as a file with first column as input and the second
column as output. Insert a column to provide the time step as 1 millisecond.

Calculation of resistance:
o Turn the resistor so that the gold or silver stripe is at the right end of the resistor.
o Look at the color of the first two stripes on the left end. These correspond to the first two digits of
the resistor value. Use the table given below to determine the first two digits.
o Look at the third stripe from the left. This corresponds to a multiplication value. Find the value
using the table below.
o Multiply the two digit number from step two by the number obtained from step three. This is the
value of the resistor in ohms. The fourth stripe indicates the accuracy of the resistor.

4
Table 1.1: Resistance color code

Sample:
You are given a resistor whose stripes are colored from left to right as brown, black, orange, gold. Find
the resistance value.
 The gold stripe is on the right so go to Step two.
 The first stripe is brown which has a value of 1. The second stripe is black which has a value of 0.
Therefore the first two digits of the resistance value are 10.
 The third stripe is orange which means a multiplication of 1,000 needs to be applied.
 The value of the resistance is found as 10  1000 = 10,000 ohms i.e., 10 kΩ
 The gold stripe means the actual value of the resistor may vary by 5% meaning the actual value
will be somewhere between 9,500 ohms and 10,500 ohms. (Since 5% of 10,000 = 0.05  10,000
= 500)

Calculation of Capacitance:
Sample Calculation:
 Step 1: In Fig. 1.6, the first two digits from the left indicates the first two digits of the capacitor
value. Here, in this case the first two digits are 1 and 0. Therefore, the first two digits of the
capacitor value is 10.
 Step 2: The third digit is 4 which means that four zeroes would be followed by 1 (10,000 pF).
 The value of the capacitor is found out to be the product of the number obtained in step 1 and step
2. That is, 10  10000 = 10,0000 pF i.e 0.1 µF.

5
Fig 1.6: Ceramic capacitor

Circuit Diagram:
Figures 1.7 and 1.8 show the RC circuit and PC scope.

Fig. 1.7 Typical RC circuit Fig. 1.8 PC scope

Experimental Procedure:
o Build an RC circuit as shown in Fig. 1.7 on the bread board.
o Circuit Input to the PC scope
First PC scope probe is taken. BNC connector of this PC scope is connected to the input of the
PC scope shown in Fig. 1.8. Connect the retractable hook tip of the PC scope probe (input
probe) to the open end of the resistor. The crocodile clip of this input PC scope probe is
connected to the ground of the bread board.
o Circuit Output to the PC scope
Second PC scope probe is taken. BNC connector of this PC scope is connected to the output of
the PC scope shown in Fig. 1.8. Connect the retractable hook tip of the PC scope probe (output
probe) to common junction of resistor and capacitor. The crocodile clip of this input PC scope
probe is connected to the ground of the bread board.
o Desired Signal Input to the PC scope

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Third PC scope probe is taken. BNC connector of this PC scope is connected to the signal
generator of the PC scope shown in Fig. 1.8. Connect the retractable hook tip of the PC scope
probe (input probe) to the open end of the resistor. The crocodile clip of this input PC scope
probe is connected to the ground of the bread board.

Following flow chart shows the flow of input and output signals.

Desired
input signal Signal
generator of Input Electrical
PC Scope Circuit
to be
generated

Output

Input applied to Output


the circuit for generated by the
PC scope circuit for PC
display scope display
(Meter A) (Meter B)

Fig. 1.9 Flowchart indicating the flow of input and output signals

o There is a switch on the probe. Make sure that the switch is towards ‘X1’ side so that the values
are not amplified by the probe.
o Give sinusoidal signal of very low amplitude (2 V) as input and observe the output.
o Increase the amplitude of the input signal and observe the output, repeat this step three times.
Also observe the phase difference between input and output signals.
o Measure the peak voltage of both input and output signal using meter A and B. Also observe the
phase difference between input and output signals.
o Try giving only sine signal at some other frequency and observe/measure the output.
o For constant amplitude change ‘w’ to 3 different values.

7
EXPERIMENT 1

PART B: BASIC WORKING OF INSTRUMENTATION OP AMP (INA 129)

Aim – To study the basic working of Instrumentation Op Amp (INA129)

Apparatus – INA 129, bread board, wires, DC power supply, oscilloscope connected to PC

Fig. 1.10 Schematic of the instrumentation operational amplifier with pins (INA 129)
Experimental Procedure:

o Make the circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.10 on the bread board. The op amp can be placed such
that it straddles the line dividing section B & C on the bread board.
o Connect the retractable hook tip of the input probe and signal generator probe of the PC Scope at
pin 3 and the crocodile clip of both the probe (input and signal generator) at pin 2 of INA 129.
o Connect the retractable hook tip of the output probe at pin 6 and the crocodile clip of the output
probe at pin 5 of INA 129. Make a virtual ground in the breadboard and connect pin 5 to this
virtual ground.
o Select the value of RG based on desired gain. The relation between RG and gain/amplification (G)
is given in Table 1.1 in the other manual (Calculation part of manual).
o Connect the resistance RG across pins 1 and 8 of INA 129.
o Power supply is set to 12V whose positive end is connected to pin 7 while its negative end is
connected to pin 4.
o Give a sinusoidal signal of 200mV amplitude and 300 Hz frequency in the signal generator and
observe the output at the interface of PC Scope in the monitor.
o Change the value of RG, repeat the above procedure and observe the output.
o Note down the output in the observation table.

8
EXPERIMENT 2

DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM USING R-C CIRCUIT


Aim:
 To study and understand the behavior of a first order system simulated by an RC circuit using a
PC-based oscilloscope-cum-signal generator (OCSG) with sinusoidal and ramp inputs. The
output amplitude and phase difference is to be studied with various frequencies of the input
signal.
 Find the response characteristic of the RC circuit for a generated square wave using Fourier series
as an input and compare with the theoretical response.

Apparatus:
Resistor, capacitor, breadboard, PC scope

Procedure:
o Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.1 with given electronic components.

Fig. 2.1 RC circuit

o Choose an appropriate resistance and capacitance (R = 1 k and C = 0.1 F). Calculate the cut-
1
off frequency f 
2 RC
o Connect the OCSG output probe to supply the input as shown. Connect “Channel A” probe of the
OCSG to the input probe and “Channel B” across the capacitor to extract the output.
o The input to the circuit will be sinusoidal and square signals of constant amplitude (~ 5 volts peak
to peak) and variable frequency in order to obtain the frequency response characteristics.
o Apply a sinusoidal wave as the input to the RC circuit. Study the output across the capacitor on
the screen and make quantitative observations (see Table 2.1) regarding the amplitude and phase
of input and output waveform.
o Using the oscilloscope function in the PC software, Export the input and output signals to a
“*.csv” file for further calculation. Measure the amplitude and phase difference between the input
and output signals in MS Excel.
o Take three different readings above, three readings below, and one at the cut off frequency.
o Calculate the static gain in each case and plot the frequency response of the given RC circuit for
the static gain and phase difference on the graph sheets.
o Repeat the experiment for square wave as the input to the RC circuit. However, select input
frequencies such that they are lower than the cut off frequency.

9
EXPERIMENT 3

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM USING RLC CIRCUIT

Aim:
 To determine the resonance frequency in a series RLC circuit and compare its value with the
theoretical value.
 To study the frequency response of a series RLC circuit for different damping ratios.

Apparatus Required: Bread-board, variable resistor, capacitor, inductor, multi-meter, PC oscilloscope


and connecting wires.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Determination of resonance frequency
(i) The function generator frequency is set to 50 Hz before making the connection. The
signal generator output is set to 3V (peak to peak).
(ii) Using the breadboard connect the resistor, capacitor, and inductor along with the output
of the function generator to construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.1. Note that the peak
to peak voltage is measured across the resistor using the oscilloscope.
(iii) Make sure that the resistance is less than 1000 Ω (i.e. the system is under damped) , for
Part 1 of the experiment. All the components are connected in series with the supply
given by the function generator. All the ground connections are made at one end of the
resistor.

Fig 3.1: Series RLC circuit for determination of resonance frequency

(iv) Use following relation to compute the expected resonance frequency (wn) and record
your results in Table 3.1
1
n 
LC
(v) Set the function generator frequency to 100Hz and record the peak to peak voltage from
the oscilloscope. Then, adjust the excitation frequency to 200 Hz and record the voltage.
Adjust the frequency to 300 Hz and record the voltage. Continue varying the excitation
frequency to discrete values below the expected resonance frequency computed in step
(iv). Record the voltage for each of these values.

10
(vi) Determine the experimental value for resonance frequency by finding the frequency that
produces the largest gain on the oscilloscope. Record this frequency and gain.
(vii) Record the voltage for frequency values that are above the resonance frequency
determined in step (iii).
(viii) Plot a graph between gain and frequency ( f ) and determine the resonance frequency of
the circuit.

Frequency response of RLC circuit for different damping ratios

Fig 3.2: Series RLC circuit for determination of the pattern response under different
damping ratios

(i) Using the breadboard, connect the resistor, capacitor and inductor along with the output
of the function generator to construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.2. Note that the peak
to peak voltage is measured across the capacitor using the oscilloscope and the input
voltage is provided to the resistor.
(ii) The function generator frequency is set to 100 Hz before making the connection. The
signal generator output is set to 3V (peak to peak).
(iii) Use the same circuit as used in Part (1) of this experiment. In this case, the output voltage
is measured across the capacitor, so connect the terminals of the oscilloscope across the
capacitor.
(iv) The damping ratio  is given by
R C

2 L
Vary the value of the resistance such that  takes different values, so that overdamping,
underdamping and critical damping in the circuit is observed.
(v) Adjust the resistance such that the system corresponds to an underdamped system. Apply
a frequency of 100 Hz and record the input and output voltage. Change the excitation
frequency as a function of resonance frequency (𝝎= 𝝎n/2,n, 𝝎2n,𝝎3n) and obtain the
input and output voltages.
(vi) Repeat step (iv) for different damping ratios. Take 3 sets of readings, one each for an
under-damped, over-damped system, and critically damped systems. (You can change the
damping ratio by changing the resistance value of the variable resistance).
(vii) Plot a graph between Vo/Vi and 𝝎/ 𝝎n for the three values of .
(viii) Compare the experimental and theoretical behavior of the system. Theoretically, the ratio
Vo/Vi of a second order system is given as,

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12
EXPERIMENT 4

PART A: APPLICATION OF OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Aim: To set-up the circuit of op-amp as non-inverting amplifier and measure its gain

Apparatus Required: IC 741, Resistors – 1 kΩ, 100 Ω, 10 kΩ, Regulated DC power supply, PC
oscilloscope, Multimeter.

Circuit Diagram

3
2

Fig. 4.1 Circuit of Non-inverting amplifier

Fig. 4.2 Schematic of IC741(Opamp)

Design Procedure:
o Select the desired gain of the amplifier.
o The ideal gain of non-inverting amplifier is given by
Rf
AF  1 
R1
o For Ex: Gain = 11; R1 = 1 kRF = 10 k OR R1 = 100 RF = 1 k (Gain is dependent on the
ratio of resistors, not the absolute values)

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o The exact gain of non-inverting amplifier is given by
V
AF  o 

A R1 R f 
Vin R1  R f  AR1
Experimental Procedure:
o Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.1.
o Set f=500 Hz.
o Don’t go beyond 1000mV input voltage.
o Apply +12V to pin 7 and –12V to pin 4. Connect common terminal of power supply to ground on
the breadboard.
o Apply a A.C voltage of 0.2V using PC Oscilloscope to the pin-3 of IC. Measure the output using
PC scope.
o Increase voltage in steps of 0.2V upto 1.0V and measure the output. Note down the output in
observation table.
o Change the value of all resistance such that the signal after amplification does not exceed 10V.
(V0<=10 V)
o Apply a D.C voltage of 1V using PC Oscilloscope to the pin-3 of IC. Measure the output.
o Increase voltage in steps of 0.5V upto 2.0V and measure the output. Note down the output in
observation table.

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EXPERIMENT 4

PART B: APPLICATION OF OP-AMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Aim: To set-up the circuit of op-amp as inverting amplifier and measure its gain

Apparatus Required: IC 741, Resistors – 1 kΩ, 100Ω, 10 kΩ, Regulated DC power supply, PC
Oscilloscope, Multimeter.

Circuit Diagram
3

Fig. 4.3 Circuit2 of inverting amplifier

Design Procedure:
o Select the desired gain of the amplifier.
o The ideal gain of non-inverting amplifier is given by
V ARF R
AF  o    F
Vin AR1 R1
o For Ex: Gain = -10; R1 = 1 kRF = 10 k OR R1 = 100 RF = 1 k (Gain is dependent on the
ratio of resistors, not the absolute values)
o Take RL=10k, R1=Rf=1k
o The exact gain of non-inverting amplifier is given by
Vo ARF

Vin ( R1  AR1  RF )
Experimental Procedure:
o Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.3.
o Apply +12V to pin 7 and –12V to pin 4. Connect common terminal of power supply to ground on
the breadboard.
o Apply a A.C voltage of 0.2V using PC Oscilloscope to the pin-2 of IC. Measure the output.
o Increase voltage in steps of 0.2V upto 1.0V and measure the output. Note down the output in
observation table.

15
o Change the value of all resistance such that the signal after amplification does not exceed 10V.
o Apply a D.C voltage of 0.5V using PC Oscilloscope to the pin-2 of IC. Measure the output.
o Increase voltage in steps of 0.5V upto 2.0V and measure the output. Note down the output in
observation table.

EXPERIMENT 4
PART C: APPLICATION OF OP-AMP AS DIFFERNTIAL AMPLIFIER

Aim: To set-up the circuit of op-amp as differential amplifier and measure its gain

Apparatus Required: IC 741, Resistors – 1 kΩ, 100 Ω, 10 kΩ, Regulated DC power supply, Multimeter

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 4.4 Circuit of inverting amplifier

Design Procedure:
o Select the desired gain of the amplifier.
o The ideal gain of the differential amplifier is given by
V R
AD  o   F
o Use R2 = R1 and RF = R3 Vxy R1

Experimental Procedure:
o Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.4.
o Apply +12V to pin 7 and –12V to pin 4. Connect common terminal of power supply to
ground on the breadboard.
o Apply two different voltages Vx and Vy and measure the output. Make sure that the difference
in the voltage should not exceed 10 V.
o Repeat the above step 5 for different Vx and Vy .

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EXPERIMENT 5

PART A: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A DIFFERENTIATOR

Aim: To study the application of an op-amp as a differentiator.

Apparatus required: IC 741, resistors - 150Ω, 1.5kΩ, capacitors – 0.1µf, 0.01µf, PC oscilloscope, signal
generator, regulated DC power supply

Circuit diagram:

Fig 5.1 Differentiator circuit

Fig. 5.2 Schematic of IC741(Opamp)

Design procedure:
o Select given input frequency fa such that,
1
fa 
2 R f C1
o Assume C1 and find the value of Rf given by the above equation.
1
o Select fb= 10 fa  , find R1 from this equation.
2 R1C1
o R1=150Ω , C 1=0.1µf, Rf=1.5kΩ, Cf=0.01µf
o Using R1C1 = Rf Cf, find Cf .

Experimental procedure:
o Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 5.1.

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o Apply Square/Sine wave input of desired frequency and magnitude (4V(peak to peak) and 1
kHz).
o Observe the output voltage at pin 6 of op-amp.

EXPERIMENT 5
PART B: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS INTEGRATOR

Aim: To study the application of an op-amp as an integrator.

Apparatus required: IC 741, resistors - 150Ω, 1.5kΩ, capacitor 0.1µF, PC oscilloscope, signal
generator, regulated DC power supply 0-30V.

Circuit diagram:

Fig. 5.3 Integrator Circuit

Design procedure:
o Select given input frequency fa such that,
1
o fa 
2 R f C f
o Assume Cf and find Rf using above relation.
o Select Rf=10 R1, find R1 from this equation.
o Cf=0.1µF, fa=1061.6Hz, Rf=1.5kΩ, R1=150Ω
o The peak to peak output voltage is given by:
t
1
R1CF 
vo   vindt  C
0
Experimental Procedure:
o Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram shown in the Fig. 5.3.
o Apply Square/Sine wave input of desired frequency and magnitude (0.5V(peak to peak and 1
kHz).
o Observe the output voltage at pin 6 of op-amp.

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EXPERIMENT 5

PART C: GENERATION OF A CUSTOM SIGNAL (SQUARE WAVE) AND STUDY


THE RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF RC CIRCUIT FOR THIS CUSTOM SIGNAL
Aim:
 Find the response characteristics of a RC circuit for a generated square wave using Fourier series
as input and compare with the theoretical response.

Apparatus:
Resistor, capacitor, breadboard, PC scope

Procedure:
o Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 5.4 with given electronic components.

Fig. 5.4 RC circuit

o Chose appropriate resistance and capacitance (R = 1 k and C = 0.1 F). Calculate the cut off
1
frequency f 
2 RC
o Connect the oscilloscope-cum-signal generator output probe to supply the input as shown.
Connect “Channel A” probes of the oscilloscope-cum-signal generator to the input probe and
“Channel B” across the capacitor to extract the output.
o Simulate the given square wave shown in Fig. 5.5 using Fourier series and find the response
characteristic for this input. Compare the experimental observation with the theoretical
prediction using MS excel.
Volts

- 1 Milliseconds
1

Fig. 5.5 The square wave signal to be generated

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Procedure to generate a custom signal through the PC oscilloscope
o PC oscilloscope allows users to generate their own signal.
o File containing signal should be in .csv format. It can be generated in ‘MS excel’or‘Open office
calc’softwares.
o Easyscope software reads maximum 1024 rowsfrom top in the first column. It ignores contents of
all other cells.
o All numbers in the first column should be the values of the signal in mV.
o Time lag between any two consecutive numbers is automatically taken as 2*10^-6 sec.
o First 1024 rows in first column should not contain non numeric data. There should not be blank
spaces in between, i.e. First column should be filled continuously without any blank cells.
o If data ends before 1024th row in the first column, then remaining rows upto 1024th row should
be left blank.
o Figure 5.6 shows content of a sample file. It is a sinusoidal wave of 5000 mV amplitude and 500
Hz frequency.
o It is filled only upto 1001th cell, because the wave cycle ends at that point and then it is repeated
by the software. It is shown in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.6 Content of a sample file

20
Fig. 5.7 Contents of a sample file along with a typical plot

Saving data into .csv file


o Easyscope software allows users to save the signal shown by channel A and Channel B in .csv
file.
o First click on ‘stop’ button which is at lower right corner of the software window.
o Click on ‘Screen’ button on the menu bar, then click on ‘save to csv text file’.
o A .csv file will be saved. Open the file in MS Excel or Open office calc.
o First column contains the signal shown by the channel A and second column is the signal shown
by the channel B. Ignore remaining columns.
o Note down the reading pointed by ‘TimeBase T/Div’ knob. Sampling rate in the .csv file is knob
value divided by fifty. E.g. if knob is pointing at 50 ms, then time lag between any two
consecutive readings in .csv file is 1 ms as shown in Figure 5.8.

21
Fig. 5.8 Details of the time step during data acquisition

22
EXPERIMENT 6

PART A STATIC CALIBRATION OF A K-TYPE THERMOCOUPLE

Aim: The objective of this experiment is to perform static calibration of a K-type thermocouple

Apparatus : thermocouple wire, variac, thermometer, constant temperature bath, ice bath, multimeter

Experimental Procedure:

Fabrication of thermocouple
o The thermocouple junction is formed by joining its two wires of dissimilar metals, in the
current case of K-type thermocouple the two metals are chromel and alumel alloys.
o Cut the insulation from the thermocouple wire exposing the metal core. Twist the wire at
one end
o Turn the knob of the variac to zero volts and make the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.1.

T
R Chromel Alumel
A wire wire
Power
N
supply S
~ F
O
R
M
E Graphite rod
R

E
r

Fig. 6.1 Schematic of the setup required for making a thermocouple bead

o Increase the output voltage of the variac to approx. 20-30 volts. Strike the twisted end of
the thermocouple over the graphite piece to form a nearly spherical bead. You may have
to repeat the process a couple of times.
o If the bead is not formed, voltage may be increased on the variable transformer (variac).
Do not exceed 100 V. Repeat the same step for the other thermocouple wire also.

Preparation of ICE BATH


Take a thermosflask. Fill it will the crushed ice. Pour little water into it so that voids caused by air are
removed. Place a test tube filled with glycerine into this thermosflask. This acts as ice bath whose
reference temperature is 0C.

23
Static calibration of a thermocouple
o Connect the thermocouple wires as shown in the Fig. 6.2.

Alumel

Fig. 6.2 Schematic of the cold and hot junction (of thermocouple) connections

o Place the hot junction (measuring junction) of the thermocouple in the constant temperature bath.
o Set the required temperature of the constant temperature bath (Julabo make). To start with, the
temperature set would be 40 C.
o Once the temperature of the constant temperature bath (as shown by the temperature indicator of
the bath) reaches the set temperature, take the voltage reading shown by multimeter.
o Take the voltage for different temperatures of the constant temperature bath (increase the
temperature in steps of 10C)
o Make a note of voltmeter reading and thermometer reading after the water bath has come to a
steady state.
o Raise the temperature of bath by 10ᵒC step until you reach 130ᵒC.

Graphs: Plot a graph of measured temperature along the y-axis and millivolt reading along the x-axis.
Using Microsoft excel, find the slope and ordinate of Y = mX + C

24
EXPERIMENT 6

PART B MEASUREMENT OF TIME CONSTANT OF A THERMOCOUPLE

Aim: Amplify the output of the thermocouple from millivolts to volts and measure the time constant of a
thermocouple

Apparatus: thermocouple wire, variac, thermometer, constant temperature bath, ice bath, PC
Oscilloscope, Bread Board, wires, resistor, instrumentation operational amplifier (INA 129).

Experimental Procedure :

o Take out the hot junction of the thermocouple wire from the hot water bath. Allow it to cool and
reach room temperature
o Retain the set hot water temperature bath of 130C as it is in the Part A of this experiment.
o Connect the open end of the hot thermocouple junction to the positive V IN and that of cold
junction at the negative VIN of the Instrumentation Amplifier 129(INA 129 as shown in Fig. 6.3)
as shown in Fig. 6.4. Select an RG = 100 . Calculate the corresponding the gain of the circuit.
o Connect the Output junction of the INA 129 to the Output/Input of the PC Oscilloscope as shown
in Fig. 6.4.
o Turn ON the PC Oscilloscope data logger. Now, place the thermocouple junction in the hot bath.
As soon as it reaches the steady state Turn OFF the PC Oscillosocpe.
o Import the csv file into Microsoft excels. Plot the graph with x-axis as time (seconds) and y-axis
as voltage (volts).
o Now divide this voltage with the gain of the Instrumentation op-amp 129(INA 129). Convert
volts into mV.
o Convert this millivolt into temperature using the equation generated in the form Y=
mX + C (where Y is in mV and X is in °C) from the static calibration of the K-type thermocouple.

Fig. 6.3 Schematic of the instrumentation operational amplifier (INA 129)

25
Fig. 6.4 Circuit diagram for amplification of the output of thermcouple

26
EXPERIMENT 7

PART A: MEASUREMENT OF MASS FLOW RATE BY ORIFICEMETER

AIM:
o To identify the orifice on which the experiment is to be carried based on the P/ m (Pa/gms/s)
ratio at maximum mass flow rate given
o To calibrate the identified orificemeter so that variation of coefficient of discharge with pipe
diameter based Reynolds number is generated.

Apparatus: orifice made of acrylic rod, flexible connecting tubes, differential pressure transducer(DPT)
along with indicator, flow control valve, pressure regulator, Drycal.

Schematic Diagram:

DryCal (Primary flow calibrator)


The DryCal DC-2 is a simple-to-use battery-powered portable primary flow meter. The DC-2 can be used
to measure air flow rates for either a vacuum flow source (connected to the outlet port) or a pressure flow
source connected to the inlet port. The DryCal consists of two primary sections. The base contains the
electronics and computer, while the flow cell performs the actual physical measurements. The base has an
opening on its upper surface into which the flow cell is installed. The front of the base is angled for easy
reading of the LCD display and includes a Power On/Off switch and Charge LED indicator. Volumetric
flow readings are obtained with the push of a button. The DryCal can be set to take flow readings
automatically, or manually one reading at a time. With each reading, the standardized flow are
automatically displayed on the LCD display.

The DryCal is a true primary gas standard. The time required for a frictionless piston to traverse a known
volume is precisely measured and an internal computer calculates the flow rate. The accuracy of the
instrument is built into its dimensions, sensors and timing crystal. When in use, gas flows from the inlet
fitting through the internal cell valve to the outlet fitting. When a reading is begun, the valve closes and
gas is diverted into the flow-measuring cell. The piston rises proportional to the rate of gas flow. A
photo-optic sensor reads a precision encoder attached to the piston and the time between encoder
windows is measured by a crystal clock after a suitable acceleration interval. When a reading is
completed, the valve is opened and the piston reset. The Drycal instantaneously displays the flow reading
on its LCD display.
The photograph and specifications of the drycal are given below.

Fig. 8.1 Photograph of drycal


Table 8.1 Specification of Drycal

27
Steps to use Drycal
To maintain the best possible accuracy and minimize thermal effects, Mesa recommends fully charging
the battery before taking measurements. If this is not possible, they recommend disconnecting the
Defender from its AC power adapter/charger while taking flow measurements — or to run gas through
the Defender for 10 minutes before starting the flow measurement.

First steps
Press the power button.
• Press the On/Off button for 1 second to turn on your Defender.
• When first turned on, your Defender displays an opening screen showing the product name, model
number and flow range.
• Press the On/Off button for 3 seconds to turn your Defender off.
Connect device to be calibrated to the appropriate Defender port. Use ¼ inch diameter tubing.
• Connect to outlet at top (suction fitting) when a device draws air (such as sampler).
• Connect to inlet at bottom (pressure fitting) when a device pushes air.
• Do not cap the unused port on the Defender.
• Select the reading type to Vol or Std. Set ‘Std To’ to the desired standardizing temperature
• Choose the measurement type continuous (Single, Burst, or Continuous), then press enter.

(010 in series) indicates the number of measurements. 10 is the factory-preset number. Define the number
of measurement you prefer, from 1 to 100, by accessing the SETUP menu.

28
Data required for identifying appropriate orificemeter for a given P/ m (Pa/gms/s) ratio is given in Table
8.1
Table 8.1 Details of the orifices
Sl No. Diameter of the pipe (D) Diameter of the orifice CDat maximum mass
(mm) (d) flow rate
(mm)
1 5 3.1 0.92
2 5 3.4 0.85
3 5 3.8 0.87

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND PROCEDURE:

 A sensitivity ratio (P/ m ) is provided to you. Calculate the sensitivity ratio of all orifices (1-3) to
determine which orifice meter you would be working with.
 Connect them in series with a flow control valve and an air supply using polyurethrane tubes at
the upstream side of the orifice plate. Use connectors to connect polyurethrane tubes of different
diameters. Connect the positive end of the differential pressure transmitter (DPT) to the upstream
flow of the orifice plate while the negative end to the downstream side of the orifice plate.
Connect the pressure gage to measure the upstream pressure. The schematic is as shown in Fig
8.2
 Connect the downstream side of orifice to Drycal which is a standard for volume flow rate
measurement. Please note that the Drycal indicates the flowrate at STP conditions (105 Pa and
0C)
 Adjust the discharge in the orifice using the flow control valve such that the Drycal reading is
lower than 22 lpm. Maintain air supply at 1.0 bar (gauge) indicated on the gage placed on the
pressure regulator.
 Note down the readings of the DPT reading, Drycal reading, thermometer reading (temperature of
the air exiting the drycal) and upstream pressure gage reading. Now decrease the discharge in the
orifice using flow control valve and again note down the readings.
 Repeat the above steps for atleast a dozen times by decreasing differential pressure in steps of
100 Pa until the volume flow rate indicated by the Drycal reaches around 10 lpm.
 Calculate the density of air by assuming that air as an ideal gas.
 Calculate the discharge coefficient CD and Reynolds number(Re) using the following relations.
VD 4m
Re  
 D
2 P d
m th  C D A2 
1  4 D

 of air = 18.54  10-6 Pa.s,  of air (std) = 1.25 Kg/m3, Flow rate = 30 lpm
Plot the graph of CD variation with Reynolds number.

29
Differential
Pressure
Transducer
(DPT)

Positive end of Negative end of


DPT connected
DPT connected to
to upstream flow
upstream flow

Pressure Flow Pressure


Orifice
Compressor regulator control gage to
valve valve measure
line
pressure

DryCal

Fig. 8.2 Line diagram of the flowmetering through orifice

All the components shown in the line diagram are shown in Figs 8.3 – 8.9.

30
Fig. 8.3 Pressure gage Fig. 8.4 Orifice

Fig. 8.5 Connector Fig. 8.6 Flow Control Valve

Fig. 8.7 Pressure regulator Fig. 8.8 DryCal

Fig. 8.9 Differential Pressure transducer with power supply unit

31
EXPERIMENT 7

PART B NOZZLE FLAPPER ARRANGEMENT FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF


DISPLACEMENT

Aim: To establish a relationship between the displacement of the flapper and the pressure upstream
of the flapper in order to determine thickness of plates.

Apparatus: Plate, 5 mm diameter pipe, nozzle, orifice, pressure transducer. D.C regulated
power supply.

Schematic Diagram:

(orifice)

(nozzle)

(pressure
Stationary block transducer)
Fig. 7.3 Schematic of Nozzle flapper arrangement

32
Line diagram:

Differential
Pressure
Transducer
(DPT)

Positive end of Negative end of DPT


DPT connected to connectedto upstream
upstream flow flow

Pressure Flow Pressure


Compressor gage to Orifice
regulator control
valve valve measure
line
pressure

Nozzle Pressure
Thin plate Transducer
(P0)

Fig. 7.4 Line diagram for Nozzle flapper arrangement


Stationary block
All the components shown in the line diagram are shown in Figs 7.5 – 7.12.

33
Fig. 7.5 Pressure gage Fig. 7.6 Orifice

Fig. 7.7 Connector Fig. 7.8 Flow Control Valve

Fig. 7.9 Pressure regulator Fig. 7.10 Nozzle

Fig. 7.11 Differential Pressure transducer Fig. 7.12 Pressure transducer

34
Experimental Procedure:

o The orifice is constructed from an acrylic rod. The one end of the orifice is connected to
the compressor with the help of PU pipe and the other end is connected to the nozzle with
a pressure transducer in between as shown in Figs. 7.3 and 7.4.

o Before placing the flapper plate in front of the nozzle as shown in the Fig. 7.3, make sure
that the flow control valve is in closed position so that no flow takes place through the
orifice
o After placing the flapper plate in front of the nozzle touching the stationary block, open the
flow control valve such that the differential pressure is set to 400 Pa. Do not exceed this
value.
o Note down the following readings
o The distance between the flapper plate and nozzle is adjusted with the help of
plates whose thickness is known.
o Differential pressure transducer reading
o Upstream pressure gage reading
o Pressure transducer reading using multimeter in volts
o Repeat this step for different distance between the flapper plate and the nozzle.

Data Analysis:

o Convert the measured voltage into pressure using the equation generated in the form Y =
mX + C (where Y is in mV and X is in pascals) from the static calibration of the pressure
transducer.

o Calculate the pressure at the transducer location with the help of following equation:

4
ds
Ps  d n xi Pamb
2 2

P0  16 4 (7.1)
ds
d n xi 
2 2

16

o The values of Pamb , dn and ds are known. Substituing different values of xi , the
corresponding value of P0 can be calculated. Tabulate the calculations in the following
observation table.

Coefficient of discharge of orifice placed in nozzle flapper arrangement

Sl No. Nozzle flapper Number Ceofficient of discharge


of nozzle

1 1 0.91

2 2 1.00

35
EXPERIMENT 8

PART A MODELLING OF MANOMETER AS A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR STEP


INPUT

Aim: To study the dynamic response of a U tube manometer filled with mercury when a step input is
applied and estimate the natural frequency and damping ratio of the system

Apparatus: U tube manometers, squeeze blower, silicon tubes, hose clamps, camera, soap water, scale
and vernier caliper

Diagram:

Hose Clamps

Silicon tubes

Manometer
Tube

Squeeze blower

Fig. 8.1 Schematic of the setup used for manometer dynamics

Experimental Procedure
o Connect a squeeze blower to one end of the U tube manometer filled with mercury through a
tube. A flexible tube is fitted onto one end of the glass tube by simply pushing the it. Keep the
other end of the manometer open to atmosphere.
o Before fixing the flexible tube onto the glass tube of the manometer, measure the length of the
connecting flexible tube using a scale.
o Apply soap water to all joints and then apply pressure. If a soap bubble appears at any joint, then
there is a leak in the fittings. Fix the hose clamp wherever there is a leak and check for leakage
again.
o Fix the camera in front of the setup using a tripod. Focus its lens properly and start video
recording.
o Apply sudden pressure by squeezing the squeeze blower and hold the pressure.
o Keep recording the video till mercury in the manometer is oscillating. Typically, it oscillates 8-9
times before it reaches steady state.
o Copy the video from the camera to the computer and run the video in media player classic
software.

36
o Click on ‘navigate’ on the menu bar and then click on ‘Go to’. A window will appear as shown in
the screen shot below.
o Enter frame number and the click on ‘Go’ button. Video will show the frame. Using this facility,
locate first peak and note down the time and scale reading on both left limb and right limb.
Similarly, locate all subsequent peaks and note down corresponding time and scale readings.
o Using the relation, calculate natural frequency and damping coefficient of the second order
system. Calculate the natural frequency and damping ratio using the relation given in notes and
then compare them.
o Repeat the above procedure for different diameters of the manometer tubes.

Fig. 8.2 Typical Snap shot for tracking time and frame number

(9.1)
2
d  n 
t1  to 
(9.2)
Y1 e  nt1
  nto  e  n (t1 t0 )
Yo e

37
EXPERIMENT 8

PART B MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE (SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC


PRESSURE) USING SPHYGMOMANOMETER

Aim: To measure the blood pressure of human being for right arm and left arm artery

Apparatus: BP apparatus (sphygmomanometer), stethoscope, subject

Fig. 8.3 Auscultatory method aneroid Fig. 8.4 Mercury Manometer


sphygmomanometer with stethoscope (sphygmomanometer)

Theory:
The auscultatory method (from the Latin word for listening) uses a stethoscope and a
sphygmomanometer. This comprises an inflatable cuff placed around the upper arm at roughly the
same vertical height as the heart, attached to a mercury or aneroid manometer. The mercury
manometer, considered the gold standard, measures the height of a column of mercury, giving an
absolute result without need for calibration, and consequently not subject to the errors and drift of
calibration which affect other methods.

A cuff of appropriate size is fitted smoothly and snugly, then inflated manually by repeatedly
squeezing a rubber bulb until the artery is completely occluded (stop, close up, or obstruct). Listening
with the stethoscope to the brachial artery at the elbow, the examiner slowly releases the pressure in
the cuff. When blood just starts to flow in the artery, the turbulent flow creates a "whooshing" or
pounding (first Korotkoff sound). The pressure at which this sound is first heard is the systolic BP.
The cuff pressure is further released until no sound can be heard (fifth Korotkoff sound), at the
diastolic arterial pressure. The auscultatory method has been predominant since the beginning of BP
measurements.

38
Fig. 8.5 schematic depicting the procedure for measuring BP

Experimental Procedure
 To begin blood pressure measurement, use a properly sized blood pressure cuff. The length of
the cuff's bladder should be at least equal to 80% of the circumference of the upper arm as
shown in Fig. 9.5.
 Wrap the cuff around the upper arm with the cuff's lower edge one inch above the elbow.
 Rapidly inflate the cuff to 180mm Hg. Release air from the cuff at a moderate rate (3mm/sec).
 Listen with the stethoscope and simultaneously observe the dial or mercury gauge. The first
knocking sound (Korotkoff) is the subject's systolic pressure (120). The first sounds heard are
tapping sounds that gradually increase in intensity. The initial tapping sound that is heard for
at least two consecutive beats is recorded as the systolic blood pressure. When the knocking
sound disappears, that is the diastolic pressure (80).
 Record the pressure in both arms and note the difference
 Measure blood pressure two additional times, waiting a few minutes between measurements.

39
EXPERIMENT 9

DETERMINATION OF GAUGE FACTOR OF STRAIN GAUGE

Aim: To attach a strain gauge on a cantilever and determine the gauge factor of the given strain
gauge.

Apparatus: Stainless steel scale (cantilever) with platform for weights, strain gauge, C-clamp,
breadboard, resistors, instrumentation amplifier 729 (INA 729), multimeter, potentiometer (0-5k
ohms), wires, Cellotape, Acetone, alcohol, liquid absorbing paper and grit paper

Diagram:

Figure 9.1 Diagram of the strain gauge cantilever assembly:

40
Experimental Procedure

(A) Binding strain gauge to cantilever

o The stainless steel ruler is used as a cantilever. Measure 28 cm from the end of the ruler scale
which has hole on it. First pour little amount of acetone and alcohol on the spot on the ruler
surface where strain gauge will be connected with ruler then polish it using grit paper.
o Take a strain gauge and place it on some side of Disc and clean strain gauge with a liquid
absorbing paper. Now place the strain gauge with metal side facing the smooth side of disc.
o Use the cellotape and place it over the strain gauge. Now remove the cellotape at an angle and
the strain gauge is now band to cellotape. The cellotape with the strain gauge is now attached
to polished surface of the ruler.
o The thin lead of the strain gauge is now soldered with extension wires. The wires are now
connected in the circuit which is explained in the next part.

PART A HAS ALREADY BEEN DONE FOR YOU


(B) Fix ruler with strain gauge on table

o Use a C-clamp to fix the ruler scale on the table with the end having the platform for weights
hanging in air - the cantilever is clamped approximately ‘X cm’ from the strain gauge on the
table.

(C) Building Wheatstone bridge circuit with its output connected to INA 129

o Connect the wheatstone bridge as shown in the figure. Note that the resistance of the strain
gauge is approximately 121 Ω. Choose resistors so that the bridge is approximately balanced.
Do not forget to connect the 1kΩ resistor on either side of the bridge.
o INA 129 is used to amplify the signal from the strain gauge. Connect the output from the
strain gauge to the signals 2 & 3. The amplified output is taken from terminals 5 & 6.
o The amplified signal is measured using a multimeter with its positive end connected to pin 6
while its ground is connected to pin 5.
o D.C power supply is set to 12V whose positive end is connected to pin 7 while its negative
end is connected to pin 4. Connect common ground of the power supply to pin 5. This gives
the required energy to amplify the signal ( Use + 15 and -15 slots of the DC power supply for
INA 129)
o Connect another supply D.C power supply which is set to 12 volts to provide the voltage for
powering the Wheatstone bridge (Use 0 – 32 V slot of DC power supply).

(D) Measuring gauge factor using strain gauge

o Turn on both the DC power supplies and set their value to 12 volts. Measure the output using
a multimeter with no weights added on the platform. Output is measured across pin 6 and pin
5 of INA 129 with the positive terminal of the multimeter connected to pin 6 and the
commom ground of multimeter to pin 5 respectively.
o Make sure there is no weight placed on the platform.
o Now rotate the potentiometer pot such that the bridge is balanced and the reading on the
multimeter is approximately 0 volts. It may not be exact zero so record the reading of
multimeter and potentiometer pot value for zero weight.

41
o Now place a known weight on the platform and the cantilever will bend increasing the strain
gauge resistance and unbalancing the Wheatstone bridge
o Note down the voltage (VGA) across the multimeter in the observation table.
o Repeat the last two operation for the other given weights.

42

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