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Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering: From the Past to the Future – Ulusay et al.

(Eds)
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-03265-1

Application of the Q-slope method to highly weathered and saprolitic rocks


in Far North Queensland

N. Bar
Gecko Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Cairns, Australia

N.R. Barton
Nick Barton & Associates, Oslo, Norway

C.A. Ryan
Gecko Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Cairns, Australia

ABSTRACT: The Q-slope method was developed to allow geotechnical engineers to assess the stability of
excavated rock slopes in the field and make potential adjustments to slope angles as rock mass conditions
become visible during construction. Q-slope was developed over the last decade by modifying the Q-system
for characterizing rock exposures and drill-core, and estimating single-shell support and reinforcement needs in
tunnels, caverns and mining roadways. Assessing slope stability in highly weathered rocks and saprolites (in-situ,
soft, friable, weathered rock that retains the original rock’s structure but with a lower bulk density) is considered
complex since failure mechanisms often involve a combination of shearing and rotational sliding through a
weak rock mass, and sliding on relic geologic structures. Q-slope was applied to several highly weathered and
saprolitic slopes in Far North Queensland and has shown that a simple correlation exists between Q-slope values
and long-term stable and unsupported slope angles.

1 INTRODUCTION Shear strength input is similar to the original Q-


system, but more critical, as wedges are unconfined,
1.1 Original Q-system and dilation is less important than around tunnels as
there is usually no increase in normal stress or stiffness
The original Q-system for characterizing rock expo-
when shearing initiates. Filled discontinuities follow
sures, drill core and tunnels under construction was
the same ‘contact’ scheme as before: a) rock-to-rock
developed from rock tunneling related and rock cav-
contact, b) rock-to-rock contact after shear displace-
ern related case records and has been used by engineers
ment, c) no rock-to-rock contact due to thick clay
across the world for over 40 years (Barton et al. 1974;
fillings. Q-slope utilizes the same six parameters RQD,
Barton & Grimstad 2014). Single-shell B+S(fr) tun-
Jn , Jr , Ja , Jw and SRF. However, the frictional resistance
nel support and reinforcement design assistance, and
pair Jr and Ja can apply, when needed, to the individ-
open stope design, utilizing Q’ (the first four parame-
ual sides of potentially unstable wedges using simple
ters) have also been the principal focus of application
orientation factors. The term Jw , which is now termed
in civil and mining engineering.
Jwice , takes into account an appropriately wider range
of environmental conditions pertinent to rock slopes,
which are exposed to the elements indefinitely. These
1.2 Q-slope overview conditions include the extremes of erosive intense rain-
The Q-slope method (Barton & Bar 2015) is intended fall, ice wedging, as may seasonally occur at opposite
for use in reinforcement-free site access road cuts, ends of the rock-type and regional spectrum. There
road or rail cuttings or individual benches in open cast are also slope-relevant SRF categories. For Q-system
mines. It is not intended for assessing the stability of users, the formula for estimating Q-slope is two-thirds
large slopes developed by several excavation stages familiar (Barton & Bar 2015):
over significant periods of time, such as inter-ramp or
overall slopes in open cast mines.
Q-slope was developed from case records in six
countries, spanning 17 rock types (igneous, sedimen-
tary and metamorphic) and some saprolites for slope RQD ( J r
Qs/ope = - J-x J J X
J wice
SRF (1)
heights ranging from 5 m to 30 m. n a 0 slope

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Table 1. Rock quality designation. Table 3. Joint roughness number.

Rock Quality Designation Description RQD (%)* Joint Roughness Number Description Jr

A Very poor 0–25 a) Rock wall contact, b) contact after shearing


B Poor 25–50 A Discontinuous joints 4
C Fair 50–75 B Rough or irregular, undulating 3
D Good 75–90 C Smooth, undulating 2
E Excellent 90–100 D Slickensided, undulating 1.5
E Rough or irregular, planar 1.5
* Where RQD is reported or measured as ≤10 (including F Smooth, planar 1.0
zero), a nominal value of 10 is used to evaluated Q-slope. G Slickensided, planar 0.5
RQD intervals of 5, i.e., 100, 95, 90, etc., are sufficiently c) No rock-wall contact when sheared
accurate. H Zone containing clay minerals thick 1.0
enough to prevent rock-wall contact.
J Sandy, gravely or crushed zone thick 1.0
Table 2. Joint set number. enough to prevent rock-wall contact.
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Joint Set Number Description Jn i) Descriptions refer to small-scale features and intermediate
scale features, in that order.
A Massive, no or few joints 0.5-1 ii) Add 1.0 if mean spacing of the relevant joint set is greater
B One joint set 2 than 3 m.
C One joint set plus random joints 3 iii) Jr = 0.5 can be used for planar, slickensided joints having
D Two joint sets 4 lineations, provided the lineations are oriented for minimum
E Two joint sets plus random joints 6 strength.
F Three joint sets 9 iv) Jr and Ja classification is applied to the joint set or dis-
G Three joint sets plus random joints 12 continuity that is least favorable for stability both from the
H Four or more joint sets, random, 15 point of view of orientation and shear resistance τ, where
heavily jointed τ ≈ σn tan−1 (Jr /Ja ).
J Crushed rock, earthlike 20

• Set B: Jr = 3, Ja = 1 is slightly less dominant & is


1.2.1 The first four parameters (RQD, Jn , Jr & Ja ) unfavorable, O-factor=0.9.
The Q-slope ratings for rock quality designation
(RQD), joint set number (Jn ), joint roughness number
ChildrenChildren
Children (3)
(Jr ) and joint alteration number (Ja ) remain unchanged Children
Children
from the original Q-system (Barton et al. 1974; Barton
& Bar 2015). Tables 1–4 describe the ratings for RQD,
Jn , Jr and Ja , respectively. 1.2.3 Environmental & geological condition: Jwice
The environmental and geological condition number,
1.2.2 Discontinuity orientation factor: O-factor Jwice , is more sophisticated than Jw of the original Q-
The discontinuity orientation factor (O-factor) system since slopes are outside and exposed to the
described in Table 5 provides orientation adjustments elements for a very long time (Barton & Bar 2015).
for discontinuities in rock slopes (Barton & Bar 2015). Described in Table 6, Jwice has a new structure for
The Set A orientation-factor is applied to the most slopes, including tropical rainfall erosion-effects and
unfavorable discontinuity set. If required, the Set B ice-wedging effects. Adjustment factors for slope rein-
orientation-factor is applied to the secondary discon- forcement and drainage measures are also included.
tinuity set (i.e. in case of potentially unstable wedge
formations).
Equation 2 provides an example of O-factor appli- 1.2.4 Strength reduction factor: SRFslope
cation where a single discontinuity (Set A) influences The strength reduction factor SRFslope is obtained
stability: by using the maximum of SRF a , SRF b and SRF c
• Set A: Jr = 1.5, Ja = 2 is dominant & unfavorable, described in the subsequent tables.

(~:1C;
O-factor=0.75. Table 7 describes strength reduction factors (SRFa )
for the physical condition of the slope surface (now
5 x0.75) (2) or expected) due to susceptibility to weathering and
= = 0.5625
erosion.
Table 8 describes strength reduction factors (SRFb )
Equation 3 provides an example of O-factor for adverse stress-strength ranges in the slope.
application to wedges formed by two discontinuity Table 9 describes strength reduction factors (SRFc )
sets (Set A & Set B) which influence stability: for major discontinuities such as faults, weakness
• Set A: Jr = 1.5, Ja = 2 is dominant & very unfavor- zones and joint swarms which may also contain clay
able, O-factor = 0.5. filling that adversely affects slope stability.

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Table 4. Joint alteration number. Table 6. Environmental and geological condition number.

Joint Alteration Number Description Ja Desert Wet Tropical Ice


Jwice * Environ. Environ. Storms Wedging
a) Rock-wall contact (no clay fillings, only coatings)
A Tightly healed, hard non-softening, 0.75 Stable structure, 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.9
impermeable filling, i.e. quartz or epidote. competent rock:
B Unaltered joint walls, surface staining only. 1.0 Stable structure, 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.5
C Slightly altered joint walls. Non-softening 2.0 incompetent rock:
mineral coatings, sandy particles, clay-free Unstable structure, 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.3
disintegrated rock, etc. competent rock:
D Silty- or sandy-clay coatings, small clay 3.0 Unstable structure, 0.5 0.3 0.05 0.2
disintegrated rock, etc. incompetent rock:
E Softening or low friction clay mineral 4.0
coatings, i.e. kaolinite or mica. Also chlorite, *Note: When drainage measures are installed, apply
talc, gypsum, graphite, etc., and small Jwice × 1.5
quantities of swelling clays. When slope reinforcement measures are installed, apply
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b) Rock-wall contact after some shearing (thin clay fillings, Jwice × 1.3
probable thickness ≈ 1–5 mm) When drainage and reinforcement are installed, apply both
F Sandy particles, clay-free disintegrated 4.0 factors Jwice × 1.5 × 1.3.
rock, etc.
G Strongly over-consolidated non-softening 6.0
clay mineral fillings. Table 7. SRFa : Physical condition.
H Medium or low over-consolidation, 8.0
softening, clay mineral fillings. Description SRFa
J Swelling-clay fillings, i.e. montmorillonite. 8–12
value of Ja depends on per cent of swelling A Slight loosening due to surface location 2.5
clay-size particles, and access to water. B Loose blocks, signs of tension cracks & joint 5
c) No rock-wall contact when sheared (thick clay/crushed shearing, susceptibility to weathering
rock fillings) C As B, but strong susceptibility to weathering 10
M Zones or bands of disintegrated or crushed 6, 8, D Slope is in advanced stage of erosion and 15
rock and clay (see G, H, J for description 8–12 loosening due to periodic water erosion and/or
of clay condition). ice-wedging effects
N Zones of bands of silty- or sandy-clay, small 5.0 E Residual slope with significant transport of 20
clay fraction (non-softening). material down-slope
OPR Thick, continuous zones or bands of clay 10, 13,
(see G, H, J for description of clay 13–20
condition).
Table 8. SRFb : Stress and strength.

Description σc /σ1∗ SRFb


Table 5. Discontinuity orientation factor – O-factor.
F Moderate stress-strength range 50–200 2.5–1
O-factor Description Set A Set B G High stress-strength range 10–50 5–2.5
H Localized intact rock failure 5–10 10–5
Very favorably oriented 2.0 1.5 J Crushing or plastic yield 2.5–5 15–10
Quite favorable 1.0 1.0 K Plastic flow of strain softened
Unfavorable 0.75 0.9 material 1–2.5 20–15
Very unfavorable 0.50 0.8
Causing failure if unsupported 0.25 0.5 *Note: σc = unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
σ1 = maximum principal stress

2 SAPROLITES AND HIGHLY WEATHERED


1.3 Q-slope equation and stability chart ROCKS IN FAR NORTH QUEENSLAND
Barton & Bar (2015) derived a simple formula for the
steepest slope angle (β) not requiring reinforcement 2.1 Context
or support for slope heights less than 30 m: Near surface and shallow excavations in Far North
Queensland often encounter saprolites and highly
fl =20 log 10 Qs~.p< + 65° (4) weathered rocks in the lower zones of soil profiles.
Saprolites represent deep weathering of the bedrock
Figure 1 presents the Q-slope stability chart with an surface and most commonly form on continental
uncertain slope stability ‘corridor’ in grey. The unsta- landmasses between latitudes 35◦ N and 35◦ S. Con-
ble area is shown in red, and the conservative stable ditions for the formation of saprolites include a
slope area is shown in green (Barton & Bar 2015). topographically moderate relief flat enough to prevent

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Table 9. SRFc : Major discontinuity. 2.2 Engineering challenges
Description* SRFc Designing slopes in saprolites and highly weathered
rock present engineering challenges since:
L Major discontinuity with little or no clay, and • Shearing & rotational sliding can occur in low
orientation is:
strength, weathered rock masses.
1. favorable 1
• Sliding (planar and wedge) can occur along relic
2. unfavorable 2
3. very unfavorable 4 geologic structures, which may be very inconspicu-
4. causing failure if unsupported 8 ous, within the saprolites or highly weathered rock
M Major discontinuity with RQD100 = 0 due to masses.
clay and crushed rock, and orientation is:
1. favorable 2 Modes of instability in saprolitic or highly weath-
2. unfavorable 4 ered rock slopes often occur as a combination of
3. very unfavorable 8 shearing and rotational sliding in weak material with
4. causing failure if unsupported 16 sliding along relic geologic structures.
N Major discontinuity with RQD300 = 0 due to The aforementioned modes of instability, whether
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clay and crushed rock, and orientation is: simple or complex, are frequently exacerbated by
1. favorable 4 environmental effects such as rainfall.
2. unfavorable 8
3. very unfavorable 12
4. causing failure if unsupported 24
3 Q-SLOPE APPLICATION
*Note: RQD100 = 1 meter perpendicular sample of disconti-
nuity. The Q-slope method was applied to several road
RQD300 = 3 meter perpendicular sample of discontinuity. cuttings, mine access roads and subdivisional earth-
works cuttings in hilly terrain throughout Far North
Queensland. These ranged from 5 m to 30 m in height.
Various rock types were encountered and included
low-grade metamorphics, intrusive igneous and sed-
imentary rocks (greywacke, phyllite, shale, gran-
ite, conglomerates, sandstones, and siltstones). These
were typically of low strength (intact material strength
less than about 25 MPa) as a result of near-surface
weathering effects. Saprolites of the aforementioned
rock types were also commonly encountered (very low
strength <5 MPa).
Figure 2 presents the slope-angle and rock mass
quality data from several saprolitic and highly weath-
ered slopes in Far North Queensland. Each have been
back-analyzed using Q-slope:
• Green triangles – stable slopes
Figure 1. Q-slope stability chart for slope heights less than
30 m (adapted from Barton & Bar 2015). • Squares – quasi-stable slopes (note: the two quasi-
stable slopes in Figure 2 were rehabilitated by
flattening the slope angle prior to their collapse)
erosion and to allow leaching of the products of chem- • Red crosses – failed / collapsed slopes which have
ical weathering, long periods of tectonic stability and a
been back analyzed.
humid tropical to temperate climate (Butt et al. 2000).
Far North Queensland in Australia is host to sapro- It was found that Equation 4 (Barton & Bar 2015)
lites and highly weathered rocks from the bauxite remains applicable for saprolitic and highly weath-
deposits near Weipa to road cuttings and residential ered slopes not requiring reinforcement or support, and
properties located on the hillsides in the greater Cairns when less than 30 m high.
region (i.e. Cairns, Babinda, the Atherton tablelands
and the Daintree rainforest). 3.1 Example of saprolitic phyllite slope in a
In the greater Cairns region, saprolites of, and residential subdivision
highly weathered rocks, include granites, basalts,
greywacke and low grade metamorphic rocks, such Residential subdivision earthworks cuttings in Far
as shales and phyllite, are frequently encountered near North Queensland often comprise saprolites since
the surface. According to Murtha et al. (1995), the excavations are usually relatively shallow. Figure 3
thickness of deeply weathered saprolite is usually in is an example of such a slope excavated 5 m high
the order of 5 m in the region. However, the sapro- at an angle of 40◦ without any form of geotechnical
lite generally overlies highly weathered rocks with investigation or design.
only marginally improved geomechanical properties The slope comprised 0.3 m topsoil at the surface
for tens of meters thereafter. with the remainder being very low strength saprolitic

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Q,,. ,. • Saprolitic & Highly Weathered Rock Slopes in Far North Queensland
(Slope Heights smaller than 30m)
90

80

Unstable slopes
70

.,;
0c 40

..
<(

c.
0 30 Stable slopes
iii
~ = 2 01og 10 (0 ,~,.) + 65
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20
Slope stability
uncertain
10

0
0.001 0.01 0 .1 10 100
Q-slope

t:. Stable Slopes o Quasi-Stable Slopes X Failed Slopes -Log . (Equation 4) I

Figure 2. Q-slope data for highly weathered and saprolitic slopes in Far North Queensland (slope heights less than 30 m).

phyllite. Relic geologic structure was clearly visi-


ble, even after excavation, and was quite favorably
oriented.
Applying Q-slope, the steepest slope angle not
requiring reinforcement was derived as 56◦ .
By steepening the slope to 50◦ while retaining the
crest position, an additional 70 square meters of sal-
able land area (1.75 m per meter length of slope) are
realized.

3.2 Example of highly to completely weathered


conglomerate and sandstone slope on a mine
access road cutting
A 22 m high slope at angles ranging between 60◦ and
70◦ provides access for light vehicle traffic and a con- Figure 3. Saprolitic phyllite slope (5 m high).
veyor belt system to a mine site in remote Far North
Queensland (Fig. 4).
The existing slope is in highly to completely weath- with a factor of safety near equilibrium. Remedial
ered conglomerate and sandstone. Intact material work was required and limit equilibrium analysis indi-
strength was low to very low for both rock types. It cated that the slope could be flattened to 45◦ and
has sub-horizontal bedding and unfavorably oriented maintain a factor of safety of 1.3 with a periodic
sub-vertical joint sets. perched groundwater table. By removing the quasi-
The slope has been the source of several rock stable portions of the slope and not expecting deterio-
falls (block toppling) and minor debris-slides. Ten- ration from weathering effects (no physical condition
sion cracks were prevalent behind the slope crest. strength reduction required), Q-slope was re-evaluated
It is understood that the deterioration progressively to be 0.103 (β = 45◦ ).
worsened after each wet season over a ten-year period.
Upon preliminary investigation in the field using 4 KEY FINDINGS FOR Q-SLOPE
Q-slope, the steepest slope angle not requiring rein- APPLICATION IN SAPROLITIC AND
forcement was derived as 41◦ . HIGHLY WEATHERED SLOPES
Subsequent geotechnical investigations using 2D
limit equilibrium analysis and physical observations Using Q-slope to assess the stability of saprolitic and
determined that the existing slope was quasi-stable highly weathered slopes is in principle no different

589
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Figure 4. Left: 10 year old quasi-stable slope (22 m high); Right: Slope shortly after rehabilitation work, Cape Flattery FNQ.

to assessing fresh rock slopes. However, it has been Q-slope enables geotechnical engineers to rapidly
found that certain aspects of the equation become more assess the stability of excavated slopes in the field,
prevalent. identify potentially unstable areas, and areas which
In strong or competent rocks, stability is usually may be steepened if required.
dictated by geologic structures. In weak or incom-
petent rocks, the rock mass, geologic structure or a
combination of both, may influence stability. The Jwice REFERENCES
description for saprolites in Far North Queensland
has solely been ‘incompetent rock’. Highly weathered Barton, N.R. & Bar, N. 2015. Introducing the Q-slope method
and its intended use within civil and mining engineering
rocks, have been described either as ‘incompetent’ or
projects. In Schubert & Kluckner (ed.), Future Develop-
‘competent’ depending on estimations of the intact ment of Rock Mechanics; Proc. ISRM reg. symp. EUROCK
material strength. 2015 & 64th Geomechanics Colloquium, Salzburg, 7–10
When dealing with lower strength rocks and sapro- October 2015: 157–162.
lites, the appropriate use of strength reduction for Barton, N.R. & Grimstad, E. 2014. An illustrated guide to
adverse stress-strength (SRFb ) becomes ever more the Q-system following 40 years use in tunneling. In-
vital. By way of example, the saprolitic phyllite slope house publisher: Oslo. Retrieved October 30, 2015 from
in the residential subdivision was 5 m high, required www.nickbarton.com.
a SRFb of 7, and had a Q-slope of 0.36 (β = 56◦ ). Barton, N.R., Lien, R. & Lunde, J. 1974. Engineering classi-
fication of rock masses for the design of tunnel support.
If the same slope were to be 15 m high, it would
Rock Mechanics, 6: 189–236.
require a SRFb of 15, and attain a Q-slope of 0.17 Butt, C.R.M., Lintern, M.J. & Anand, R.R. 2000. Evolution
(β = 49◦ ). However, if the slope was of strong, fresh of regoliths and landscapes in deeply weathered terrain –
rock (intact material strength of 100 MPa), a SRFb of implications for geochemical exploration. Ore Geology
1 would be required whether the slope was 5 m or 15 m Reviews, 16: 167–183.
high. Appropriately estimating in-situ stress are vitally Murtha, G.G., Cannon, M.G. & Smith, C.D. 1995. Soils of the
important when using Q-slope in weak materials such Babinda-Cairns area, North Queensland, CSIRO Division
as saprolites and highly weathered rocks. of Soils, Rpt. 123, Australia, CSIRO.

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