8.

Conclusions

As discussed earlier design of expansion joints is unique for every individual

application. For each application type of inside fluid, its properties, pressure and
its fluctuations, temperature variations, etc. parameters are different. There are
different technical requirements from each expansion joint depending on its lay-
out and application and length of piping. Hence, designer has to select geometric
parameters in order to achieve the desired movement or compensate the axial,
lateral or angular deflection due to thermal expansion. First the user decides the
expected axial, lateral movement and accordingly the supplier suggests the
technical specifications of expansion joint, which fulfill the requirement.

From the previous study it is observed that each geometric parameter like
diameter of bellow, material thickness, shape of convolutions, number of
convolutions, pitch of convolutions, height of convolution, number of plies, etc. has
several implications on the stresses behavior, design factors and performance.
For an example thickness of material has effects on the strength, stability and
fatigue life cycle of bellow. Also the design of expansion joint involves structural
and thermal aspects. Hence, the determination of an acceptable design is very
critical and complicated. In the present study each geometric parameter is studied
for the performance aspect and several performance tests indicates effect of
design parameters. Final conclusions from the study are mentioned below.

8.1 Final Conclusions:

Final conclusions are elaborated in four groups. Stress behavior of bellows,

squirm failure and critical pressure limit, axial spring rate and fatigue life cycle of
bellow. These conclusions are combined outcomes of analytical study, Finite
Element Analysis and experimental performance testing. These outcomes are
with reference to the constraints of the study mentioned thereafter. These
comments are useful for designers, researchers and manufacturers of expansion
joints for further understanding of the design procedure.

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8.1.1 Geometric parameters - Stress Relationship:

1. Inside fluid pressure produces circumferential membrane stress in the

bellows tangent and convolutions. Axial pressure force (thrust force) also
produces longitudinal membrane and bending stresses in the convolutions.
Bending stresses becomes significant, while the bellows deflects axially
(expansion / contraction) or laterally.

2. The major stresses in bellows results from the effect of pressure and
deflection. Normally the deflection stresses are higher than the pressure
stresses, and are generally above the yield point of the bellows material.

3. Longitudinal stresses are always higher than circumferential stresses.

Since, bending stress produced because of pressure force at convolution
faces. It is obvious that, stresses because of bending are always higher
than direct stresses. Longitudinal bending stresses are directly proportional
to square of height of convolution (w). (Figure 5.8) Referring equation 3.20.
2
P  w
Longitudinal bending stress, S4 =   Cp
2 n  tp 

4. Maximum longitudinal stresses are produced at root section and maximum

circumferential stresses are produced at crest area of bellows. (Refer figure
7.5 and 7.6) These areas are having maximum stress concentration effect.
Infect U shape geometry of convolutions, produces minimum stress
concentration effect compared to any other shape of convolutions.

5. FEA methodology may be used by designers, for additional verification of

design parameters. Stresses evaluated using Finite Element Analysis are
near to analytical results. Since customized design approach of expansion
joint suggested by EJMA; FEA is very useful. Any minor change in
geometry can be made and stresses can be predicted.

6. Multiple plies of the bellow material, increases the overall thickness of the
material, by which strength of bellow increases. It is obvious that higher
thickness bellows can withstand higher pressure. But multiply arrangement
is advantageous, as the inner ply can be used as high corrosion resistant
material and outer ply will be higher strength material for load resistance.

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 But if simply taking higher thickness in single ply will reduce its fatigue life;
as bellows undergo low cycle fatigue. The following table suggests
performance of stresses while compared with equivalent single ply bellow.
(Figure 4.4 and 4.5)

Table 8.1: Multiply Response

Design feature spt = tt spt = tt / n

Circumferential stress Same Decreases

Logitudinal bending stress Increases Decreases

Fatigue life Increases Little change

Where, tt = total thickness, and spt = single ply thickness

7. Number of convolutions is an important parameter with the designers. If

higher number of convolution are selected, higher axial movement is
feasible. Since desired axial movement, is shared by all convolutions, unit
axial deflection per convolution should be considered in the design of
bellow. However, for higher number of convolutions, length of bellow will be
increases, and stresses due to deflection are reduces in individual
convolutions. The number of convolution should be selected optimum
based on the stresses distribution uniformly amongst all convolutions.
Designer should keep in mind that the higher length bellow may become
unstable (squirm) at critical pressure. (Figure 4.8)

8. Height of convolution is the most significant parameter for axial spring rate
of the bellows. If height of convolutions increases, bellow can take higher
axial and lateral movements. But this will increase the longitudinal stress in
the bellow. Height of convolutions also affects the stability of bellows. As
height of convolutions increases, column stability increases, while in-plane
stability decreases. So, height of convolutions should be selected optimum
in the bellow. (Figure 4.10 and 4.11)

9. As the pitch of bellows increases, circumferential membrane stress

increases. But increase in pitch distance will enhance the length of bellow
and its column in-stability reduces. Chances of squirm failure are always
higher in case of higher pitch bellows. Here equalizing rings can be used, if

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 pitch and length of bellow are essential parameters for the specific
application. Equalizing rings in the pitch slots will increase the overall
column strength of bellows. Pitch of convolutions should be optimum.
(Figure 4.15 and 4.16)

10. For high internal pressure applications, toroidal shaped bellows should be
used. Since toroidal convolutions (spherical shape) possess higher
strength compare to any other shape of convolution. But, toroidal shaped
expansion joints provide minimum axial movements. (Table 7.5)

11. The most preferred convolution shape is U – type. This U shaped

expansion joints should be selected, where more axial / displacement
movement is required. Also U shape convolutions are having minimum
stress concentration effect due to uniform radius at root and crest sections.

12. Bellows should be always designed on actual metal temperature expected

during operation. At elevated temperature, the modulus property is getting
reduced. EJMA suggests that the modulus of elasticity of maximum
operating temperature should be considered to evaluate permissible
stresses of bellow material.

8.1.2 Squirm failure of bellows:

1. Bellows may fail by squirm, if number of convolutions and pitch of bellow

parameters are selected on higher side. Critical pressure of the bellows
should be checked or estimated using analytical approach. The design
pressure of bellow should be well within the limit of critical pressure.

2. While fluctuation of pressure and thermal expansion/contraction takes

place in the bellow, convolutions moves alternately left and right due to its
elastic property. This movement continues till the motion remains in the
desired limit. When the deflection further increases because of either
critical pressure intensity or thermal movement there will be sudden
deflection of convolution. The convolutions are deflected beyond elastic
range in the permanent mode. These consequences may lead to squirm
failure of bellow.

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 3. Short bellows having Lb/Db less than transition point factor; the in-plane
critical pressure is always less than column squirm critical pressure. [3] This
observation agrees with the analytical approach of EJMA.

4. From experiments it has been observed that, the short bellows (Lb/Db ≤ Cz),
initially deformed by in-plane squirm and subsequently deformed by column
squirm. Using equation 3. 20
2
P  w 
Longitudinal bending stress, S4 = Cp
2 n  t p 

The maximum meredional (longitudinal) stresses will develop squirm in the

bellows, and that will be at the yield stress of the material, hence deriving
for maximum conditions.
2
P  w
Maximum Yield stress, Sy = cr   C p (8.1)
2 n  t p 

Rearranging above equation,

2
S 2n  t p 
Critical pressure, Pcr = y   (8.2)
C p  w 

EJMA relation is very near to this equation, along with end condition
constants, which are used for design of columns. (Equation 3.5)

0.87 Ac  S y  0.73 Lb 
Column critical pressure, Psc = 1  
Db q  C z Db 

8.1.3 Axial Spring rate of Bellows:

1. Bellows with less spring rate are soft (flexible), while bellows with higher
spring rate are stiffer. We desire more flexibility and higher strength from
expansion joints.

2. As per analytical approach of EJMA, axial spring rate increases with

increase in diameter, thickness of material, number of plies and elasticity
property of material, while decreases with decrease in height of
convolutions. So, stiffness of bellow is function of following parameters.

Stiffness of bellow = f Dm , t , E , w, N , q, n 

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 Normally stiffness (spring rate) is evaluated for each convolution, hence,
number of convolution (N) and pitch (q) will be unity.

3. U shapes convolutions permits higher axial deflection, compared to toroidal

convolution bellows, for the same material thickness.

4. The stiffness is directly proportional to cubic rate of thickness and inversely

proportional to cubic rate of height of convolutions. In case of precise
requirement of stiffness of bellow, thickness and height of convolution are
significant parameters. From Design of Experiment it is proved that out of
these two parameters thickness is the most significant parameter.

5. It is observed that the working spring rate (fw) of bellow is always higher
than initial spring rate of bellow. The working spring rate (fw) depends on
the amount of axial deformation made by each convolutions and static
force of inside fluid. Increase in convolution movement and static pressure
leads towards higher working spring rate. This is a dynamic parameter of a
bellow.

6. It is also observed that working spring rate of bellow is a continuously

changing parameter. While the deflection is beyond the stiffness, then
permanent deformation takes place.

8.1.4 Fatigue Life of Bellows:

1. For ductile materials subjected to cyclic loading, the stress concentration

factor has to be included in the factors that reduce the fatigue strength of a
component. EJMA has introduced material thinning factor and stiffness
factor. It is not possible to determine stress concentration factor due to
large variations in shapes and features of bellows.

2. The fatigue life expectancy through stress – fatigue life relationship

phenomena is an approximate method. This method includes only elastic
properties effect in the prediction of life cycles. The stresses developed in
the expansion joints are elastic as well as plastic deformation. Hence
consideration of plastic stress-strain will make prediction more precise. But
it is very difficult to estimate stresses due to permanent deformation.

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 3. Fatigue life of a bellows is influenced by the combined stress range
induced by pressure and deflection. The multiply construction with lower
thickness enhances the fatigue life of bellows.

8.2 Limitations of Study:

Following are the limitations of the study:

1. There are large variations in manufacturing methodology of bellows from

industry to industry. Hence analytical validation of results may not be very
precise. Also the geometric dimensions of bellow are not very much precise
(in terms of microns). Hence, precise validation of the results is difficult.

2. FEA may be used as additional verification of design process. Also the

prototype testing can be avoided in some cases. But it can not eliminate
conventional design process.

3. FEA may be used for stress analysis for the expected results, but
periodically validation of results by experimental methods is necessary.
Experimentation gives more reliable verification of design process. The
experimental testing gives assurance to the customers.

4. Measurement of stresses is only possible through strain measurement, but

here strain gauges instrumentation facility was not feasible. The cost of
strain gauges is not very high, but precise measurement requires high
electrical network. This involves very high cost.

5. Bellows undergo low cycle fatigue. To evaluate the number of life cycles of
a bellow requires a special test rig. Reliable experimental test data can be
generated only after multiple tests. But due to lack of experimental test
facility, fatigue tests are not included in the study. Also multiple tests
require many test specimens, which involves very high cost is definitely a
constraint. Hence, experimental study of individual parameters of fatigue
life is not covered.

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8.3 Future Scope of Study:

This study is mainly based on design aspects of expansion joints. The further
study can be enhanced by following ways.

1. More number of experiments may be conducted for few more samples in

each case, to make exhaustive and critical review of the performance of
bellows.

2. Stress measurement is difficult in the experimentation, but introducing

some strain gauges for the accurate measurement of strain with reference
to design parameters can be evaluated.

3. Fatigue life tests are very costly affairs for even industry people, hence
using fatigue module of FEA software to bellows, can be more useful for
the industry for prototype of experimentations.

4. Developing computerized control program based (CNC) machines to form

convolutions in the bellows is a challenging task. Since, convolution
geometry differs from industry to industry; some standardization in shapes
can be established.

5. Identifying more critical parameters of bellows and adding more features in

the expansion joints to improve or enhance the performance of expansion
joints in the real life applications.

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