An integrated magnetic, geochemical

and archeointensity investigation

of casting debris from ancient metallurgical sites
of Michoacán, Western Mesoamerica
JUAN MORALES1,2, MARÍA DEL SOL HERNÁNDEZ-BERNAL3, AVTO GOGUITCHAICHVILI1,2
AND JOSÉ LUIS PUNZO-DÍAZ4

1 Laboratorio Interinstitucional de Magnetismo Natural, Instituto de Geofísica, Unidad

Michoacán, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Campus Morelia, 58190 Morelia,
México (jmorales@geofisica.unam.mx)
2 Servicio Arqueomagnético Nacional, Instituto de Geofísica, Unidad Michoacán, Universidad
Nacional Autonoma de México, Campus Morelia, 58190 Morelia, México
3 Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores (ENES), Unidad Morelia, Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de México, Campus Morelia, 58190 Morelia, México
4 Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Delegacion Michoacan, Madero Oriente 799,
Morelia, México

Received: May 4, 2016; Revised: July 21, 2016; Accepted: October 21, 2016

ABSTRACT

The ability of baked clay-elaborated objects to record the temporal variations of both
direction and intensity of the geomagnetic field at the time of their elaboration or last use
has been widely used during the last decades to fill the gaps left by available time-discrete
volcanic-rock logs for a better knowledge of the evolution of the geomagnetic field.
Further refinement of the secular variation curves has motivated the search for
alternative non-conventional materials as attractive targets for archeomagnetic studies.
Both clay and copper have been used since pre-Hispanic times for the elaboration of
a wide variety of ornamental and utilitarian objects in Mesoamerica. Previous studies
carried out in Europe and Israel have shown the usefulness of copper slags as one of
these non-conventional materials. We present the results of an integrated study carried
out on ten copper slags from seven ancient metallurgical sites of Michoacán. The analysis
included a series of rock magnetism experiments, scanning electron microscope analysis,
archeointensity determinations following the Thellier-Coe method and their
corresponding dating. Based on the results obtained the slag-set analyzed can be divided
in two main groups: low Fe concentrations (associated with high Cu concentrations) for
slags comprising the first group, and high Fe concentrations (associated with low Cu
concentrations) for slags from second group. Slags from the first group are characterized
by almost reversible thermomagnetic curves, while those corresponding to the second
group show a quite irreversible behavior. A crystalline (vitreous) structure within the
massive surface of the slags is observed for those coming from the second (first) group.

Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017), DOI: 10.1007/s11200-016-1033-z (in print) i

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These striking features could reflect significant differences in the metallurgical process
followed at these sites, which according to archeological and historical evidences
correspond to Colonial and pre-Hispanic usage metallurgical sites; first and second
group, respectively. The good experimental behavior exhibited by these materials
demonstrates the suitability of copper slag to obtaining absolute archeointensity data
which can be used to improve the existing Mesoamerican archeomagnetic record. This in
turn, can be used both for geomagnetic field modelling purposes and archeomagnetic
dating.

K e y w o r d s : pre-Hispanic metallurgy, non-conventional archeological materials,

copper slags

1. INTRODUCTION

Knowledge the evolution of the past Earth’s magnetic field beyond instrumental direct
measurements, and even more before human existence, is only possible by means of the
analysis of the magnetic record contained in rocks, which are widely distributed
worldwide and cover a wide range of ages. Among the different types of rock, those with
an igneous origin (volcanic rocks) are considered to be the most reliable Earth’s magnetic
field recorders. However, the limited spatial distribution of volcanic rocks offers only
a semi-continuous record of the variations of the field strength at geological timescale.
Moreover, not all volcanic rocks are suitable for retaining unaltered their paleomagnetic
record because of internal and/or external factors, which can degrade their capabilities as
reliable recorders. This potentially continuous knowledge is hindered additionally by the
paused emanation of magnetically-recordable material of volcanic activity.
The ability of baked clay-elaborated objects, such as pottery and bricks, to record the
characteristics - direction and intensity - of the Earth’s magnetic field at the time of their
elaboration or last use, archeomagnetism, recognized long ago by Thellier (1936), has
been widely used in Europe to fill the gaps left by available time-discrete volcanic-rock
logs for a better knowledge of the evolution of the geomagnetic field for the last millennia
(e.g., Gallet et al., 2002; Schnepp and Lanos, 2005; Spassov et al., 2008). Although at
a lower rate, however, many important archeomagnetic studies have been carried out in
North America during the last decade (for review see Carrancho et al., 2015).
It is worth mentioning that most archeomagnetic studies carried out were mainly
dedicated to retrieve the ancient direction (archeodirection). This requires the objects to be
in situ, a condition difficult to meet when dealing with ceramic pieces. Archeointensity
studies, on the contrary, offers the possibility to use also displaced objects, which
represents a very significant improvement for the knowledge of the past Earth’s magnetic
field.
Further refinement of the secular variation curves has led to the search for alternative
materials, which has identified non-conventional materials like lithic clasts, lime plasters,
mural paintings and wattle and daub building (Goguitchaichvili et al., 2004; Carrancho et
al., 2014; Terán-Guerrero et al., 2016) as attractive targets for archeomagnetic studies.
In Mesoamerica clay has been used since pre-Hispanic times for the elaboration of a
wide variety of baked ornamental and utilitarian objects (e.g., pottery, tiles,) as well as for

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constructive techniques (wattle and daub buildings, bricks, etc.). These items are
extensively employed for archeomagnetic studies due to the iron oxides contents in clays,
which are able to maintain a reliable record of the direction and/or intensity of Earth’s
magnetic field at the time of its elaboration or last use (Morales et al., 2011, 2015).
Also copper has been used in the production of a plenty variety of objects, usually
valuable non-utilitarian belongings. As a result of the pyro-metallurgical process of Cu-
sulfide ores to obtain this metal, copper slags are generated. Depending on the nature of
the ores, and other factors, the main oxides present in the slags are those of Fe (i.e.
hematite and magnetite), Si, Al, Ca and Cu. Similarly to the case of iron-oxides content in
clays, its presence within the matrix of copper slags would record the conditions of
geomagnetic field during its last cooling. This fact was verified by Ben-Yosef et al.
(2008), who showed empirically the usefulness of this material for the research of the
ancient geomagnetic field from a study conducted on hundreds of samples of copper slag
from Southern Levant. Shaar et al. (2010) studied the suitability of copper slag for
absolute paleointensity (Thellier type) experiments using electron microscopy and rock
magnetic experiments.
In this investigation we analyzed different fragments of copper slags (querendas in
Purépecha language) coming from seven pre-Hispanic and Colonial metallurgical sites of
Michoacán in order to (i) magnetically and chemically characterize this abundant waste
material, and (ii) assess their suitability to obtain absolute archeointensity determinations.
We report the results of rock magnetism experiments, scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) analysis and archeointensity determinations carried out on ten copper slag
fragments of archeological sites of Michoacán, western México. The results obtained from
most of the slags evidence the excellent behavior of these materials and confirm its
usefulness as a dating mean of ancient metallurgical centers of pre-Hispanic and Colonial
activity areas.

2. ARCHEOLOGICAL CONTEXT AND SAMPLE DESCRIPTION

According to historical sources, and to the unquestionable presence of casting debris

on the surface of different archeological sites of Michoacán, it is suggested that the
contemporary production of metal objects (particularly of copper) originates from pre-
Hispanic traditions (e.g., Cárdenas and Villanueva, 2004; Maldonado, 2006; Punzo-Díaz
et al., 2015).
The so call ‘Señorío Tarasco’ is, unquestionably, considered as the most important
metallurgical center of copper production during the late Post classic in Mesoamerica. It
had its main occupation at important pre-Hispanic settlements established around the
Pátzcuaro Lake (inset in Fig. 1), being Tzintzuntzan the most important of them and the
last capital before the arrival of the Spaniards.
A lot of metal objects were used in these Tarascan settlements; however, the
production of such objects seems to be held in other places. This is based on the following
facts: (i) the copper mines are not within the region of the Lake Pátzcuaro. These mines
are located at the southern part of the region, known as ‘Tierra Caliente’ (60 km
southeast from Lake Zirahuen), in places like Inguarán, near la Huacana, Churumuco,
Cuzian or Turicato. (ii) The existence of some other places between these areas where it

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 J. Morales et al.

Fig. 1. Distribution of different pre-Hispanic (Itziparátzico, Cuitzitan and Tipitarillo) and

Colonial (Iramuco, Paso del Muerto, El Querendal and Tepetate) metallurgical sites studied (stars).
Modified from Punzo-Díaz et al. (2015). Background © Google.

has been suggested the existence of smelting places during the pre-Hispanic and Colonial
stages; this is the case of Santa Clara del Cobre area (Fig. 1).
The listed archeological sites are concentrated in two main groups. The first group
encompasses sites where archeological elements of pre-Hispanic manufacture, associated
with the period of the Señorío Tarasco, possibly from the XVXVI century are found; i.e.
sites that were inhabited since pre-Hispanic times and continued to be occupied during the
Colonial era. Itziparátzico, very close to the present town of Santa Clara del Cobre, stands
out among these sites. Another site in the same category is Tiripatillo, where very few
examples of slag have been found. Finally, the site of Cuitzitan is a small settlement on
the shores of the town of the same name, which was located in a concentration of pre-
Hispanic and Viceroyalty archeological materials, including some samples of slag.
The second group of archeological sites comprises the settlements of Iramuco, Paso
del Muerto, Querendal, and Tepetate (Fig. 1). Here vast quantities of slag, product of
smelting processes at a larger scale than in the previous sites, can be found and only
viceroyalty-archeological vestiges and much recent historical material were found,
without any evidence of pre-Hispanic occupation on these sites. Through historical
sources it is known that from 1533 Santa Clara was added the nickname “de los cobres”;
which indicates an early vocation of the town for the metallurgical work during the
Viceroyalty. Yet in 1606, the ‘Fundición Real’ was settled at Santa Clara under the direct

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administration of the Spanish Crown, becoming since then one of the most important
places of metallurgic work in Mexico.
Ten copper slag fragments, of varying thickness and textures, coming from pre-
Hispanic - Colonial (Itziparátzico, Cuitzitan and Tipitarillo) and Colonial (Iramuco, Paso
del Muerto, El Querendal and Tepetate) metallurgical sites, were analyzed.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Magnetic measurements

Rock magnetism experiments were carried out in air, using a variable field translation
balance (AVFTB) from Magnetic Measurements Ltd., to study the suitability of the
material to obtain PI determinations, to identify the remanence carriers and the thermal
stability of magnetic mineralogy. These experiments included: (i) isothermal remanence
magnetization (IRM) acquisition curves, (ii) hysteresis loops, (iii) backfield curves and
(iv) thermomagnetic curves. Saturation remanent magnetizations (Mrs), saturation
magnetizations (Ms) and coercivity force (Hc) were retrieved after correction for
paramagnetic contribution of hysteresis cycles up to ±0.7 T. Coercivities of remanence
(Hcr) was determined by applying progressively increasing backfield after saturation.
Thermomagnetic curves were obtained between room temperature and 600C. All the
above describe measurements were carried out by using standard techniques at
Laboratorio Interinstitucional de Magnetismo Natural (LIMNA) facilities.
3.2. SEM analysis
Observations were made directly on fragments of the different sites by using a Jeol
scanning electron microscope (JSM-IT300) under low vacuum conditions (30 Pa) and
20 kV, with magnifications from 50 to 5000, through the back-scattered electrons
technique at the microscopy facilities of Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores (ENES)
Unidad Morelia. The elementary semi-quantitative analysis and spectral mapping of
X-rays was carried out by means of an energy dispersive (ED) microanalysis system.
Because of the observed inhomogeneity of the slags, three contrasting zones/regions
denoted as Site 1, Site 2 and Site 3 were selected for the semi-quantitative analysis in
order to take into count for such inter-fragment differences.
3.3. Archeointensity analysis
Sample preparation
The different fragments of slag were first marked on its entire surface with lines
parallel to an arbitrarily chosen reference mark. Then they were subsequently cut into
square-like shape fragments between 1 and 1.5 cm per side, resulting in at least 6
specimens. They were later pressed into salt pellets, with dimensions and shape similar to
a standard cylindrical 10 cm3 paleomagnetic specimen. Sixty specimens were obtained in
total. Individual specimens (coming from the same parental fragment) were embedded
into the salt pellet in six different positions (±X, ±Y, ±Z), relative to an arbitrary a priori-
set direction of the parental fragment, in order to minimize anisotropy effects (Morales et
al., 2009, 2015).

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Archeointensity experiments
All prepared specimens were submitted to the Thellier-Coe method of archeointensity
determinations (Thellier and Thellier, 1959; Coe, 1967) at LIMNA facilities. The
experiments were carried out using a ASC Scientific TD48-SC furnace; all
heating/cooling runs were performed in air. Ten temperature steps were distributed
through the entire temperature range (from room temperature to 540C) with
reproducibility better than 2C between two heating runs to the temperature in turn. The
laboratory field strength was set to 45.0 ± 0.5 T along the cylindrical axis of the pellets.
Partial thermoremanent magnetization (pTRM) checks, carried out every third temperature
step, as well as pTRM tail checks determinations (Riisager and Riisager, 2001) at 350C
were also added to the protocol. Both natural and laboratory induced remanent
magnetizations were measured by using a AGICO JR6 dual speed spinner magnetometer.
Archeomagnetic dating
Attempts to obtain the most probable age interval for some slags were carried out by
assessment of the corresponding probability density function (PDF) obtained by the of use
the Matlab tool developed by Pavón-Carrasco et al. (2011), along with the global model
SHA.DIF.14k of Pavón-Carrasco et al. (2014) (calculated for the geographical position of
the site). This model is the latest developed using all the available paleomagnetic data for
their corresponding time intervals and applying the classical modeling approach, i.e. the
spherical harmonic analysis in space and the penalized cubic B-splines in time.

4. RESULTS

IRM acquisition curves for most samples look very similar in shape (Fig. 2), although
corresponding saturation remanence (SIRM) values are highly variable; while saturation is
reached in general between 300 and 400 mT, SIRM varies between 4  106 and
2.6  104 Am2/kg (see inset in Fig. 2). Low SIRM values correspond to Colonial
samples. Most samples show a pot-bellied shape (Fig. 3ac), while the Querendal-14 one
is of the wasp-waisted type (Fig. 3d). Similarly, all samples except Querendal-14 fall into
the pseudo-single-domain (PSD) region within the Day diagram (Fig. 3e); the outlier
sample locates in between the single-domain (SD) and PSD regions.
The homogeneity among magnetic properties above described also holds for the
heating branch of thermomagnetic curves; monotonically decrease up to 600C showing
the presence of at least two ferrimagnetic phases with Curie temperatures (TC) around 550
and 300C (Fig. 4); almost pure magnetite and substituted magnetite magnetic phases.
Likely candidates (at different proportions in each slag) could be (1) maghemite, as
a result of the transformation of iron-containing phases during the laboratory experiment,
(2) goethite, common in lacustrine areas of central Mexico, where wet and relatively cool
conditions are found (Morales et al., 2012), and which dehydrate to hematite between 200
and 400C, and (3) greigite, which breaks down to magnetite at ~270350C. The
singularities of Querendal-14 are also highlighted by thermomagnetic experiments, by

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Fig. 2. Representative examples of isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition curves,

normalized to saturation remanence (SIRM). Highly variable SIRM values, varying between
4  106 Am2/kg and 2.6  104 Am2/kg, are observed in the inset. The downward offset observed
for sample TEPE 14 is an artificial effect, not a natural remanence. See Fig. 1 for site codes.

Fig. 3. a), b) and c) Representative hysteresis loops of copper slags. d) Hysteresis loops of the
Querendal-14 sample (M: magnetization). e) Corresponding Day plot (Mrs: saturation remanence;
Ms: saturation magnetization; Hcr: remanence of ceorcivity; Hc: coercive force). See Fig. 1 for site
codes.

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Fig. 4. Thermomagnetic curves of representative samples. See Fig. 1 for site codes.

noting the remaining magnetization at high temperature. This remanence could be due to
the presence of hematite (Neél temperature TN  680C), in addition to other magnetic
components. In some cases, however, the cooling branch departs significantly from the
heating one (cooling curve above the heating curve). This may result from the presence of
a reducing atmosphere during the original smelting process (smelting at a covered
furnace), in which the reduced iron oxides (e.g., hematite) contained transform to new
magnetite during the laboratory experiment (Rada et al., 2008).
SEM observations reveal the presence of a crystalline structure (Fe and Cu sulfides
intergrowths) within the massive surface of some slags (Fig. 5), while a vitreous structure
is observed in some of them (Fig. 6). The presence of Cu and S were detected by spectral
X-ray mapping analysis (Figs 7a1a3 and 8a18a3), as well as lower contents of Ca and
Mg, and in very low proportions K, P and Ti. Most of the slags are shaped by Fe and O,
and in minor proportions by Al, Si and C (Figs 7b and 8b and Table 1). In general, the
massive surface of the iron mass, with lithic fragments (Si-Al), is observed.
So as to be considered as reliable estimations of the ancient geomagnetic field
strength, archeointensity determinations must satisfy the following conditions:
1. Directions of NRM end-points at each step obtained from archeointensity
experiments must align reasonably along a straight line directed to the origin in the
interval selected for archeointensity determination.

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2. No significant deviation of NRM directions towards the applied field direction or

zig-zag behavior should be observed.
3. Number of aligned points (N) on the NRM-pTRM diagram is ≥ 5; data assumed to
correspond to viscous remanent magnetization (VRM) acquired in situ must be
discarded.
4. NRM fraction factor f (Coe et al., 1978) is ≥ 0.4. This implies that at least 40% of
the initial NRM was taken into account for archeointensity determination.
5. A quality factor q  fg  (Coe et al., 1978) is ≥ 4 (generally above 20); g being
the gap factor (Coe et al., 1978), and  the relative standard deviation of the slope.
6. NRM-pTRM diagrams must not show an evidently concave up behavior; otherwise
remanent magnetization would probably be due to multi-domain (MD) grains
(Levi, 1977; Kosterov et al., 1998).

Fig. 5. High vacuum (20 kV) back-scattered-electron images of the pre-Hispanic ITZI-14
(SUP-65) sample. Note the growth of Fe and Cu sulfides crystals at higher magnification.

Fig. 6. Low vacuum (20 kV) back-scattered-electron images of the Colonial IRA-14 (SUP-313)
sample. Here a vitreous structure is observed instead.

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7. Successful pTRM checks, i.e., pTRM check deviation is lower than 10%.
8. Residual pTRM tail is ≤ 10% (Riisager and Riisager, 2001).
Based on the above described criteria, seven out of the ten analyzed fragments yield
successful archeointensity determinations (Table 2), which corresponds to a 70% success
rate. These fragments showed an unusual experimental behavior, even better than ceramic.
It is clearly seen from Fig. 9a,b that conditions 1 and 2 are fulfilled, although small
viscous remanent magnetizations are observed. These magnetizations are, however,
eliminated at the very first temperature steps. The number of aligned point lies between 7
and 10, respectively. The f and q factors for the slag from the second group (CUITZI 14
SUP-315) vary from 0.917 to 0.951 and from 25.2 to 120.9, respectively, while for the
slag from the first group (PAMU 14 SUP-263) from 0.828 to 0.920 and from 30.1 to 45.1,
respectively. There are no concave-up shapes visible in these figures. pTRM check
deviation and residual pTRM tail are lower than 10% and 20%, respectively. It is worth
noting the high stability of the magnetic mineralogy, which is evidenced from the
successful pTRM check carried out from a high temperature step (450C) to a very low
temperature step (150C).

Fig. 7. a1)a3) Elementary spectral mapping of the pre-Hispanic ITZI-14 (SUP-65) sample,
showing the distribution of Fe, Cu and S, respectively, within the matrix of the slag.
b) Corresponding semi-quantitative geochemical results.

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Arai plots corresponding to the three unsuccessful fragments are characterized by

a relatively fast NRM decay without corresponding TRM acquisition, which is better
appreciated in a combined NRM lost (pTRM gained) versus temperature plot (Fig. 9ci).
The lack of correlation between NRM lost and TRM gained (or alternatively stated,
a depleted capability to acquire a TRM) may be due to the presence of goethite (highly
anisotropic with weak ferromagnetism, which partially transforms to hematite during
heating), greigite or pyrrhotite. However, due to the almost homogeneous sulphur (S)
diffusion within the massive surface of these slags (Fig. 7a3), greigite seems to be the
responsible for this depleted capability. Although conditions 1 and 2 are fulfilled
(Fig. 9cii), it is worth noting the evolution with temperature of the NRM direction on the
stereogram (Fig. 9ciii).
Representative dating examples carried out on pre-Hispanic and Colonial fragments
are shown in Figs 10 and 11. Two possible intervals (11681610 AD and 16891900 AD)
for the pre-Hispanic sample (CUITZI 14 SUP-315) are provided. Because of the pre-
Hispanic evidences found in this site, the first one is likely the most probable interval.
A main interval (15621900 AD) for slag (TIRI 14 SUP-316) is reported, being consistent
with its Colonial context.

Fig. 8. The same as in Fig. 7, but for the Colonial IRA-14 (SUP-313) sample. Note the Fe and Cu
as sulphides segregation (darker areas in the center-bottom part).

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 J. Morales et al.

Table 1. Elementary semi-quantitative geochemical results of representative slags of Group 1 (pre-

Hispanic) and Group 2 (Colonial). Sites 13 correspond to different regions within a slag fragment.
Elemental concentrations are presented in weight per cent (wt.%). See text for details and Fig. 1 for
site codes.

pre-Hispanic

ITZI CUITZI

100 300 600 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3

C 8.45 7.90 7.62 14.99 13.05 11.13
O 32.19 32.31 32.44 41.64 33.56 33.83
Na 0.11 0.19 0.10 0.10
Mg 0.57 0.57 1.03 1.05
Al 1.58 1.49 1.56 3.09 3.27 3.45
Si 1.65 1.66 1.71 2.62 2.61 2.73
P 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.10
S 0.03
K 0.16 0.19 0.24 0.11 0.06 0.09
Ca 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.98 1.23 1.27
Ti 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06
Mn 0.03
Fe 54.45 54.83 54.79 34.47 42.64 43.69
Cu 0.59 0.73 1.39 1.78 2.28 2.41
Zn
Mo
Total 100.01 100.00 100.01 100.00 100.00 99.97
Mean Fe 54.7 40.3
Mean Cu 0.9 2.2

Figure 11 shows, on the contrary, dating examples of pre-Hispanic and Colonial

fragments where the assigned dates seem to dissent from the pre-Hispanic or Colonial
context of the remains found. A single mainly Colonial interval (15681777 AD) for pre-
Hispanic slag ITZI 14 SUP-65 was obtained, while two mainly pre-Hispanic intervals are
reported for Colonial slag PAMU 14 SUP-263.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

During the last decade some alternative material came into focus of archeomagnetic
research due to their thermally stable magnetic properties (Carrancho et al., 2015). Ben-
Yosef et al. (2008) showed that copper slag is usually produced during the heating of
copper ore up to 1200C. Gram-Jensen et al. (2000) carried out archeointensity
experiments on iron slags from Denmark. Ben-Yosef et al. (2009) reported systematic
investigations of copper smelting deposits. These slags are formed by fast cooling of the
melt and are derived from silicate and carbonate copper ores (see also Carrancho et al.,
2015). From these studies, a reasonably good agreement between archeointsities retrieved

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Table 1. Continuation.

Colonial

PAMU IRA

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3

C 12.13 12.2 9.11 12.75 7.89 13.38
O 40.85 38.65 37.73 39.66 33.68 32.85
Na 0.44 0.24 0.23 0.00 1.83
Mg 0.79 1.03 1.11 0.15 1.61
Al 6.85 6.61 6.47 2.22 2.61 2.93
Si 11.34 9.72 10.44 2.40 3.49 2.99
P 0.32 0.32 0.31 0.18 0.06 0.06
S 0.20 0.32 0.27 1.03 0.24 0.13
K 0.38 0.46 0.03 0.05
Ca 1.07 1.05 0.99 0.11 0.65 0.59
Ti 0.27 0.28 0.09 0.09
Mn 0.12 0.14
Fe 22.29 24.87 27.74 32.85 39.38 36.95
Cu 3.05 4.33 5.19 8.61 9.81 8.38
Zn 0.09
Mo 0.22 0.05
Total 99.98 100.01 100.01 99.99 100.00 100.01
Mean Fe 25.0 36.4
Mean Cu 4.2 8.9

from both copper slags and contemporaneous pottery samples is observed. This means
that, in terms of reliability, slags under study and pottery samples are reliable geomagnetic
field recorders. Similar material from Syria also exhibited very high thermal stability and
suitability to obtaining absolute archeointensity. Shaar et al. (2010) also considered the
suitability of copper slag for Thellier-type experiments using electron microscopy and
rock magnetic experiments. Their results, obtained by reproducing the intensity in
controlled experiments, showed a high accuracy of this approach using copper slags.
In the case of the Mesoamerican copper slags examined in this study, contrasting
differences can be identified from the different analysis carried out. Based on the obtained
values of Ms retrieved from IRM curves, which is a parameter mainly dependent to the
concentration of iron oxides, two main groups may be identified (see inset in Fig. 2). The
first group, shaped by those fragments gathered at four Colonial (Iramuco, Paso del
Muerto, Querendal and Tepetate) and two pre-Hispanic (Itziparátzico SUP 44,
Itziparátzico SUP 199) metallurgical sites, is characterized by low Ms values in the
interval (from 4  106 to 1.0  104 Am2/kg). The second group, composed exclusively
by the slags coming from two pre-Hispanic archeological sites (Itziparátzico SUP 25 and
Cuitzitán), corresponds high Ms values in the interval from 2.0 to 2.5  104 Am2/kg. At
this point it is worth remembering that pre-Hispanic archeological sites continued to be
occupied during the Colonial era.

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Table 2. Individual intensity results of the different specimens per site: Tmin and Tmax: minimum
and maximum temperature step of the interval used for the intensity determination; N: number of
heating steps used for the intensity determination; m: slope of the best fit line; m: standard
deviation of m; f: fraction of extrapolated NRM used for intensity determination; g: gap factor;
q: quality factor as defined by Coe et al. (1978); H: archeointensity value; H: standard deviation
of H; pTRM Tail: remaining tail of partial thermoremanent magnetization at 350C. See Fig. 1 for
site codes.

Tmin Tmax H H pTRM Tail

[°C] N m m f g q [%]
[°C] [T] [T]
ITZI 14 (SUP-44), pre-Hispanic
No results
ITZI 14 (SUP-65), pre-Hispanic
465 6 0.915 0.062 0.639 0.665 6.27 41.18 2.79 10.1
465 6 0.953 0.084 0.627 0.669 4.76 42.89 3.78 7.2
465 6 0.886 0.060 0.680 0.677 6.80 39.87 2.70 8.5
200
450 5 0.878 0.148 0.686 0.723 2.94 39.51 6.66 5.9
450 5 0.797 0.084 0.721 0.714 4.88 35.87 3.78 20.8
465 5 0.889 0.035 0.663 0.650 10.95 40.01 1.58 11.0
Mean 39.9
St. Dev. 2.3
ITZI 14 (SUP-119), pre-Hispanic
No results
CUITZI 14 (SUP-315), pre-Hispanic
8 1.100 0.006 0.917 0.719 120.88 49.50 0.27 8.8
8 1.144 0.012 0.922 0.724 63.64 51.48 0.54 7.7
8 1.109 0.019 0.926 0.722 39.02 49.91 0.86 12.9
100 465
8 1.101 0.021 0.919 0.698 33.63 49.55 0.95 17.1
8 1.003 0.010 0.951 0.720 68.68 45.14 0.45 19.8
7 1.081 0.018 0.924 0.455 25.25 48.65 0.81 17.9
Mean 49.0
St. Dev. 2.1

No significantly differences in the grain size, as evidenced at the Day plot (Fig. 3e),
seem to be induced as a result of the particular pyro-metallurgical process of the Cu-
sulfide ores followed at both stages (pre-Hispanic and Colonial). The wasp-waisted
behavior shown by the Querendal 14 sample seems to be a characteristic of the used ore,
as well as of oxidizing smelting conditions.
In regard to thermomagnetic plots information, some other significant differences can
be observed. (1) Curves corresponding to samples from second group (pre-Hispanic) are
quite irreversible, while those from first group (Colonial) are mainly reversible (upper and
lower part of Fig. 4, respectively). This could be explained, again, in terms of significant
differences in the smelting prevailing conditions; smelting at a covered furnace (reducing
atmosphere) in the second group, while open air (oxidizing atmosphere) in the first one, as

xiv Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)

 Investigation of ancient metallurgical sites of Michoacán, Western Mesoamerica

Table 2. Continuation.

Tmin Tmax H H pTRM Tail

[°C] N m m f g q [%]
[°C] [T] [T]
IRA 14 (SUP-313), Colonial
9 1.188 0.095 0.469 0.839 4.92 53.46 4.28 0.6
9 1.069 0.055 0.451 0.847 7.42 48.11 2.48 1.3
9 1.029 0.028 0.561 0.837 17.26 46.31 1.26 0.5
100 465
9 1.164 0.035 0.573 0.844 16.08 52.38 1.58 1.3
9 0.834 0.019 0.492 0.851 18.38 37.53 0.86 1.4
9 0.845 0.028 0.443 0.850 11.36 38.03 1.26 1.2
Mean 46.0
St. Dev. 6.9
PAMU 14 (SUP-263), Colonial
10 1.221 0.021 0.909 0.817 43.18 54.95 0.95 5.2
10 1.240 0.030 0.902 0.808 30.12 55.80 1.35 4.2
9 1.348 0.026 0.828 0.796 34.17 60.66 1.17 6.2
100 500
10 1.232 0.020 0.920 0.796 45.11 55.44 0.90 8.1
10 0.964 0.017 0.909 0.813 41.91 43.38 0.77 11.1
10 1.151 0.023 0.905 0.814 36.87 51.80 1.04 17.4
Mean 55.7
St. Dev. 3.2
QDAL 14 (SUP-308), Colonial
No results
TEPE 14 (SUP-261), Colonial
100 465 9 1.179 0.023 0.793 0.818 33.25 53.06 1.04 4.1
100 465 9 1.179 0.039 0.697 0.797 16.79 53.06 1.76 4.8
100 465 9 1.132 0.029 0.777 0.807 24.48 50.94 1.31 4.5
100 465 9 1.107 0.030 0.794 0.808 23.67 49.82 1.35 5.6
150 500 9 1.043 0.026 0.819 0.816 26.81 46.94 1.17 5.6
100 500 10 0.967 0.016 0.885 0.822 43.97 43.52 0.72 5.2
Mean 49.6
St. Dev. 3.7
ITZI 14 (SUP-25), Colonial
8 1.130 0.037 0.944 0.496 14.30 50.85 1.67 0.8
8 1.038 0.030 0.922 0.510 16.27 46.71 1.35 1.1
8 1.103 0.018 0.942 0.503 29.04 49.64 0.81 0.8
100 465
8 1.151 0.026 0.902 0.683 27.27 51.80 1.17 5.4
8 1.112 0.024 0.914 0.565 23.93 50.04 1.08 3.3
8 1.043 0.009 0.931 0.510 55.03 46.94 0.41 5.1
Mean 49.3
St. Dev. 2.1

Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017) xv

 J. Morales et al.

Table 2. Continuation.
Tmin Tmax H H pTRM Tail
[°C] N m m f g q [%]
[°C] [T] [T]
TIRI 14 (SUP-316), uncertain
20 515 12 0.972 0.018 0.967 0.870 45.43 43.74 0.81 1.1
20 465 10 0.889 0.038 0.890 0.833 17.34 40.01 1.71 1.7
100 515 11 0.982 0.017 0.926 0.862 46.11 44.19 0.77 0.2
100 500 10 0.899 0.012 0.920 0.851 58.65 40.46 0.54 0.5
150 500 9 1.019 0.013 0.878 0.835 57.47 45.86 0.59 4.0
100 500 10 0.983 0.012 0.924 0.844 63.88 44.24 0.54 5.7
Mean 43.1
St. Dev. 2.3

shown by Costanzo-Álvarez et al. (2006). (2) Initial magnetization values for slags of the
first group (in the order of 105106 Am2/kg) are one to two orders of magnitude lower
than those of the second group (104 Am2/kg). These differences can be explained, again,
in terms of differences in concentration and composition of iron oxides.

Fig. 9. Representative example of a successful archeointensity experiment of a) pre-Hispanic

slag, b) Colonial slag. c) Example of unsuccessful archeointensity experiment. See Fig. 1 for site
codes.

xvi Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)

 Investigation of ancient metallurgical sites of Michoacán, Western Mesoamerica

Fig. 10. Archeomagnetic dating of a) Cuitzitan and b) Tiripatillo sites. Upper panels: Intensity
reference curves (thick solid curves) with the 95% error envelope (dashed curves) calculated from
the SHA.DIF.14k global geomagnetic field model (Pavón-Carrasco et al., 2014) and the undated
archeointensity data (thick straight lines) with the 95% error envelope (dashed straight lines). Lower
panels: probability density function (PDF), calculated at 95% probability level, after comparison of
the site mean archeointensity value with the SHA.DIF.14k reference curve (Pavón-Carrasco et al.,
2014).

The contrasting textures revealed by SEM observations (Figs 5 and 6) could be

attributed to differences in cooling time; a slow cooling would produce a crystalline
structure, while a fast cooling would yield as a result a vitreous structure. In fact,
elemental semi-quantitative analysis (Figs 7b, 8b and Table 1) reinforce the assumption
above raised from IRM curves; high Fe concentrations (associated with low Cu
concentrations) for slags from second group (pre-Hispanics), and low Fe concentrations
(associated with high Cu concentrations) for slags from first group (Colonial). These
contrasting concentration differences of iron oxides between both groups could reflect the
differences in process used by pre-Hispanics and Spaniards; the natives being mainly
focused on gathering of Cu rather than of Fe.
In spite of the exceptional experimental behavior exhibited by these materials and the
high percentage of successful results obtained in this study (Fig. 9a,b), even better than
ceramics, archeointensity dating is hindered by the absence of a secular variation curve
(SVC) for Mesoamerica. Under these circumstances, the use of global models seems to be
an alternative for dating purposes. The SHA.DIF.14k models is based only on
archeomagnetic and lava flow data, and provides more variability in terms of both spatial
and temporal resolutions (Pavón-Carrasco et al., 2014).

Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017) xvii

 J. Morales et al.

Fig. 11. The same as in Fig. 10, but for a) Itziparátzico and b) Paso del Muerto sites.

Datings shown in Fig. 10 are consistent with their pre-Hispanic and Colonial context,
respectively. The inconsistent results shown in Fig. 11 could be attributed to the
continuous pre-Hispanic - Colonial usage of the Itziparátzico site on the one hand. Partial
re-heating during Colonial period could have caused a decrease of the original
archeointensity value. On the other hand, the probably existence of a local (positive)
magnetic anomaly, due to the huge amount of superficial magnetic material, at Paso del
Muerto site - a locality where smelting processes at a larger scale were carried out - could
have generated an enhancement of the original archeointensity value. This is something
common in ore deposits, specially of iron.
In any case, the inherent interdisciplinary nature of the archeomagnetism must be
taking into account before any attempt of dating.

Acknowledgments: The exhaustive and constructive revisions of Bernard Henry and Ángel
Carrancho are greatly acknowledged. The authors are grateful to María de la Luz Gómez-Rivera and
Orlando Hernandez-Cristóbal (ENES, Unidad Morelia) for their participation in the archeointensity
and SEM determinations, respectively. AG is grateful for financial support of CONACyT 252149
and UNAM-PAPIIT projects IN105214 and 101717.

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