MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION: THE CONCEPTS OF POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

WHAT IS POLITICS?

Politics in General

The word “politics” comes from the Greek word “polis” which means “city-state.” In the ancient world, city-
states are small countries regarded as centers of culture and civilization where people interact under a
unified government. What transpires in the polis is politics.

The origin of the word therefore suggests that politics is a term encompassing the totality of human
activities transpiring within the city-state. As it is applied now, it denotes everything that transpires in the
state as well as among states.

Meaning of Politics

1. Politics denotes a social activity. It is in essence the interaction of individuals.

 As the Greek philosopher Aristotle explains, it is the master science through which
individuals collectively set structure, purpose, and ideals in their lives. Politics,
therefore, does not emerge from the activities of a single individual but from that of
many.
2. Politics is about conflict and cooperation.
 On the one hand, conflict is caused by the diversity among individuals. People differ in
the way they perceive things, and disagree in almost every conceivable aspect of life.
 On the other hand, cooperation is motivated by men’s common goal of achieving a happy
life. While it is true that men argue and fight, it is also undeniable that they desire for peace.
The process of overcoming conflict to attain order and thereafter maintain that order is
politics. In other words, politics is essentially conflict resolution.
3. Politics is the creation, maintenance, and amendment of societal norms or rules.
 While politics as conflict resolution aims at establishing order in the society, the basis of
order today is law. Undeniably, religion and other archaic institutions have already lost their
central role as sources of order. It is law now that serves as the undisputed order-
establishing institution. Modern states and international organizations rely on the
adequacy and efficacy of their laws to meet the demands of the people to attain
domestic and international peace.

Politics therefore, in its broad sense means conflict resolution through the creation, maintenance, and
amendment of societal norms or rules.

Politics as the Science or the Art of Government

1. As a science,
 It is a systematic body of knowledge (for the most part, practical) that deals with the
government and regulation, maintenance and development, and defense and
augmentation of the state.
 It also deals with the protection of the rights of its citizens, safeguarding and
enhancement of morals, and harmony and peace of human relations.
2. However, other political scientists prefer to define politics as the art, rather than the science, of
government.
 It is an art because it involves the exercise of control or authority within the society
through the creation and enforcement of consensus arrived at by the leaders.
 It involves the process through which the government skillfully addresses the needs of the
society by carefully allocating benefits, rewards, and penalties. This is what David Easton
 means when he defined politics as the “authoritative allocation of values.” Under this
definition, politics takes place only within the polity or the machinery of the government. In
other words, only the processes and events that happen in the government bureaus,
departments, and offices are said to be “political” while those outside, like
businesses, religion, and family, are “non-political.” It is in this sense also that
politicians and political parties are said to be “political” while civil society is said to be non-
political.

Politics is the Realm of Public Affairs or the State.

 Traditionally, public refers to the institution of the state which is funded by the people at large
through their taxes to satisfy their common interest. This is contrasted to private, which refers to the
civil society that is privately funded to support their own interest.
 As the Greek used the term, state transactions (public) characterize the term political. When the
Greek philosopher Aristotle said “man by nature is a political animal,” he means that man is
naturally inclined to live in a society. Aside from his private life, man must have a public life, for
this perfects his essence and gives him the “good life.” In addition, the social theorists even
argued that the common good could only be attained through the active participation of the
citizens.
 Education as well as moral and intellectual enlightenment, are among the few things that result
from the public life. It must be noted that while there is a dichotomy of public life and private life,
these two are intimately connected in that they mutually depend on each other. And under this
traditional sense, politics (realm of the public/state) is intertwined with ethics (realm of the
private/individual).

VARIOUS VIEWS ON POLITICS

Politics may be defined in different gradients of inclusiveness. Some scholars are too inclusive that they
define almost everything as political, while others exclude a number of items, but they differ in what they
exclude and include. There are scholars who consider any activity that involves power—who gets
what, when, and how—as political (Lasswell 1936).

Some scholars locate politics in a collectivity. They believe that politics “is at the heart of all collective
social activity, formal and informal, public and private, in all human groups, institutions and societies, not
just some of them, and that it always has been and always will be” (Leftwich 1984, 63). They believe that
politics is the root of many problems that may not look political. These scholars consider a medical problem,
such as the outbreak of epidemics, economic problems like unemployment, famine, and poverty, social
problems manifested in crimes, as results of politics (64). They believe that they have political explanations,
but a thorough understanding of them may need an interdisciplinary approach; that is, an application of
knowledge about society, about psychology, about the state, about science and technology, about
economics.

Politics may be defined in a narrow sense in terms of arena of activity in the modern world. It has a narrow
meaning when defined in relation to the state. Thus, Aristotle’s dictum that man is a political animal, in a
way, connotes a narrow definition of politics because he said this in connection with the state, the polis in
Greek, res publica in Latin, which means ‘affairs of the state’. Taken in the context of Aristotle’s time,
however, relating politics to the state is to give it a broad meaning because the polis during this time was
the encompassing political unit and everything revolved around it. It would only be when we directly
translate polis to mean the modern state that Aristotle’s concept of what is political becomes narrow.
To some thinkers of modern times, like Michael Oakeshott, having ‘affairs of the state’ implies that there are
affairs which do not belong to the state, and are not political. There are personal affairs, like relationships
between lovers, among siblings, among friends. There are social affairs, like birthday parties, weddings and
meetings of a Rotary Club or a Lions Club. The state does not get involved in them and ordinary people do
not want to be and are not involved in politics. Politics is reserved to the statesmen and stateswomen (note
the emphasis) (Oakeshott 1962).

“Politics in the modern world obviously happen for the most part in nation-states—that is to say, in
communities with a certain past, with a certain social makeup and with a certain set of arrangements for
making political decisions. All these are givens. Politics, in the famous Oakeshott phrase, consists of
‘attending to’ these decision-making arrangements” (McClealland, 1966, 775).

Political discourse well then is about what is latently present but not yet there, or, to put it
another way, the discussion of statesmen will be about the right time and the right way of
responding to the sympathy they feel for what does not fully appear. Intimations come to those
who are already engaged in the practice of politics (though there is no reason in principle why
they should be contained to practicing politicians), but they do not come singly. Intimations are
like a signal from the world, but one of the world’s problems with the world is that it sends many
signals and sometimes so many that, taken together, they constitute a noise. The art of politics
lies in being able to hear the separate signals clearly and knowing which to respond to and
which to ignore. The statesmen have no set of prior criteria which tell him which or what kind of
intimations he ought to pursue. (778-79).

David Easton (1959) further refines the meaning of politics as state affairs by defining politics as the
authoritative allocation of values in a society. To Easton, an allocation of values that is not authoritative is
not political and in society, it is the state that has the authority to allocate values.

On the other hand, Robert Dahl (1984) defines politics as any activity involving human beings associated
together in relationship of power and authority where conflict occurs. This is a less inclusive definition than
that of Easton, in the sense, that the use of power and authority is political only when there is conflict. But in
another sense, it is more inclusive because the use of power and authority is not limited to the state.

Still a narrower definition of politics is one that relates it to government: “Government is the arena of
politics, the prize of politics, and, historically speaking, the residue of past politics” (Miller 1962, 19). This
definition is narrower than the definition that relates politics to the state because government is only a
component of the state. The definition excludes many things, such as the electorate’s behavior, civil
society, political education, interest groups, and many other aspects we now consider as political.

On the other hand, the definition includes activities, which, ideally, should not be political. Government
normally includes making decisions and politics and implementing them. Usually, decisions and policies are
made through discussion, negotiation, compromise, and promulgation of laws, rules, regulations,
administrative orders, and other forms of expressing the outcome of discussion, negotiation, and
compromise. The laws, rules, regulations, and administrative orders should be implemented. The
implementation aspect should no longer be political. It should just be a routine. It is, however, still very
much function of government. It usually belongs to the bureaucracy, which, ideally, should not be political.
If, even this aspect of government is still political, there will be a lot of instability and unpredictability. In fact,
this is one of the occasions when citizens complain about “too much politics.” There is too much politics
when there is still haggling, compromise; unpredictability is a situation when there should not be, when
there should no longer be politics.

Bernard Crick relates politics to the state, but he does not believe that there is politics in all states. To him,
politics does not exist in a tyranny, or in a totalitarian state. Neither does he believe that it exists in a
democracy where only the majority is heard.

Crick (1982, 141) says “politics is a way of ruling in divided societies without violence.” By “divided
societies,” he means societies where there are a variety of different interests and opinions. Differences in
interests have to be resolved not by force, but through conciliation. Crick asserts: “Why do certain interests
have to be conciliated? And the answer is, of course, that they do not have to be. Other paths are always
open, including violent means. Politics is simply when they are conciliated” (30). Crick does not believe that
force or violence should be used to settle differences.

To Crick, politics and totalitarianism cannot coexist. There can be politics only when there is diversity.
There can be no diversity when everything is political. There is diversity only when there are political and
nonpolitical activities. In a totalitarian state, everything is political and because of this, politics is annihilated
(151).

Democracy is compatible with politics, “indeed politics can now scarcely hope to exist without it” (73). But it
should not be that kind of democracy that Aristotle describes as mob rule, or that kind of democracy against
which Alexis de Tocqueville (1969, 246–76) warned us: tyranny of the majority. It should be that kind of
democracy where there is equality and liberty, respect for differences, and a commitment to resolve them
through compromises.

Politics means compromises, but these compromises “must in some sense be creative of future benefits—
that each exists for a further purpose.” Or at least, some purpose, like “enabling orderly government to be
carried on at all” (Crick 1982, 21–22).

Given this array of meanings and scope of politics, it is obvious that there is no single correct answer to the
question “what is politics.” The only thing they all say common is that politics is a relational activity. You
cannot have politics with yourself (except in a figurative sense); there should be at least two people
interacting with each other. The authorities we have mentioned are also in agreement that politics is a
purposive activity. But, of course, while politics is relational and purposive, not all activities that are
relational and purposive are political. That brings us back to the issue of the existence of many correct
meanings and delimitations of politics.

Confronted with such wealth of ideas about what politics is, we have to choose just one definition, if only to
make our search for answers manageable. But the choice, although with a taint of arbitrariness, as is
usually unavoidable in a scientific quest, has to be a well-reasoned out choice. If we do not do this, we will
get bogged down in circuitous weighing of the narrow and the broad, the classical and the postmodern
meanings of politics.

VALUE OF STATES AND POLITICS

The Values of Politics.

1. Politics Helps You to Know Your Rights

The course has allowed us to see beyond our initial belief that we have no real say in the running of our
country. It has truly educated us on a fundamental part of our society and has helped us to understand that
if we engage in political processes, using the pressure points built into the system, then every individual
really does have the opportunity to change the world.
2. Politics Clarifies What You Yourself Believe

Studying the things we have studied has given us the opportunity to discover our own political beliefs and
to see in much greater detail the benefits and disadvantages of the vast array of political ideologies that are
present in the world today. Being able to express what you believe accurately and concisely is extremely
useful, and forces you to really look at yourself!

3. Politics is a Living, Breathing Subject

In Politics, textbooks go out of date the day they are published. Why? Because the political landscape
changes every day, with new examples appearing constantly in the media. Picking which examples to use
in your answers to essay questions is really exciting as something that has happened on the day you are
taking your A Level exams can appear in your response!

4. Politics Helps You to Understand Our Nation's Parties

After just one term of the subject we have learnt about democracy and our rights, ideologies and party
policies, the Constitution and Parliament. With the knowledge gained from the classroom, we have been
able to watch events unfold worldwide, have seen our leaders' reactions to these events and have come to
understand these reactions as demonstrations of what we have learned.

5. Politics Prepares You for Adult Life

With the vote giving us the ability to change our nation and allow the principles we hold dear to thrive. With
this in mind, it could easily be said that Government and Politics is the most applicable subject on offer at
any school, and is a subject that people should be encouraged to take due to nothing less than the way it
prepares you for entering the adult world.

Value of State to an Individual

Aristotle and the French political thinker of the Romantic period, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
consider the state as the highest of all social organizations (Aristotle, Politics, in Ebenstein, 75; Jean
Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, in Ebenstein, 447). This is true even in our modern times. The
state is the highest organization we can be born to, live in, and die in/for. It is the highest not only because
it is higher and larger than family, village, province, and so on, but also because it is the organization that
molds us and gives us character. Man and woman, being human, need some kind of order or authority that
will help them tame their instincts. The state does that. Human beings need to express their rationality and
creativity, some have to channel the urge to rule; others are inclined to cooperate; still others need to feed
their soul. All these, according to Aristotle and Rousseau, are made possible only in the state. A life that is
truly human is possible only in the state.

St. Augustine of Hippo (A.D. 354-430), a medical Christian scholar, believed that the state was a necessary
evil. The human being had original sin and he needed the state to help him lead a normal life. If only man
had remained an angel, he would not have needed the state.

According to St. Thomas, man is by nature a social being, and he needs the state to guide him towards
perfection. To St. Augustine, the state is like medicine; it is needed because man is sick.

To St. Thomas, the state is like food: it is needed for a man’s nourishment. In modern times, G.W.F. Hegel
(1770-1831), a German philosopher, explains the nature of the state in this way: From one point of view,
the state is a necessity that is higher and outside personal life, family life, and social affairs. Persons,
families, civil society are subordinate to it and dependent on it. From another point of view, the state is
within them; state interest of individuals.
In other words, studying politics, studying the affairs of the state, is studying about us. If we study politics,
we may understand why some are poor, others are rich. We may find solutions to problems like
unemployment, crime, (and) pollution. And, if we successfully act on our findings, we may be able to
improve our lives. Other modern thinkers agree that the state is the apex of power, but they do not agree
that it has positive impact on our lives.

Karl Marx (1818-1883), another German philosopher and his collaborator Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), for
example, called the state the instrument of the exploitation of the proletariat and predicted that it would
wither away. Anarchists, however, believe that individuals and communities can exist without any authority
ruling over them (Curtis 1981, 34–38).

But even Marx, Engels, and the Anarchists did try to study and understand the state before they concluded
that society did not need it. If, to Marx and the Anarchists, the state was the cause of suffering of
humankind, it must, indeed, be a worthy thing to study, if only to find out how to get rid of suffering and how
human beings can lead a good life.

Therefore, we will be safely within the ambit of common sense if, out of so many meanings of politics, we
decide to focus on a definition that relates politics to affairs of the state.

Of all the possible arenas of relational and purposive activities, it is the arena of the state that is most
pervasive and has impact on most of the citizens most of the time.

State is defined as a “political association that establishes sovereign power within a defined territorial area
and possesses a monopoly of legitimate violence” (Harrison and Boyd 2003, 17). By focusing on the state,
we indeed define politics as an activity that involves the use of threat of use of power. The political
question, therefore, is how power and the threat of using it are shared.

BASIC CONCEPTS: ORDER, POWER, AND JUSTICE

To explain further the meaning of politics it is very helpful to dwell on political concepts, models, and
theories. Concepts are general or universal ideas shared by people. Models refer to networks of ideas that
seek to explain political realities. And theories refer to series of models which aim to systemically and
empirically explain political realities. These are intimately connected because one leads to another –
concepts lead to the formation of models, and models to theories.

The present section deals with three basic concepts: order, power, and justice.

Order

Order is central to the study of politics because it shows the different components of human societies.
Politics after all exists in diverse forms or levels of societal structures. These structures or orders are
community, government, and state:

(a) Community is one kind of social order which refers to an association of individuals who share a
common identity. This identity is formed by the unique circumstances surrounding the group of
individuals like geography, history, philosophy, religion, ideology, language, race, and allegiance. The
cause of its existence is primarily protection of individuals. Economic prosperity, cultural enrichment and
other social functions are only offshoots of the same.

(b) Government is a higher level of social order that exists primarily for the maintenance and
perpetuation of the community. It is said to possess “sovereignty” if it can successfully assert its claim to
rule. And it is said to “legitimate” if its claim to rule (authority) is willingly accepted. It has the following
forms: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy. Monarchy is a kind of government in which one man
 (king) noted for his noble lineage and honor is vested with the right to rule and control the society. If this
man pursues his own selfish interest instead of the common good, this form of government may turn
into a “Tyranny.” Aristocracy is another kind of government in which a selected few who are known for
their wealth and education have the right to rule. If this selected few pursue their own personal
interests, it becomes an “Oligarchy.” And lastly, democracy is the rule by the people, for the people, and
of the people. If this form of government downgrades into the rule of people’s passions instead of
reason and law, it becomes “Demagoguery” or “Mobocracy.” Philippines has a democratic government.

(c) State is the largest social order today and in which the term politics is originally derived. It refers to a
community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory,
having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying
freedom from external control. It could be seen in the definition that government is an element of the
state. As a political concept, it has undergone many developments and its discussion still occupies the
very heart of the study of politics. A separate chapter will be devoted for its discussion.

Power

The different social orders cannot be maintained without power. Their creation and perpetuation are
brought about by the exercise of power and the concomitant establishment of structures.

It is elementary to know that power has many sources aside from physical force. These include wealth,
culture, diplomatic relations and intelligence, to name a few. The basic rule is that the more abundant the
power source, the greater the capabilities of the government. In a narrower sense, power implies “power
over” people rather than the “power or ability to” do something. This includes influence over the behavior of
others, making them do things which they would not otherwise have done. Under such meaning of power,
politics involves manipulation through the popular methods of reward and punishment.

Political scientists and philosophers, like Niccolo Machiavelli and Friedrich Nietzsche, grounded their
political treatises on the concept of power. They explained the nature of politics by studying the essence of
power.

Justice

It is said that the correct exercise of power produces justice. If in the exercise of its power and authority, the
government gives what the people need, protect and respect their rights, and put the common good over
and above the personal interest of the leaders, then there is said to be justice.

It must be highlighted that the embodiment of order and power in this modern times is law, whether written
or customary. Thus, law is said to be the approximation of justice. Justice is that on which law is anchored.

However, since law is a mere “approximation” of the ideal concept of justice, it is never perfect. Sometimes
the law becomes unjust because it can no longer capture perfect justice. An innocent person, for instance,
may be convicted, or a perpetrator may be acquitted of a crime because of the technicalities and
restrictions of the law on evidence. Nevertheless, law must still be upheld since it is still the best medium of
justice and by which power may be exercised correctly for the promotion of societal order.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICS

There are two basic approaches to study politics: political philosophy and political science.
  On the one hand, political philosophy is the traditional approach in which the primary goal
is to understand the essence or truth about politics. This approach aims to establish what
politics ought to be. As such, it is normative or prescriptive, analytical, speculative, and
essentially ethical.
 It is normative or prescriptive because it prescribes standards or rules of conduct; it
establishes what “ought to be” the nature of politics and not “what it simply is.”
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are among the proponents of this approach.
 It is analytical because the approach is to a large extent an examination and literary
analysis of the various classic writings of intellectuals and philosophers such as
Confucius, Lao tzu, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Machiavelli,
Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Marx, to name some.
 It is speculative because it entails abstract, theoretical and not scientific explanations
of the varied subjects of politics.
 And it is essentially ethical because the approach basically presumes that ethics is
the foundation of politics; the ethical formation of the individual is a condition
precedent the society’s political formation. The questions raised under this approach
are “what is the essence of politics?”, “what is the ideal type of government?”, “who
should be and what are the attributes of a ruler?”, “what are the limits of the
government?”, and “what are rights and limits of individual freedom?”
 On the other hand, political science is the empirical approach in which it places little
emphasis on abstract and normative questions, and concentrates on a dispassionate and
objective description of the realities of politics. As such, it is descriptive, empirical,
objective, and it avoids ethics.
 It is descriptive because it simply establishes “what politics is” and not “what it ought
to be;” it describes the political phenomenon but does not prescribe standards or
rules of conduct.
 It is empirical because it studies only observable facts, and not abstract values and
concepts.
 It is objective because it adheres strictly to the methods of the natural sciences; it
considers only the observable (quantifiable) facts that can be measured through the
scientific method.
 It avoids ethics, in that values are not within its scope; only directly observable facts
are studied.

Political Science Summary

 the scientific study of politics

 study of politics, political systems, and governments
 focuses on the theory and practice of government
 theory of state and government
 seeks to study the origin, nature and functions of the state, government and its all organs
 universal

Guide Questions:

What does politics have to do with conflict and cooperation?

Should politics be defined as a process or an arena?

Discuss briefly and distinguish from each other the basic concepts of politics.

What is the relation of justice and law?

How do political philosophy and political science as approaches in studying politics differ?
 GOVERNANCE AND GOVERNMENT

Government and governance are two words that sound similar but are different in meaning. Difference
between government and governance is confusing for many people, and this article intends to clarify the
meaning and definition of the two words so as to leave no scope for confusion. An analogy can be drawn
between officer and official and also bureaucrat and bureaucracy if we wish to understand difference
between government and governance.

Government

This is a body that comprises a person or a group of persons who run the administration of a country. This
is a means in which power is exercised. There are various forms of governments such as democracy or
autocracy but this article will remain confined to the general term government which is commonly used in
social sciences. In normal circumstances, a state is run by a government that has a mandate from the
people to run the affairs of the country and also a term that may be of 4-6 years to serve the state. Thus
there is a succession of governments in any country or the same government may be elected again for a
successive term if people feel that it has done its job of running the country in a fair and close to ideal
manner.

Governance

The word governance refers to the activities of a government. In layman’s terms, it is the rules and laws
made by the government that are sought to be implemented through a chosen bureaucracy which is
referred to as governance. The process of governing people or a state is called governance.

Difference between Government and Governance

To understand the differences between government and governance, one can take the example of a
business which is handled by a person or group of persons (called partners or owners). The way they run
the business with the help of employees applying their knowledge and experience is called management. In
a similar manner, government is the elected body of representatives headed by a person. This body has
the mandate to rule or govern people. And the manner in which they use the established system and
principles to run the affairs of the country is called governance.

Governance can be good or bad depending upon the perception of the people and they may accordingly
choose to retain or vote a particular government out of power.

In nutshell, governance is what a government does. It is the exercise of powers that are bestowed upon the
government according to set rules and regulations using a system of bureaucracy that defines governance.
Government is merely an instrument for the purpose of governance.

Functions of Government

There are two functions of government: constituent and ministrant.

Constituent functions are those which constitute the very bonds of society and are compulsory in nature.
Examples are:

 keeping of order and providing for the protection of persons and property;
 the fixing of the legal relations between man and wife, and between parents and child;
 the regulation of property and the determination of contract rights;
 the definition and punishment of crime, the administration of justice, the determination of political
duties, privileges, and relations of citizens, dealings of the state with foreign powers, the
preservation of the state from external danger
 and the advancement of international interest.
Ministrant functions are those that are undertaken only by way of advancing the general interests of
society and are merely optional. Examples are:

 public works
 public education
 public charity
 health and safety regulations
 and regulations of trade and industry.

Different Forms of Government

 Absolute monarchy - a form of government where the monarch rules unhindered, i.e., without any
laws, constitution or legally organized opposition.
 Anarchy - a condition of lawlessness or political disorder brought about by the absence of
governmental authority.
 Authoritarian - a form of government in which state authority is imposed onto many aspects of
citizens' lives.
 Commonwealth - a nation, state or other political entity founded on law and united by a compact of
the people for the common good.
 Communist - a system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and a
single -- often authoritarian -- party holds power; state controls are imposed with the elimination of
private ownership of property or capital while claiming to make progress toward a higher social
order in which all goods are equally shared by the people (i.e., a classless society).
 Confederacy (Confederation) - a union by compact or treaty between states, provinces or territories
that creates a central government with limited powers; the constituent entities retain supreme
authority over all matters except those delegated to the central government.
 Constitutional - a government by or operating under an authoritative document (constitution) that
sets forth the system of fundamental laws and principles that determines the nature, functions and
limits of that government.
 Constitutional democracy - a form of government in which the sovereign power of the people is
spelled out in a governing constitution.
 Constitutional monarchy - a system of government in which a monarch is guided by a constitution
whereby his/her rights, duties, and responsibilities are spelled out in written law or by custom.
 Democracy - a form of government in which the supreme power is retained by the people, but which
is usually exercised indirectly through a system of representation and delegated authority
periodically renewed.
 Democratic republic - a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to
vote for officers and representatives responsible to them.
 Dictatorship - a form of government in which a ruler or small clique wield absolute power (not
restricted by a constitution or laws).
 Ecclesiastical - a government administrated by a church.
 Emirate - similar to a monarchy or sultanate, a government in which the supreme power is in the
hands of an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state); the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign
with constitutionally limited authority.
 Federal (Federation) - a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided -- usually
by means of a constitution -- between a central authority and a number of constituent regions
(states, colonies or provinces) so that each region retains some management of its internal affairs;
differs from a confederacy in that the central government exerts influence directly upon both
individuals as well as upon the regional units.
 Federal republic - a state in which the powers of the central government are restricted and in which
the component parts (states, colonies, or provinces) retain a degree of self-government; ultimate
sovereign power rests with the voters who chose their governmental representatives.
  Islamic republic - a particular form of government adopted by some Muslim states; although such a
state is, in theory, a theocracy, it remains a republic, but its laws are required to be compatible with
the laws of Islam.
 Maoism - the theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by Mao Zedong (Mao
Tse-tung), which states that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state
are to keep in touch with the people.
 Marxism - the political, economic and social principles espoused by 19th century economist Karl
Marx; he viewed the struggle of workers as a progression of historical forces that would proceed
from a class struggle of the proletariat (workers) exploited by capitalists (business owners), to a
socialist "dictatorship of the proletariat," to, finally, a classless society -- Communism.
 Marxism-Leninism - an expanded form of communism developed by Vladimir Lenin from doctrines
of Karl Marx; Lenin saw imperialism as the final stage of capitalism and shifted the focus of workers'
struggle from developed to underdeveloped countries.
 Monarchy - a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the hands of a monarch who
reigns over a state or territory, usually for life and by hereditary right; the monarch may be either a
sole absolute ruler or a sovereign - such as a king, queen or prince - with constitutionally limited
authority.
 Oligarchy - a government in which control is exercised by a small group of individuals whose
authority generally is based on wealth or power.
 Parliamentary democracy - a political system in which the legislature (parliament) selects the
government - a prime minister, premier or chancellor along with the cabinet ministers - according to
party strength as expressed in elections; by this system, the government acquires a dual
responsibility: to the people as well as to the parliament.
 Parliamentary government (Cabinet-Parliamentary government) - a government in which members
of an executive branch (the cabinet and its leader - a prime minister, premier or chancellor) are
nominated to their positions by a legislature or parliament, and are directly responsible to it; this type
of government can be dissolved at will by the parliament (legislature) by means of a no-confidence
vote or the leader of the cabinet may dissolve the parliament if it can no longer function.
 Parliamentary monarchy - a state headed by a monarch who is not actively involved in policy
formation or implementation (i.e., the exercise of sovereign powers by a monarch in a ceremonial
capacity); true governmental leadership is carried out by a cabinet and its head - a prime minister,
premier or chancellor - who are drawn from a legislature (parliament).
 Presidential - a system of government where the executive branch exists separately from a
legislature (to which it is generally not accountable).
 Republic - a representative democracy in which the people's elected deputies (representatives), not
the people themselves, vote on legislation.
 Socialism - a government in which the means of planning, producing and distributing goods is
controlled by a central government that theoretically seeks a more just and equitable distribution of
property and labor; in actuality, most socialist governments have ended up being no more than
dictatorships over workers by a ruling elite.
 Sultanate - similar to a monarchy, a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a
sultan (the head of a Muslim state); the sultan may be an absolute ruler or a sovereign with
constitutionally limited authority.
 Theocracy - a form of government in which a Deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, the
Deity's laws are interpreted by ecclesiastical authorities (bishops, mullahs, etc.); a government
subject to religious authority.
 Totalitarian - a government that seeks to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling not
only all political and economic matters, but also the attitudes, values and beliefs of its population.
 Aristocracy – a form of government by a relatively small privileged class or by a minority consisting
of those felt to be best qualified to rule. It is the rule of the few best—the morally and intellectually
superior—governing in the interest of the entire population.

Characteristics of Good Governance

 1. Rule of Law

Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced by an impartial regulatory body, for the
full protection of stakeholders.

2. Transparency

Transparency means that information should be provided in easily understandable forms and media; that it
should be freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by governance policies and
practices, as well as the outcomes resulting therefrom; and that any decisions taken and their enforcement
are in compliance with established rules and regulations.

3. Responsiveness

Good governance requires that organizations and their processes are designed to serve the best interests
of stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

4. Consensus Oriented

Good governance requires consultation to understand the different interests of stakeholders in order to
reach a broad consensus of what is in the best interest of the entire stakeholder group and how this can be
achieved in a sustainable and prudent manner.

5. Equity and Inclusiveness

The organization that provides the opportunity for its stakeholders to maintain, enhance, or generally
improve their well-being provides the most compelling message regarding its reason for existence and
value to society.

6. Effectiveness and Efficiency

Good governance means that the processes implemented by the organization to produce favorable results
meet the needs of its stakeholders, while making the best use of resources – human, technological,
financial, natural and environmental – at its disposal.

7. Accountability

Accountability is a key tenet of good governance. Who is accountable for what should be documented in
policy statements. In general, an organization is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions
or actions as well as the applicable rules of law.

8. Participation

Participation by both men and women, either directly or through legitimate representatives, is a key
cornerstone of good governance. Participation needs to be informed and organized, including freedom of
expression and assiduous concern for the best interests of the organization and society in general.

9. Strategic vision

Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human
development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an understanding
of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded.