Allowable Pile Capacity

𝑄𝑢
𝑄𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐹𝑆
Where:
Qall = allowable load-carrying capacity for each pile
FS= Factor of Safety, ranges from 2-3.

(insert table)

Load-Carrying Capacity of Pile Point Resting on Rock

The ultimate unit point resistance in rock (Goodman, 1980) is approximately

𝑞𝑝 = 𝑞𝑢−𝑅 (𝑁∅ + 1)
Where:
∅′
Nø = tan2 (45 + 2 )
qu-R = unconfined compression strength of rock
ø’ = drained angle of friction

Scale Effect
- As the diameter of the specimen increases, the unconfined compression
strength decreases
- primarily caused by randomly distributed large and small fractures and also by
progressive ruptures along the slip lines. Hence it is recommended that:
𝑞𝑢−𝑅(𝑙𝑎𝑏)
𝑞𝑢−𝑅(𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛) =
5
 A factor of safety of at least 3 should be used to determine the allowable
loadcarrying
capacity of the pile point. Thus,

[ 𝑞𝑢−𝑅 (𝑁∅ + 1)]𝐴𝑝

𝑄𝑝(𝑎𝑙𝑙) =
𝐹𝑆

Elastic Settlement of Piles

The elastic settlement of a pile under a vertical working load, Q w, is determined
by three factors:
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒(1) + 𝑆𝑒(2) + 𝑆𝑒(3)

Where:
Se = total pile settlement
Se (1) = settlement of pile shaft
Se (2) = settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile point
Se (3) = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted along the pile shaft

Determination of Se (1)
If the pile material is assumed to be elastic, the deformation of the pile shaft can
be evaluated using the fundamental principles of mechanics of materials:

(𝑄𝑤𝑝 + 𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠 )𝐿
𝑆𝑒(1) =
𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Where:
Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working load condition
Qws = load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under working load condition
Ap = area of the pile cross section
L = length of the pile
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
𝛏 = depends on the nature of the unit friction (skin) resistance (f (z)) distribution
along the pile shaft. May vary between 0.5 – 0.67 (Vesic, 1977)
- 𝛏 = 0.5 if variation of f(z) is uniform or parabolic
- 𝛏 = 0.67 if variation of f(z) is linear

Determination of Se(2)
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried at the pile point may be
expressed as
 𝑞𝑤𝑝 𝐷
𝑆𝑒(2) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑝
𝐸𝑠

Where:
D = width or diameter of the pile
qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
µs = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Iwp = influence factor ≈ 0.85

Vesic (1977) also proposed a semiempirical method to obtain the magnitude of the
settlement, Se(2):

𝑄𝑤𝑝 𝐶𝑝
𝑆𝑒(2) =
𝐷𝑞𝑝
Where:
qp = ultimate point resistance of the pile
Cp = an empirical coefficient

Determination of Se(3)
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried along the pile shaft is given
by:

𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐷
𝑆𝑒(3) = ( ) (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑠
𝑝𝐿 𝐸𝑠
Where:
p = perimeter of the pile
L = embedded length of the pile
Iws = influence factor

Note that the term Qws/pL is the average value of f along the pile shaft. The influence
factor, Iws, has a simple empirical relation (Vesic, 1977)

𝐿
𝐼𝑤𝑠 = 2 + 0.35 √
𝐷
Vesic (1977) also proposed a simple empirical relation for obtaining Se(3):

𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝑆𝑒(3) =
𝐿𝑞𝑝
Where
Cs = an empirical constant = (0.93 + 0.16 sqrt(L/D))Cp

Pile Load Test

Axial Compression Test
Steps:
- Load is applied to the pile by a hydraulic jack.
- Step loads are applied to the pile and sufficient time is allowed to
elapse after each load so that a small amount of settlement occurs
- Measuring the settlements using dial gauges
- After desired pile load is reached, the pile is gradually unloaded.

(insert fig)

The settlement of the pile head or butt (St) has two components. One is the
elastic shortening of the pile (Se), and the other is the settlement of the pile point (Snet).
At any stage of loading
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑆𝑒 + 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡

For any load Q, the net pile settlement can be calculated as

When Q=Q1
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡(1_ = 𝑆𝑡(1) − 𝑆𝑒(1)

When Q=Q2

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡(2) = 𝑆𝑡(2) − 𝑆𝑒(2)

⋮
Where
Snet = net settlement
Se = elastic shortening of the pile itself
S1 = total settlement (or settlement of the pile head)

The values of Q can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net

settlement Snet to get the ultimate load of the pile. The point corresponding to the point
where the curve of Q versus Snet becomes vertical is the ultimate load Qu. Davisson
(1973) proposed another method to obtain the ultimate load Qu. The ultimate load
occurs at a total settlement level (Su)
 𝐷(𝑚𝑚) 𝑄𝑢 𝐿
𝑆𝑢 (𝑚𝑚) = 4 + +
120 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝
Where
Qu is in kN
D is in mm
L = pile length (mm)
Ap = area of pile cross section (mm2)
Ep = Young’s modulus of pile material (kN/mm2)
(insert fig)

Load Controlled Test

- Requires the application of step loads on the piles and the
measurement of settlement

Constant-rate-of-penetration Test
- The load on the pile is continuously increased to maintain a constant
rate of penetration
- Gives a load-settlement plot similar to load-controlled test

Cyclic loading Test

- Incremental load is repeatedly applied and removed

Pile Driving analyzers

- Used to determine the load carrying capacity of a driven pile
- Alternative to pile load test

(insert fig)

Pile Driving Formulas

ENR Formula
One of the earliest of these dynamic equations—commonly referred to as the
engineering News Record (ENR) formula—is derived from the work-energy theory; that
is,

Energy imparted by the hammer per blow = (pile resistance)(penetration

per hammer blow)

According to the ENR formula, the pile resistance is the ultimate load, Q u,
expressed as
𝑊𝑅 ℎ
𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆+𝐶
Where:
WR = weight of the ram
h = height of fall of the ram
S = penetration of the pile per hammer blow
 C = a constant
-For drop hammers: C = 2.54 cm (if the units of S and h are in
centimeters)
-For steam hammers: C = 0.254 cm (if the units of S and h are in
centimeters)

Also, a factor of safety of FS = 6 was recommended to estimate the allowable

pile capacity. Note that, for single- and double-acting hammers, the term W rh can be
replaced by EHE (where E = hammer efficiency and HE = rated energy of the hammer).
Thus,
𝐸𝐻𝐸
𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆+𝐶

The ENR pile-driving formula has been revised several times over the years. A
recent form—the modified ENR formula—is

𝐸𝑊𝑟 ℎ 𝑊𝑟 + 𝑛2 𝑊𝑝
𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆 + 𝐶 𝑊𝑟 + 𝑊𝑝
where
E = hammer efficiency
C = 0.254 cm if the units of S and h are in centimeters
Wp = weight of the pile
n = coefficient of restitution between the ram and the pile cap
FS = 4-6

Danish Formula
𝐸𝐻𝐸
𝑄𝑢 =
𝐸𝐻 𝐿
𝑆 + √2𝐴 𝐸𝐸
𝑝 𝑝

where
 E = hammer efficiency
HE = rated hammer energy
Ep= modulus of elasticity of the pile material
L= length of the pile
Ap= area of the pile cross section

Negative Skin Friction

- downward drag force exerted on the pile by the soil surrounding it. This action
can occur under conditions such as the following:
1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is
driven, the fill will gradually consolidate. This consolidation process will exert a
downward drag force on the pile (Figure 14.20a) during the period of
consolidation.
2. If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, as shown in
Figure 14.20b, it will induce the process of consolidation in the clay layer and
thus exert a downward drag on the pile.
3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on
the soil at any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is
located in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a downward drag force.

(insert fig)

Clay Fill over Granular Soil

Similar to the β method presented in the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is

𝑓𝑛 = 𝐾′𝜎 ′ 𝑂 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿′
Where:
K’ = earth pressure coefficient = Ko = 1 - sin ø’
σo = vertical effective stress at any depth z =γ’f z
γ’f = effective unit weight of fill
δ’ = soil–pile friction angle ≈ 0.5ø’ – 0.7ø’

Hence, the total downward drag force, Qn, on a pile is

𝐻𝑓 𝑝𝐾′γ′𝑓 𝐻𝑓2 𝑡𝑎𝑛δ′

𝑄𝑛 ∫ (𝑝𝐾′ γ′𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛δ′)z dz =
0 2
where Hf = height of the fill. If the fill is above the water table, the effective unit weight,
γ’f, should be replaced by the moist unit weight.

Granular Soil Fill over Clay

In this case, the evidence indicates that the negative skin stress on the pile may exist
from z = 0 to z = L1, which is referred to as the neutral depth. The neutral depth may be
given as (Bowles, 1982)
′
𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 𝐿 − 𝐻𝑓 γ 𝑓 𝐻𝑓 2γ′ 𝑓 𝐻𝑓
𝐿1 = ( + )−
𝐿1 2 γ’ γ’

where γ’f and γ’= effective unit weights of the fill and the underlying clay layer,
respectively.

Once the value of L1 is determined, the downward drag force is obtained in the following
manner: The unit negative skin friction at any depth from z = 0 to z = L1 is

𝑓𝑛 = 𝐾′𝜎′𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛δ′

where
K’ = Ko 1 - sin ø’
σ'o = γ’f Hf + γ’ z
δ’ = 0.5 ø’–0.7 ø’

Hence, the total drag force is

𝐿1
′
𝐿21 𝑝𝐾′γ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛δ′
𝑄𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑓𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑝𝐾′γ 𝑓 𝐻𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 δ′)𝐿1 +
0 2

For end-bearing piles, the neutral depth may be assumed to be located at the
pile tip (i.e., L1 = L - Hf).
If the soil and the fill are above the water table, the effective unit weights should
be replaced by moist unit weights. In some cases, the piles can be coated with bitumen
in the downdrag zone to avoid this problem. Baligh et al. (1978) summarized the results
of several field tests that were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of bitumen
coating in reducing the negative skin friction.

Group Piles – Efficiency

- piles are used in groups to transmit the structural load to the soil
- A pile cap is constructed over group piles.
- When the piles are placed close to each other, a reasonable assumption
is that the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil will overlap thus reducing
the load-bearing capacity of the piles. Ideally, the piles in a group should be
spaced so that the load-bearing capacity of the group is no less than the sum of
the bearing capacity of the individual piles. In practice, the minimum center-to-
center pile spacing, d, is 2.5D and in ordinary situations is actually about 3D to
3.5D.

(insert fig)
 The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as
𝑄𝑔(𝑢)
𝜂=
∑ 𝑄𝑢
Where:
η = group efficiency
Qg(u) = ultimate load-bearing capacity of the group pile
Qu = ultimate load-bearing capacity of each pile without the group effect

Piles in Sand

Based on the experimental observations of the behavior of group piles in sand to date,
two general conclusions may be drawn:

1. For driven group piles in sand with d ≥ 3D, Qg(u) may be taken to be ΣQu, which
includes the frictional and the point bearing capacities of individual piles.

2. For bored group piles in sand at conventional spacings (d ≈ 3D), Qg(u) may be taken
to be 2/3 to 3/4 times ΣQu (frictional and point bearing capacities of individual piles).

Piles in Clay

The ultimate load-bearing capacity of group piles in clay may be estimated with the
following procedure:

1. Determine ΣQu = n1n2(Qp + Qs).

𝑄𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 [9𝑐𝑢(𝑝) ]
𝑄𝑠 = ∑ 𝛼𝑝𝑐𝑢 𝛥𝐿
where cu(p) = undrained cohesion of the clay at the pile tip.

2. Determine the ultimate capacity by assuming that the piles in the group act as
a block with dimensions of Lg X Bg X L. The skin resistance of the block is
∑ 𝑝𝑐 𝑐𝑢 𝛥𝐿 = ∑ 2(𝐿𝑔 + 𝐵𝑔 )𝑐𝑢 𝛥𝐿
Calculate the point bearing capacity from
𝐴𝑝 𝑞𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑐𝑢(𝑝) 𝑁𝑐∗ = (𝐿𝑔 𝐵𝑔 )𝑐𝑢(𝑝) 𝑁𝑐∗
The Variation of N*c with L/Bg and Lg/Bg is illustrated. Thus the ultimate
load is
∑ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝐿𝑔 𝐵𝑔 𝑐𝑢(𝑝) 𝑁𝑐∗ + ∑ 2(𝐿𝑔 + 𝐵𝑔 )𝑐𝑢 𝛥𝐿
3. Compare the values obtained. The lower of the two values is Qg(u)
(insert fig)

Piles in Rock
For point bearing piles resting on rock, most building codes specify that Qg(u) = ΣQu,
provided that the minimum center-to-center spacing of piles is D +300 mm. For H-piles
and piles with square cross sections, the magnitude of D is equal to the diagonal
dimension of the pile cross section.

General Comments
A pile cap resting on soil will contribute to the load-bearing capacity of a pile group.
However, this contribution may be neglected for design purposes because the support
may be lost as a result of soil erosion or excavation during the life of the project.

Elastic Settlement of Group Piles

The simplest relation for the settlement of group piles was given by Vesic (1969)
as
𝐵𝑔
𝑆𝑔(𝑒) = √ 𝑆
𝐷 𝑒
Where
Sg(e) = elastic settlement of group piles
Bg = width of pile group section
D = width or diameter of each pile in the group
Se = elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load

For pile groups in sand and gravel, Meyerhof (1976) suggested the following
empirical relation for elastic settlement:
0.92𝑞 √𝐵𝑔 𝐼
𝑆𝑔(𝑒) (𝑚𝑚) =
𝑁60
Where
q (kN/m2) = Qg/(Lg Bg)
Lg and Bg = length and width of the pile group section, respectively (m)
N60 = average standard penetration number within seat of settlement (≈ B g deep
below the tip of the piles)
I = influence factor = 1 - L/8Bg ≥ 0.5
L = length of embedment of piles (m)

Similarly, the pile group settlement is related to the cone penetration resistance
as:
𝑞𝐵𝑔 𝐼
𝑆𝑔(𝑒) =
2𝑞𝑐

where qc = average cone penetration resistance within the seat of settlement.

Consolidation Settlement of Group Piles

The consolidation settlement of a pile group can be estimated by assuming an

approximate distribution method that is commonly referred to as the 2:1 method. The
calculation procedure involves the following steps:

1. Let the depth of embedment of the piles be L. The group is subjected to a total
load of Qg. If the pile cap is below the original ground surface, Qg equals the total load of
the superstructure on the piles minus the effective weight of soil above the pile group
removed by excavation.

2. Assume that the load Qg is transmitted to the soil beginning at a depth of 2L/3
from the top of the pile, as shown (z = 0). The load Qg spreads out along 2 vertical:1
horizontal lines from this depth. Lines aa’ and bb’ are the two 2:1 lines.

3. Calculate the effective stress increase caused at the middle of each soil layer
by the load Qg:
𝑄𝑔
𝛥𝜎′𝑖 =
(𝐵𝑔 + 𝑧𝑖 )(𝐿𝑔 + 𝑧𝑖 )
where
Δσ’i = effective stress increase at the middle of layer i
Lg, Bg = length and width of the plan of pile group, respectively
zi = distance from z = 0 to the middle of the clay layer, i

(insert fig)

4. Calculate the settlement of each layer caused by the increased stress:

𝛥𝑒(𝑖)
𝛥𝑆𝑐(𝑖) = [ ]𝐻
1 + 𝑒0(𝑖) 𝑖
Where:
ΔSc(i) = consolidation settlement of layer i
Δe(i) = change of void ratio caused by the stress increase in layer i
eo(i) = initial void ratio of layer i (before construction)
Hi = thickness of layer i

5. Calculate the total consolidation settlement of the pile group by

𝛥𝑆𝑐(𝑔) = ∑ 𝛥𝑆𝑐(𝑖)

Note that the consolidation settlement of piles may be initiated by fills placed
nearby, adjacent floor loads, and lowering of water tables.