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1
Steady Flow in Open Channels
y2 y3 y2 y3
y1 y1
Z Z
yc y1 yc
y3
y1 yo
Z Z y3
As it is explained with the help of E~y Diagram, a hump of any height “Z”
would cause the lowering of the water surface over the hump in case of
subcritical flow in channel. It is also clear that a gradual increase in the
height of hump “Z” would cause a gradual reduction in y2 value. That height
of hump which is just causing the flow depth over hump equal to yc is know
as critical height of hump Zc .
Further increase in Z (>Zc) would cause the flow depth y2 remaining equal
yc thus causing the water surface over the hump to rise. This would further
cause an increase in the depth of water upstream of the hump which mean
that water surface upstream of the hump would rise beyond the previous
value i.e y1>yo. This phenomenon of rise in water surface upstream with
Z>Zc is called damming action and the resulting increase in depth upstream
of the hump i.e y1-yo is known as Afflux.
Flow Through Contraction
When the width of the channel is reduced while the bed remains flat, the discharge
per unit width increases. If losses are negligible, the specific energy remains constant
and so for subcritical flow depth will decrease while for supercritical flow depth will
increase in as the channel narrows.
Continuity Equation
B1 y1v1 = B2 y2 v2
Bernoulli ' s Equation
v12 v22 B1 B2
y1 + = y2 +
2g 2g
Using both equations, we get
y1 y2
( 1 2 )
2 g y − y yc
Q=B2 y 2 v 2 =B2 y 2 2
B
1 − 2 2 y
B1 y1
Flow Through Contraction
If the degree of contraction and the flow conditions are such that
upstream flow is subcritical and free surface passes through the critical
depth yc in the throat.
B1 Bc
Q = Bc yc vc = Bc yc 2 g ( E − yc )
2
sin ce yc = E
3
y1 y2
2 1 yc
Therefore Q = Bc E 2g E
3 3
Q = 1.705BE 3/ 2 in SI Units
y1
yc yc
Example # 11.3
In the accompanying figure, uniform flow E.L
of water occurs at 0.75 m3/s in a 1.2m V12/2g V22/2g H.G.L
wide rectangular flume at a depth of
0.6m. y2 y3
(a). Is the flow sub-critical or super- y1
critical. Z
q12 q12 q2 2
sin ce E = yo + = 0.91m yo + = y2 +
2 gyo 2 gyo 2 gy2
2
yc = E = 0.606m q2 2
3 y2 + = 0.91
2 gy2
Vc = gyc = 2.473m / sec
y2 = o.38m & 0.785m
Therefore
Q = Bc yc vc = 1.1
Bc = 0.744m
Broad Crested Weirs and
Venturi Flumes
Broad Crested Weirs and Venturi Flumes
Flow Measurement in Open Channels
Temporary Devices
Floats
Pitot Tube
Current meter
Salt Velocity Method
Radio Active Tracers
Permanent Devices Broad Crested Weirs and Venturi
Sharp Crested Weir/Notch Flumes are extensively used for
Broad Crested Weir discharge measurement in open
channel.
Venture Flume
Ordinary Flume Broad Crested Weirs and Critical
Critical Depth Flume flumes are based and worked on
the principle of occurrence of
critical depth.
Broad Crested Weir
A weir, of which the ordinary dam is
an example, is a channel obstruction
over which the flow must deflect.
For simple geometries the channel
discharge Q correlates with gravity
and with the blockage height H to
which the upstream flow is backed up
above the weir elevation.
Thus a weir is a simple but effective
open-channel flow-meter.
Continuity Equation
B1 y1v1 = B2 y2 v2
Bernoulli ' s Equation
v12 v22 B1 B2
y1 + = y2 +
2g 2g
Using both equations, we get
y1 y2
yc
2 gH
Q=B2 y 2 v 2 =B2 y 2 2
B y
1 − 2 2 H = y2-y1
B1 y1
Venturi Flume
Critical Depth Flume (Standing Wave Flume)
A critical depth flume is the one in which either the width is contracted to such
an extent that critical depth occurs at the throat or more common both a
hump/weir in bed & side contractions are provided to attain critical depth with
hydraulic jump occurrence at d/s of throat.
Continuity Equation B1 B2
Q = B1 y1v1 = B2 y2 v2
Bernoulli ' s Equation V1 H
2 2 y1 vc yc
v
1 v c
Z+H + = Z + yc + Z
2g 2g
Using both equations, we get
Q=B2 y c v c
Problem: 12.66
A broad crested weir rises 0.3m above the bottom of channel. With a
measured head of 0.6m above the crest, what is rate of discharge per unit
width? Allow for velocity of approach.
Z = 0.3m
H = 0.6m Take Cd=0.62
y1 = Z + H
q = ???
As we know that;
3/ 2
V2
Qact = 1.7Cd B H +
2g
3/ 2
Q2
Qact = 1.7Cd B H +
By 2 g
Since B = 1; using Trial and Error
Qact = q =0.505 m3 / sec/ m
Problem: 12.67
A broad crested weir of height 0.6m in a channel 1.5m wide has a flow over it
of 0.27m3/sec.What is water depth just upstream of weir?
Z = 0.6m
H = y1 − 0.6
B = 1.5m
Q = 0.27 m3 / sec
Cd = 0.62
As we know that;
3/ 2
Q2
Qact = 1.7Cd B H +
By1 2 g
3/ 2
0.27 2
0.27 = 1.7 x0.62 x1.5 y1 − 0.62 +
1.5 y1 2 g
Solving above equations reults
y1 = 0.905m
Hydraulic jump and its practical
applications.
Hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jump formed on a spillway model Rapid flow and hydraulic jump on a dam
for the Karna-fuli Dam in Bangladesh.
Hydraulics Jump or Standing Wave
Hydraulics jump is local non-uniform flow phenomenon resulting from the
change in flow from super critical to sub critical. In such as case, the water
level passes through the critical depth and according to the theory
dy/dx=infinity or water surface profile should be vertical. This off course
physically cannot happen and the result is discontinuity in the surface
characterized by a steep upward slope of the profile accompanied by lot of
turbulence and eddies. The eddies cause energy loss and depth after the
jump is slightly less than the corresponding alternate depth. The depth
before and after the hydraulic jump are known as conjugate depths or
sequent depths.
y
y1 & y2 are called
conjugate depths
y2
y2
y1
y1
Classification of Hydraulic jump
Momentum Equation
F1 − F2 + Fg − Ff = ρ Q(V2 − V1 ) 2
Where 1
Ff = Frictional Resistance L
So~0
Fg = Gravitational component of flow
Assumptions:
1. If length is very small frictional resistance may be neglected. i.e (Ff=0)
2. Assume So=0; Fg=0
Note: Momentum equation may be stated as sum of all external forces is equal
to rate of change of momentum.
Equation for Conjugate Depths
Let the height of jump = y2-y1 Where;
Length of hydraulic jump = Lj Q2
Specific Force=Fm = + Ahc
γ Ag
F1 − F 2 = Q (V2 − V1 )
g Note : Specific force remains same at section
γ at start of hydraulic jump and at end of hydraulic
γ hc1 A1 − γ hc 2 A2 =
Q (V2 − V1 )
g jump which means at two conjugate depths the
hc = Depth to centriod as measured specific force is constant.
from upper WS Now lets consider a rectangular channel
γ γ q2 B2 y1 q 2 B 2 y
QV1 + γ hc1 A1 = QV2 + γ hc 2 A2 ⇒ eq.1 ∴ + By1 = + By2 2
g g By1 g 2 By2 g 2
Eq. 1 stated that the momentum flow rate q 2 y12 q2 y22
+ = + ⇒ eq.3
plus hydrostatic force is the same at both y1 g 2 y2 g 2
sections 1 and 2. q2 1 1 1 2
− = ( y2 − y1 )
2
Dividing Equation 1 by γ and g y1 y2 2
changing V to Q/A or
Q2 Q2 q 2 y2 − y1 1
+ A1hc1 = + A2 hc 2 = Fm ⇒ eq.2
A1 g A2 g = ( y2 − y1 )( y2 + y1 )
g y1 y2 2
Equation for Conjugate Depths
q2 y +y
= y1 y2 2 1 ⇒ eq.4
g 2
Practically -Ve depth is not possible
Eq. 4 shows that hydraulic jumps can
y
be used as discharge measuring device.
Since q = V1 y1 = V2 y2
2
( )
∴ y2 = 1 −1 + 1 + 8FN21 ⇒ eq.5
Similarly
V12 y12 y +y
∴ = y1 y2 2 1 y
g 2
2
( )
y1 = 2 −1 + 1 + 8 FN22 ⇒ eq.5a
÷ by y13
2
2V12 y2 y2
= +
gy1 y1 y1
2
y y
0 = 2 + 2 − 2 FN21
y1 y1
2
y2 −1 ± 1 + 4(1)(2) FN 1
=
y1 2(1)
y1
y2 =
2
(
−1 ± 1 + 8 FN21 )
Location of Hydraulic Jumps
yo1
yc M3 y2
y1
So1>Sc
So2<Sc
yo
yc y1 y2=yo
ys
L So<Sc
Lj
Location of hydraulic jump where it starts is
L=(Es-E1)/(S-So)
Condition for Hydraulic Jump to occur
ys<y1<yc<y2
Flow becomes uniform at a distance L+Lj from sluice gate where
Length of Hydraulic jump = Lj = 5y2 or 7(y2-y1)
Problem
35
Problem 11. 87
A hydraulic Jump occurs in a triangular
flume having side slopes 1:1. The flow
rate is 0.45 m3/sec and depth before
jump is 0.3m. Find the depth after the Q2 Q2
jump and power loss in jump?
+ A1hc1 = + A2 hc2
A1 g A2 g
Solution
hc = y / 3
Q= 0.45 m3/sec
y2 = 0.858m
y1=0.3m
y2=? ∆E = E1 − E2
∆E = 0.679
T=2y Power Loss = γ Q∆E
hc=y/3
Power Loss = 2.997 Kwatt
1:1
Problem 11. 89
A very wide rectangular channel with bed slope = 0.0003 and roughness n =
0.020 carries a steady flow of 5 m3/s/m. If a sluice gates is so adjusted as to
produce a minimum depth of 0.45m in the channel, determine whether a hydraulic
jump will form downstream, and if so, find (using one reach) the distance from the
gate to the jump.
Solution
yo
ys=0.45m y1 y2=yo yc
So<Sc
L Lj
Problem 11. 89
1/ 3
q 2
yc = = 1.366 > 0.45 ⇒ Super Critical Flow
g
A
Q = R 2 / 3 So1/ 2
n
yo ≈ y2
y1 = f ( y2 )
Vm2 n 2
S = 4/3
Rm
Es − E1
L=
S − So
Thank you
Questions….
39