Advaita Vedanta
“Advaita” redirects here. For other uses, see Advaita (dis- dating the central premises of this tradition.[8] The princi-
ambiguation).
Advaita Vedanta[note 1] is a school of Hindu philosophy interpretation was Adi Shankara in the 8th century, who
Statue of Adi Shankara the first historical proponent of Advaita
Vedanta
and religious practice, and one of the classic Indian paths
to spiritual realization.[1] Advaita (Sanskrit; not-two, “no
second”) refers to the idea that the true Self, Atman, is
the same as the highest Reality, Brahman. It gives “a uni-
fying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads”,[2]
providing scriptural authority for the postulation of the
nonduality of Atman and Brahman. Followers seek
liberation/release by acquiring vidyā (knowledge)[3] of
the identity of Atman and Brahman. It emphasizes
Jivanmukta, the idea that moksha (freedom, liberation)
is achievable in this life.[4][5]
Advaita Vedanta is the oldest extant sub-school of
Vedanta[note 2] – one of six schools of orthodox darśanas
(philosophies, world views, teachings).[6][7] The school
uses concepts such as Brahman, Atman, Maya and oth-
ers that are found in major Indian religious traditions,[8]
but interprets them in its own way for its theories of
moksha.[9][10] Advaita Vedanta traces its roots in the old-
est Upanishads, with Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sutra consoli-
pal, though not the first, exponent of the Advaita Vedanta-
systematised the works of preceding philosophers.[11]
Advaita Vedanta, like all Indian philosophies, developed
in a multi-faceted religious and philosophical landscape,
in interaction with the other traditions of India such as
Jainism and Buddhism.[12] In its history, it influenced and
was influenced by various traditions and texts of Hindu
philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, other sub-
schools of Vedanta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, the Puranas,
the Agamas as well as social movements such as the
Bhakti movement.[13][14][15]
Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most in-
fluential schools of classical Indian thought.[16][17][18] In
modern times, due to developments already set in at me-
dieval times with Hindu responses to Muslim rule,[19] and
further developed by neo-Vedantins and Hindu nation-
alists in colonial times, Advaita Vedanta has acquired a
broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the
paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.[20] Many
scholars describe it as a form of monism,[21][22][23] some
as nondualism.[24][25] Advaita Vedanta texts espouse a
spectrum of views from idealism, including illusionism,
to realist or nearly realist positions expressed in the early
works of Sankara.[26]
1 Moksha – liberation through
knowledge of Brahman
Main article: Moksha
Traditional Advaita Vedanta centers around the study
and what it believes to be correct understanding of the
sruti, revealed texts, especially the Upanishads.[27][28]
Correct understanding is believed to provide knowledge
of the identity of atman and Brahman, which results
in liberation. The main texts to be studied are the
Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Cor-
rect knowledge, which destroys avidya, psychological and
perceptual errors,[29] is obtained by following the four
stages of samanyasa (self-cultivation), sravana, listen-
ing to the teachings of the sages, manana, reflection on
the teachings, and svādhyāya, contemplation of the truth
“that art Thou”.
1
2 1 MOKSHA – LIBERATION THROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF BRAHMAN

1.1 Vidya, Svādhyāya and Anubhava known in any way.

Main article: Svādhyāya
Sruti, revealed texts, and proper reasoning, are the
main sources of knowledge (vidya) for Shankara and
the subsequent Advaita Vedanta tradition.[30][31] Correct
knowledge of Brahman is thought to be acquirable by
svādhyāya,[32] study of the self and of the Vedic texts,
and nididhyāsana, the study of and contemplation of the
truths and non-duality.[33]
Nididhyasana leads to anubhava, direct cognition or un-
derstanding, which establishes the truth of the sruti.[34]
Adi Shankara uses anubhava interchangeably with prati-
patta, “understanding”.[web 1] and considers it as the “non-
dual realisation gained from the scriptures”.[35] Dalal and
others state that anubhava does not center around some
sort of “mystical experience,” but around the correct
knowledge of Brahman.[31][36] Stressing the meaning of
anubhava as knowledge, Saraswati states that liberation
comes from knowledge, not from mere experience.[web 1]
Nikhalananda notes that (knowledge of) Atman and
Brahman can only be reached by buddhi, “reason,”[37]
stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowl-
edge, while buddhi is the highest means of attaining
knowledge.[38]
2. And that same true Self, pure conscious-
ness, is not different from the ultimate world
Principle, Brahman ...
3. ... Brahman (=the true Self, pure con-
sciousness) is the only Reality (sat), since It
is untinged by difference, the mark of igno-
rance, and since It is the one thing that is not
sublimatable.[43]
“Pure consciousness” is the translation of jnanam.[44]
Although the common translation of jnanam[44] is
“consciousness”, the term has a broader meaning of
“knowing"; “becoming acquainted with”,[web 2] “knowl-
edge about anything”,[web 2] “awareness”,[web 2] “higher
knowledge”.[web 2]
According to David Loy,
The knowledge of Brahman ... is not intu-
ition of Brahman but itself is Brahman.[45]
1.4 Mahavakya – The Great Sentences
Main article: Mahāvākyas

1.2 Moksha - liberation Several Mahavakyas, or “the great sentences”, have Ad-
vaitic theme, that is “the inner immortal self and the great
[46]
Correct knowledge of Brahman is thought to lead to cosmic power are one and the same”.
[note 3]
liberation,
Liberation can be achieved while living, and is called 1.5 Stages and practices
Jivanmukta.[41]
Advaita Vedanta gives an elaborate path to attain moksha.
1.3 Identity of Atman and Brahman It entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one’s
real nature.[note 6]
See also: Jnana, Prajna, and Prajñānam Brahma Adi Shankara wrote a book, named Upadesasahasri to
guide the practice of an Advaitin, with three prose chap-
Moksha is attained by realizing the identity of Atman and ters and a poetry section. One chapter is dedicated to
Brahman, the complete understanding of one’s real nature Sravana (listening or reading the texts, discussions be-
as Brahman in this life.[42] This is frequently stated by tween the teacher and student), one chapter to Man-
Advaita scholars, such as Shankara, as: ana (thinking), and the third chapter to Nididhyasana
(meditation).[52] The text also includes a guidebook on
characteristics that establish a good teacher, ethics and
I am other than name, form and action.
personal qualities necessary for the Advaita student, and
My nature is ever free!
steps to learn about errors and nescience and about self-
I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brah-
knowledge, epistemology and Yoga (particularly Jnana
man.
yoga and eight limbed yoga).[53] Shankara and Suresvara
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.
explicitly recommended the practice of Yoga in an Ad-
— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 11.7, [42]
vaitin’s life.[54]

According to Potter, 1.5.1 Jnana Yoga – Four stages of practice

1. The true Self is itself just that pure Main article: Jnana Yoga
consciousness, without which nothing can be
1.5 Stages and practices 3

Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana 1.5.3 Guru

Yoga, a progression of study and training to attain
moksha.[55][56] It consists of four stages:[57][58][note 7] Main article: Guru

• Samanyasa or Sampattis,[59] the “fourfold disci-

Advaita Vedanta school has traditionally had a high rever-
pline” (sādhana-catustaya), cultivating the follow-
ence for Guru (teacher), and recommends that a compe-
ing four qualities:[57]
tent Guru be sought in one’s pursuit of spirituality. How-
• Nityānitya vastu viveka (नित्यानित्य वस्तु ever, the Guru is not mandatory in Advaita school, states
विवेकम्) — The ability (viveka) to cor- Clooney, but reading of Vedic literature and followed by
rectly discriminate between the real and eter- reflection is.[61] Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly
nal (nitya) and the substance that is appar- employed compound words “such as Sastracaryopadesa
ently real, aging, changing and transitory (an- (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and
itya).[57][58] Vedantacaryopadesa (instruction by way of the Upan-
• Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga ishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of
[61]
(इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फल भोगविरागम्) — The Guru”. This reflects the Advaita tradition which holds
renunciation (virāga) of petty desires that a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining
distract the mind (artha phala bhoga), willing correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge,
[62]
to give up everything that is an obstacle to the and to self-realization.
[58][60]
pursuit of truth and self-knowledge. A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a
• Śamādi ṣatka sampatti (शमादि षट्क reverential figure to the student, with the guru serving
सम्पत्ति) — the sixfold qualities, as a “counselor, who helps mold values, shares experi-
• Śama (mental tranquility, ability to focus ential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exem-
the mind).[58][60] plar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the
[63]
• Dama (self-restraint, the virtue of spiritual evolution of a student. The guru, states Joel
temperance). [58][60] Mlecko, is more than someone who teaches specific type
• Uparati (dispassion, ability to of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is
be quiet and disassociated from also a “counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who
everything; [58]
“discontinuation of helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as
religious ceremonies” ) [60] specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational
[63]
• Titikṣa (endurance, perseverance, abil- source and who reveals the meaning of life.”
ity to be patient during demanding The Advaita philosopher Adi Shankara, in Chapter 1 of
circumstances).[58][60] Upadesasahasri, states that teacher is the pilot as the stu-
• Śraddhā (the faith in teacher and Sruti dent walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as
texts).[58] the student rows. The text describes the need, role and
• Samādhāna (attention, intentness of characteristics of a teacher,[64] as follows,
mind).[58][60]
• Mumukṣutva (मुमुक्षुत्वम्) — A positive When the teacher finds from signs that
longing for freedom and wisdom, driven to the knowledge has not been grasped or has been
quest of knowledge and understanding.[58] wrongly grasped by the student, he should re-
move the causes of non-comprehension in the
• Sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages on
student. This includes the student’s past and
the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta, studying the
present knowledge, want of previous knowl-
Vedantic texts, such as the Brahma Sutras, and dis-
edge of what constitutes subjects of discrim-
cussions with the teacher;[57]
ination and rules of reasoning, behavior such
• Manana, the stage of reflection on the teachings;[58] as unrestrained conduct and speech, court-
ing popularity, vanity of his parentage, ethical
• Nididhyāsana, the stage of meditation on the truths
flaws that are means contrary to those causes.
and introspection.[58]
The teacher must enjoin means in the student
that are enjoined by the Śruti and Smrti, such
1.5.2 Samadhi as avoidance of anger, Yamas consisting of
Ahimsa and others, also the rules of conduct
While Shankara emphasized sravana (“hearing”), manana that are not inconsistent with knowledge. He
(“reflection”) and nididhyasana (“repeated meditation”), [teacher] should also thoroughly impress upon
later texts like the Dŗg-Dŗśya-Viveka (14th century) the student qualities like humility, which are
and Vedantasara (of Sadananda) (15th century) added the means to knowledge.
samadhi as a means to liberation, a theme that was also — Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri
emphasized by Swami Vivekananda. 1.4-1.5[65][66]
4 3 DARŚANA (PHILOSOPHY)
2 Texts
See also: Works of Adi Shankara
The identity of Atman and Brahman, and their un-
changing, eternal nature,[67] are basic truths in Advaita
Vedanta. The school considers the knowledge claims
in the Vedas to be the crucial part of the Vedas, not
its karma-kanda (ritual injunctions).[68] The knowledge
claims about self being identical to the nature of Atman
and Brahman are found in the Upanishads, which Advaita
Vedanta has regarded as “errorless revealed truth.”[68]
Nevertheless, states Koller, Advaita Vedantins did not
entirely rely on revelation, but critically examined their
teachings using reason and experience, and this led them
to investigate and critique competing theories.[68] Along
with the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Su-
tras are the central texts of the Advaita Vedanta tradi-
tion, providing the truths about the identity of Atman and
Brahman and their changeless nature.[68][69]
Adi Shankara gave a nondualist interpretation of these Additionally there are five Siddhi-granthas that are taught
texts in his commentaries. Adi Shankara's Bhashya in the Advaita-parampara, after study of the Prasthana-
(commentaries) have become central texts in the Advaita trayi:
Vedanta philosophy, but are one among many ancient
and medieval manuscripts available or accepted in this
tradition.[11] The subsequent Advaita tradition has further
elaborated on these sruti and commentaries.
2.1 Textual authority
Advaita Vedanta, like all orthodox schools of Hindu
philosophy, accepts as an epistemic premise that
Śruti (Vedic literature) is a reliable source of
knowledge.[70][71][72] The Śruti includes the four
Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts - the
Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early
Upanishads.[73] Of these, the Upanishads are the most
referred to texts in the Advaita school. Most scholars,
states Eliot Deutsch, are quite convinced that the Śruti in
general, and the philosophical texts that are Upanishads
in particular, express “a very rich diversity” of ideas,
with the early Upanishads such as Brihadaranyaka Up-
anishad and Chandogya Upanishad being more readily
amenable to Advaita Vedanta school’s interpretation
than the middle or later Upanishads.[74][75] In addition
to the oldest Upanishads, states Williams, the Sannyasa
Upanishads group composed in pre-Shankara times
“express a decidedly Advaita outlook”.[76]
The possibility of different interpretations of the Vedic
literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by an-
cient Indian scholars.[77][78] The Brahmasutra (also called
Vedanta Sutra, composed in 1st millennium BCE) ac-
cepted this in verse 1.1.4 and asserts the need for the
Upanishadic teachings to be understood not in piece-
meal cherrypicked basis, rather in a unified way wherein
the ideas in the Vedic texts are harmonized with other
means of knowledge such as perception, inference and
remaining pramanas.[77][79] This theme has been cen-
tral to the Advaita school, making the Brahmasutra as a
common reference and a consolidated textual authority
for Advaita.[77][80] However, Brahmasutra is an aphoris-
tic text, and itself can be interpreted as non-theistic Ad-
vaita Vedanta text or as theistic Dvaita Vedanta text; this
has led, states Stephen Phillips, to its varying interpre-
tations by various sub-schools of Vedanta.[81] The Brah-
masutra is considered by the Advaita school as the Nyaya
Prasthana (canonical base for reasoning).[79]
The Bhagavad Gita, similarly in parts can be inter-
preted to be a monist Advaita text, and in other parts
as theistic Dvaita text. It too has been widely stud-
ied by Advaita scholars, including a commentary by Adi
Shankara.[82][78] The Bhagavad Gita is considered as the
Smriti Prasthana in Advaita school.[79]
2.2 Siddhi-granthas
1. Brahmasiddhi by Mandana Mishra (750–850),
2. Naishkarmasiddhi by Sureswara (8th century, disci-
ple of Sankara),
3. Ishtasiddhi by Vimuktananda (1200),
4. Advaita Siddhi,[web 4] written by Madhusudana
Saraswati - 1565-1665.
5. Svarajyasiddhi by Gangadharendra Saraswati (c.
1800),
3 Darśana (philosophy)
Main article: Hindu philosophy
Advaita Vedanta is one of the six classical Hindu
darśanas, or view on spirituality.[83][84][note 8] The Advaita
Vedanta school has been historically referred by various
names, states Richard King:[86]
(Early names of the school have in-
cluded) the doctrine of non-dualism (Advaita-
vada), the school of non-difference (Abheda-
darshana), the doctrine of the denial of
dualism (Dvaita-vada-pratisedha), and non-
dualism of the isolated (Kevala-dvaita). The
term Advaita first occurs in a recognizably
3.2 Ontology - the nature of Being 5

Vedantic context in the prose of Mandukya

Upanishad 7, although it is to a certain extent
prefigured in the Chandogya Upanishad's state-
ment that Brahman is one without a second
(ekam advitiyam).
— Richard King, Early Advaita Vedanta
and Buddhism[86]

3.1 Aims
The main aim of Advaita Vedanta is to explain how mok-
sha can be attained,[67] that is liberation and freedom in
current life, which it concludes is attained by the correct
knowledge of the identity of Atman (soul, self) and Brah-
man (ultimate reality), and their oneness, primal nature as
the sole Reality.[87]
A main question is the relation between Atman and
Brahman, which is solved by regarding them to be
identical.[88][89] This truth is established from the old-
est Principal Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, and is also
found in parts of the Bhagavad Gita and numerous other
Hindu texts,[8] and is regarded to be self-evident. The
main aim of the commentaries is to support this nondu-
alistic (of Atman and Brahman) reading of the sruti.[90]
Reason is being used to support revelation, the sruti, the
ultimate source of truth.[91]
Another major problem is raised by the rejection the du-
alism of Samkhya between purusha, primal conscious-
ness, and prakriti, inert primal matter. The Reality of
prakriti is rejected, instead stating that Atman/Brahman
is the sole Reality. This rejection raises the question how
to explain phenomenal reality. By declaring phenome-
nal reality to be 'unreal,' or an 'illusion,' the primacy of
Atman/Brahman can be maintained.[88][89]
The commentaries also provide a criticism of opposing
systems, including Samkhya and Buddhism.[90]
3.2 Ontology - the nature of Being
See also: Metaphysics and Ontology
The swan is an important motif in Advaita. It symbolises two
things: first, the swan is called hamsah in Sanskrit (which be-
comes hamso if the first letter in the next word is /h/). Upon
repeating this hamso indefinitely, it becomes so-aham, meaning,
“I am That”. Second, just as a swan lives in a lake but its feathers
are not soiled by water, similarly a liberated Advaitin lives in this
world but is not soiled by its maya.
• Vyāvahārika (vyavahara), or samvriti-saya,[94] con-
sisting of the empirical or pragmatical reality. It is
ever changing over time, thus empirically true at a
given time and context but not metaphysically true.
It is “our world of experience, the phenomenal world
that we handle every day when we are awake”. It is
the level in which both jiva (living creatures or indi-
vidual souls) and Iswara are true; here, the material
world is also true.[93]
• Prāthibhāsika (pratibhasika, apparent reality, unre-
ality), “reality based on imagination alone”. It is the
level of experience in which the mind constructs its
own reality. A well-known examples is the percep-
tion of a rope in the dark as being a snake.[93]
3.2.2 Absolute Reality
Brahman Main articles: Brahman, Nirguna Brahman,
and Satcitananda

According to Advaita Vedanta Brahman is the

highest Reality,[43][95][96] That which is unborn and
3.2.1 Three Levels of Reality
unchanging,[95][97] and “not sublatable”,[43] and cannot
be superseded by a still higher reality.[98][note 9][note 10]
See also: Two truths doctrine
Other than Brahman, everything else, including the
Shankara uses sublation as the criterion to postulate an
universe, material objects and individuals, are ever-
ontological hierarchy of three levels:[92][93]
changing and therefore maya. Brahman is Paramarthika
Satyam, “Absolute Truth”,[112] and
• Pāramārthika (paramartha, absolute), the Reality
that is metaphysically true and ontologically accu-
rate. It is the state of experiencing that “which is the true Self, pure consciousness ... the
absolutely real and into which both other reality lev- only Reality (sat), since It is untinged by dif-
els can be resolved”. This experience can't be sub- ference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is
lated (exceeded) by any other experience.[92][93] the one thing that is not sublatable”.[43]
6 3 DARŚANA (PHILOSOPHY)

Advaita’s Upanishadic roots state Brahman’s school asserts that there is “spirit, soul, self” within each
qualities[note 11] to be Sat-cit-ānanda (being- living entity which is fully identical with Brahman – the
consciousness-bliss)[113][114] It means “true being- Universal Soul.[131][132] This identity holds that there is
consciousness-bliss,” [115][116] or “Eternal Bliss One Soul that connects and exists in all living beings,
Consciousness”.[117] Adi Shankara held that satci- regardless of their shapes or forms, there is no distinc-
tananda is identical with Brahman and Atman.[115] tion, no superior, no inferior, no separate devotee soul
The Advaitin scholar Madhusudana Sarasvati explained (Atman), no separate God soul (Brahman).[131] The One-
Brahman as the Reality that is simultaneously an absence ness unifies all beings, there is the divine in every being,
of falsity (sat), absence of ignorance (cit), and absence and that all existence is a single Reality, state the Ad-
of sorrow/self-limitation (ananda).[115] According to vaita Vedantins.[133] Each soul, in Advaita view, is non-
Adi Shankara, the knowledge of Brahman that Shruti different from the infinite.[134]
provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides To Advaitins, human beings, in a state of unawareness
self inquiry.[118]
and ignorance of this Universal Self, see their “I-ness” as
According to Paul Deussen,[119] Brahman is: different than the being in others, then act out of impulse,
fears, cravings, malice, division, confusion, anxiety, pas-
• Satyam, “the true Reality, which, however, is not the sions, and a sense of distinctiveness.[135][136] Atman-
empirical one” knowledge, to Advaitins, is that state of full aware-
ness, liberation and freedom which overcomes dualities
• Jñãnam, “Knowledge which, however, is not split
at all levels, realizing the divine within oneself, the di-
into the subject and the object”
vine in others and all living beings, the non-dual One-
• anantam, “boundless or infinite” ness, that Brahman is in everything, and everything is
Brahman.[130][131]
According to Eliot Deutsch, the sat or being, in this expe-
rience of Brahman, is the ontological principle of unity,
and “the oneness not constituted in parts.” Cit or con- 3.2.3 Empirical reality
sciousness points to illuminating awareness of unchang-
ing witness of one’s being. Ananda or bliss is an axi- Māyā Main article: Maya (illusion)
ological concept, as the principle of value, one of joy-
ous existence.[116] Yet, Brahman is not limited to “sat-cit-
ananda”, and expansively includes all “truth, knowledge, The empirical reality is explained in Advaita and
infinite”, best conceptualized as unlimited in every sense other sub-schools of Vedanta with the concept of
through neti neti – “not this, not this”.[120] Maya.[137][138] Human mind constructs a subjective ex-
perience, states Vedanta school, which leads to the peril
The universe, according to Advaita philosophy, does not of misunderstanding Maya as well as interpreting Maya
simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. Brahman as the only and final reality. Vedantins assert the “per-
is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all ceived world including people are not what they appear to
that exists in the universe.[95] Brahman is the cause of be”.[139] There are invisible principles and laws at work,
all changes.[95][97] Brahman is considered to be the ma- true invisible nature in others and objects, and invisi-
terial cause[note 12] and the efficient cause[note 13] of all ble soul that one never perceives directly, but this invisi-
that exists.[96][121][122] Brahman is the “primordial real- ble reality of Self and Soul exists, assert Advaitin schol-
ity that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the ars. Māyā is that which manifests, perpetuates a sense of
universe.”[103] It is the “creative principle which lies real- false duality (or divisional plurality).[140][141] The empiri-
ized in the whole world”.[123] cal manifestation is real but changing, but it obfuscates
the true nature of metaphysical Reality which is never
Atman Main article: Ātman (Hinduism) changing. Advaita school holds that liberation is the un-
fettered realization and understanding of the unchanging
Reality and truths – the Self, that the Self (Soul) in one-
Ātman (IAST: ātman, Sanskrit: आत्मन्) is a Sanskrit self is same as the Self in another and the Self in every-
word that means “real self” of the individual,[124][125] thing (Brahman).[142]
“essence”,[web 5] and soul.[124][126]
In Advaita Vedanta philosophy, there are two realities:
Ātman is the first principle,[127] the true self of an Vyavaharika (empirical reality) and Paramarthika (ab-
individual beyond identification with phenomena, the solute, spiritual Reality).[143] Māyā is the empirical re-
essence of an individual. Atman is the Universal Prin- ality that entangles consciousness. Māyā has the power
ciple, one eternal undifferentiated self-luminous con- to create a bondage to the empirical world, preventing
sciousness, the Truth asserts Advaita Vedanta school of the unveiling of the true, unitary Self—the Cosmic Spirit
Hinduism.[128][129] also known as Brahman. This theory of māyā was ex-
Advaita Vedanta philosophy considers Atman as self- pounded and explained by Adi Shankara. Competing the-
existent awareness, limitless and non-dual.[130] Advaita istic Dvaita scholars contested Shankara’s theory,[144] and
3.3 Epistemology
stated that Shankara did not offer a theory of the rela-
tionship between Brahman and Māyā.[145] A later Ad-
vaita scholar Prakasatman addressed this, by explain-
ing, “Maya and Brahman together constitute the entire
universe, just like two kinds of interwoven threads cre-
ate a fabric. Maya is the manifestation of the world,
whereas Brahman, which supports Maya, is the cause of
the world.”[146]
Brahman is the sole metaphysical truth in Advaita
Vedanta, Māyā is true in epistemological and empiri-
cal sense; however, Māyā is not the metaphysical and
spiritual truth. The spiritual truth is the truth forever,
while what is empirical truth is only true for now. Com-
plete knowledge of true Reality includes knowing both
Vyavaharika (empirical) and Paramarthika (spiritual),
the Māyā and the Brahman. The goal of spiritual enlight-
enment, state Advaitins, is to realize Brahman, realize the
Oneness.[143][147]
3.2.4 Avidya
Ignorance Due to ignorance (avidyā), Brahman is per-
ceived as the material world and its objects (nama rupa
vikara). According to Shankara, Brahman is in reality
attributeless and formless. Brahman, the highest truth
and all (Reality), does not really change; it is only our
ignorance that gives the appearance of change. Also due
to avidyā, the true identity is forgotten, and material real-
ity, which manifests at various levels, is mistaken as the
only and true reality.
The notion of avidyā and its relationship to Brahman cre-
ates a crucial philosophical issue within Advaita Vedanta
thought: how can avidyā appear in Brahman, since Brah-
man is pure consciousness?[148] Sengaku Mayeda writes,
in his commentary and translation of Adi Shankara's
Upadesasahasri:
Certainly the most crucial problem which
Sankara left for his followers is that of avidyā.
If the concept is logically analysed, it would
lead the Vedanta philosophy toward dual- Advaita traces the foundation of this ontological theory
ism or nihilism and uproot its fundamental in more ancient Sanskrit texts.[158] For example, chap-
position.[149] ters 8.7 through 8.12 of Chandogya Upanishad discuss
the “four states of consciousness” as awake, dream-filled
Subsequent Advaitins gave somewhat various explana- sleep, deep sleep, and beyond deep sleep.[158][159]
tions, from which various Advaita schools arose.
Koshas See also: Kosha
Due to avidya, atman is covered by sheaths, or bodies,
which hide man’s true nature. According to the Taittiriya
Upanishad, the Atman is covered by five koshas, usually
rendered “sheath”.[150] They are often visualised like the
layers of an onion.[151] From gross to fine the five sheaths
are:
7
1. Annamaya kosha, food-apparent-sheath
2. Pranamaya kosha, air-apparent-sheath
3. Manomaya kosha, mind-stuff-apparent-sheath
4. Vijnanamaya kosha, wisdom-apparent-sheath
5. Anandamaya kosha, bliss-apparent-sheath
(Ananda)
According to Vedanta the wise man should discriminate
between the self and the koshas, which are non-self.
Three states of consciousness See also: Three Bodies
Doctrine (Vedanta) and Kosha
Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely
waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep
(suṣupti), which are commonly experienced by hu-
man beings,[152][153] and correspond to the Three Bodies
Doctrine:[154]
1. The first state is the waking state, in which we are
aware of our daily world.[155] This is the gross body.
2. The second state is the dreaming mind. This is the
subtle body.[155]
3. The third state is the state of deep sleep. This is the
causal body.[155]
Turiya, pure consciousness is the background that un-
derlies and transcends the three common states of
consciousness.[web 6][web 7] In this consciousness both ab-
solute and relative, saguna brahman and Nirguna Brah-
man, are transcended.[156] It is the state of liberation,
where states Advaita school, one experiences the infinite
(ananta) and non-different (advaita/abheda), free from
the dualistic experience which results from the attempts
to conceptualise (vipalka) reality.[157] It is the state in
which ajativada, non-origination, is apprehended.[157]
3.3 Epistemology
See also: Pramana and Epistemology
The ancient and medieval texts of Advaita Vedanta and
other schools of Hindu philosophy discuss Pramana
(epistemology), that is how correct knowledge can be ac-
quired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what
extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something
8 3 DARŚANA (PHILOSOPHY)
can be acquired.[160][161] In Advaita Vedānta,[162] as in the
Bhāṭṭa school of Mimāṃsā, the following pramāṇas are
accepted:[163][164]
1. Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्षाय) which means perception. It
is of two types: external and internal. External per-
ception is described as that arising from the inter-
action of five senses and worldly objects, while in-
ternal perception is described by this school as that
of inner sense, the mind.[165] The four requirements
for correct perception are accepted by Advaita to be
Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one’s
sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being
studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct percep-
tion is not through hearsay, according to ancient In-
dian scholars, where one’s sensory organ relies on
accepting or rejecting someone else’s perception),
Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception
does not change, nor is it the result of deception
because one’s sensory organ or means of observa-
tion is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasay-
atmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judg-
ments of doubt, either because of one’s failure to
observe all the details, or because one is mixing in-
ference with observation and observing what one
wants to observe, or not observing what one does
not want to observe).[166] The internal perception
concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalak-
sanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived
specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa
(a form of perception of prior processes and previ-
ous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its cur-
rent state).[167]
2. 'Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It is de-
scribed as reaching a new conclusion and truth from
one or more observations and previous truths by
applying reason.[168] Observing smoke and infer-
ring fire is an example of Anumana. This epis-
temic method for gaining knowledge consists of
three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason),
and drshtanta (examples).[169] The hypothesis must
further be broken down into two parts, state the
ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which
needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the ob-
ject on which the sadhya is predicated). The in-
ference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive
examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha
(negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent.
For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further
epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti
- the requirement that the hetu (reason) must nec-
essarily and separately account for the inference in
“all” cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[169][170]
A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a niga-
mana (conclusion).[171]
3. Upamāṇa (उपमान) means comparison and
analogy.[161][172] Some Hindu schools consider it as
a proper means of knowledge.[173] Upamana, states
Lochtefeld,[174] may be explained with the example
of a traveller who has never visited lands or islands
with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is
told, by someone who has been there, that in those
lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow,
grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such
and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison
is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means
of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller
identify the new animal later.[174] The subject
of comparison is formally called upameyam, the
object of comparison is called upamanam, while
the attribute(s) are identified as samanya.[175]
4. Arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति) means postulation, deriva-
tion from circumstances.[161][172] In contemporary
logic, this pramana is similar to circumstantial
implication.[176] As example, if a person left in a
boat on river earlier, and the time is now past the ex-
pected time of arrival, then the circumstances sup-
port the truth postulate that the person has arrived.
Many Indian scholars considered this pramana as in-
valid or at best weak, because the boat may have
gotten delayed or diverted.[177] However, in cases
such as deriving the time of a future sunrise or sun-
set, this method was asserted by the proponents to
be reliable. Another common example for arthap-
atti in ancient Hindu texts is, that if “Devadatta is
fat” and “Devadatta never eats during the day”, then
the following must be true: “Devadatta eats in the
night”. This form of postulation and deriving from
circumstances is, claim the Indian scholars, a means
to discovery, proper insight and knowledge.[164][178]
5. Anupalabdi (अनुपलब्धि) means non-perception,
negative/cognitive proof.[179] Anupalabdhi pramana
suggests that knowing a negative, such as “there is
no jug in this room” is a form of valid knowledge.
If something can be observed or inferred or proven
as non-existent or impossible, then one knows more
than what one did without such means.[180] In Ad-
vaita school of Hindu philosophy, a valid conclu-
sion is either sadrupa (positive) or asadrupa (neg-
ative) relation - both correct and valuable. Like
other pramana, Indian scholars refined Anupalabdi
to four types: non-perception of the cause, non-
perception of the effect, non-perception of ob-
ject, and non-perception of contradiction. Only
two schools of Hinduism accepted and developed
the concept “non-perception” as a pramana. Ad-
vaita considers this method as valid and useful
when the other five pramanas fail in one’s pur-
suit of knowledge and truth.[164][181] A variation of
Anupaladbi, called Abhava (अभाव) has also been
posited as an epistemic method. It means non-
existence. Some scholars consider Anupalabdi to
be same as Abhava,[161] while others consider Anu-
palabdi and Abhava as different.[181][182] Abhava-
3.4 Goals of human life and soteriology
pramana has been discussed in Advaita in the con-
text of Padartha (पदार्थ, referent of a term). A
Padartha is defined as that which is simultane-
ously Astitva (existent), Jneyatva (knowable) and
Abhidheyatva (nameable).[183] Abhava was further
refined in four types, by the schools of Hinduism
that accepted it as a useful method of epistemology:
dhvamsa (termination of what existed), atyanta-
abhava (impossibility, absolute non-existence, con-
tradiction), anyonya-abhava (mutual negation, re-
ciprocal absence) and pragavasa (prior, antecedent
non-existence).[164][183][184]
6. Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of
past or present reliable experts.[161][179] Hiriyanna
explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means
reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hin-
duism which consider it epistemically valid suggest
that a human being needs to know numerous facts,
and with the limited time and energy available, he
can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths
directly.[185] He must rely on others, his parent, fam-
ily, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred mem-
bers of society to rapidly acquire and share knowl-
edge and thereby enrich each other’s lives. This
means of gaining proper knowledge is either spo-
ken or written, but through Sabda (words).[185] The
reliability of the source is important, and legitimate
knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable
sources.[179][185] The disagreement between Advaita
and other schools of Hinduism has been on how to
establish reliability.[186]
3.4 Goals of human life and soteriology
Main articles: Moksha and Jivanmukta
3.4.1 Moksha
Advaita, like other schools, accepts Puruṣārtha - the four
goals of human life as natural and proper:[39]
• Dharma: the right way to life, the “duties and obli-
gations of the individual toward himself and the
society as well as those of the society toward the
individual";[40]
• Artha: the means to support and sustain one’s life;
• Kāma: pleasure and enjoyment;
• Mokṣa: liberation, release.
Of these, much of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy fo-
cuses on the last, gaining liberation in one’s current
life.[187] The first three are discussed and encouraged by
9
Advaitins, but usually in the context of knowing Brah-
man and Self-realization.[188] The soteriological goal, in
Advaita, is to gain knowledge and complete understand-
ing of the identity of Atman and Brahman. In Advaita
Vedanta, the interest is not in liberation in after life, but
in one’s current life.[189] This school holds that liberation
can be achieved while living, and a person who achieves
this is called a Jivanmukta.[41][190]
3.4.2 Jivanmukta
The concept of Jivanmukti of Advaita Vedanta contrasts
with Videhamukti (moksha from samsara after death) in
theistic sub-schools of Vedanta.[191] Jivanmukti is a state
that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an
individual, after which the liberated individual shows at-
tributes such as:[192]
• he is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel
words, treats others with respect regardless of how
others treat him;
• when confronted by an angry person he does not re-
turn anger, instead replies with soft and kind words;
• even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;
• he does not crave for blessings or expect praise from
others;
• he never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa),
he is intent in the welfare of all beings;
• he is as comfortable being alone as in the presence
of others;
• he is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a
tree in tattered robe without help, as when he is in a
mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and
nagara (city);
• he doesn’t care about or wear sikha (tuft of hair on
the back of head for religious reasons), nor the holy
thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha,
knowledge is the holy thread, knowledge alone is
supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not mat-
ter to him, only knowledge matters;
• for him there is no invocation nor dismissal of
deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no prostrations
nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing
other than knowledge of Self;
• he is humble, high spirited, of clear and steady mind,
straightforward, compassionate, patient, indifferent,
courageous, speaks firmly and with sweet words.
10 4 HISTORY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

3.5 Ethics
Some claim, states Deutsch, that there is no place for
ethics in Advaita, “that it turns its back on all theoretical
and practical considerations of morality and, if not uneth-
ical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character”.[193] However, adds
Deutsch, ethics does have a firm place in this philosophy.
Ethics, which implies doing good Karma, indirectly helps
in attaining true knowledge.[194]
Adi Shankara, a leading proponent of Advaita, in verse
1.25 to 1.26 of his Upadeśasāhasrī, asserts that the Self-
knowledge is understood and realized when one’s mind is
purified by the observation of Yamas (ethical precepts)
such as Ahimsa (non-violence, abstinence from injuring
others in body, mind and thoughts), Satya (truth, absti-
nence from falsehood), Asteya (abstinence from theft),
Aparigraha (abstinence from possessiveness and craving)
and a simple life of meditation and reflection.[195] Rituals
and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the jour-
ney to Self-knowledge,[64] however, Shankara discour-
ages ritual worship and oblations to Deva (God), because
that assumes the Self within is different than Brahman.
The “doctrine of difference” is wrong, asserts Shankara,
because, “he who knows the Brahman is one and he is
another, does not know Brahman”.[196] Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)
Elsewhere, in verses 1.26-1.28, the Advaita text Upade-
sasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all be-
ings. Any Bheda (discrimination), states Shankara, based 4.1 Pre-Shankara Advaita Vedanta
on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and
lack of liberating knowledge.[197] This text states that the Of the Vedanta-school before[201] the composition of the
fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics Brahma Sutras (400–450 CE ), wrote Nakamura in
[201]
of non-difference. [197] 1950, almost nothing is known. The two Advaita
writings of pre-Shankara period, known to scholars such
as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, were
One, who is eager to realize this highest
the Vākyapadīya, written by Bhartṛhari (second half
truth spoken of in the Sruti, should rise above
5th century[202] ), and the Māndūkya-kārikā written by
the fivefold form of desire: for a son, for
Gaudapada (7th century CE).[201]
wealth, for this world and the next, and are
the outcome of a false reference to the Self Scholarship after 1950 suggests that almost all
of Varna (castes, colors, classes) and orders of Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta
life. These references are contradictory to right outlook.[203][204][205] Six of these Sannyasa Upanishads
knowledge, and reasons are given by the Srutis – Aruni, Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala
regarding the prohibition of the acceptance of and Brahma – were composed before the 3rd-century
difference. For when the knowledge that the CE, likely in the centuries before or after the start of the
one non-dual Atman (Self) is beyond phenom- common era, states Sprockhoff; the Asrama Upanishad
enal existence is generated by the scriptures is dated to the 3rd-century.[206][207]
and reasoning, there cannot exist a knowledge The strong Advaita Vedanta views in these ancient texts
side by side that is contradictory or contrary to may be, states Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu
it. monasteries of this period (1st millennium CE) belonged
— Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.44, to the Advaita Vedanta tradition.[203]
[198][199]

4.1.1 Earliest Vedanta

4 History of Advaita Vedanta See also: Vedas, Upanishads, and Darsanas

Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which
most influential expounder in Adi Shankara.[200] Vedanta gives an interpretation.[208] The Upanishads
4.2 Gaudapada 11

don't contain “a rigorous philosophical inquiry iden-
tifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting
arguments”.[209][note 14] This philosophical inquiry was
performed by the darsanas, the various philosophical
schools.[211] Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the In-
dian context texts “are only part of a tradition which is
preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it
has been going on.”[212]
4.1.2 Bādarāyana’s Brahma Sutras
Main article: Brahma Sutras
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder
of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Naka-
mura, comparison of the known teachings of these early
Vedantins and Shankara’s thought shows that most of the
characteristics of Shankara’s thought “were advocated by
someone before Śankara”.[218] Shankara “was the person
who synthesized the Advaita-vāda which had previously
existed before him”.[218] In this synthesis, he was the reju-
venator and defender of ancient learning.[219] He was an
unequalled commentator,[219] due to whose efforts and
contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant
position within Indian philosophy.[219]

The Brahma Sutras of Bādarāyana, also called the 4.2 Gaudapada

Vedanta Sutra,[213] were compiled in its present form
around 400–450 CE,[214] but “the great part of the Sutra
Main article: Gaudapada
must have been in existence much earlier than that”.[214]
Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana’s lifetime differ be-
tween 200 BCE and 200 CE.[215] Gaudapada (6th century)[220] was the teacher of Govinda
Bhagavatpada and the grandteacher of Shankara.
The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of
Gaudapada uses the concepts of Ajativada and Maya[221]
the Upanishads. It was and is a guide-book for the great
to establish “that from the level of ultimate truth the
teachers of the Vedantic systems.[213] Bādarāyana was
world is a cosmic illusion,”[222] and “and suggests that
not the first person to systematise the teachings of the
the whole of our waking experience is exactly the same
Upanishads.[216] He refers to seven Vedantic teachers be-
[216] as an illusory and insubstantial dream.”[223] In contrast,
fore him:
Adi Shankara insists upon a distinction between waking
experience and dreams.[223]
From the way in which Bādarāyana cites
the views of others it is obvious that the teach-
ings of the Upanishads must have been ana-
lyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him 4.2.1 Māṇḍukya Kārikā
and that his systematization of them in 555 su-
tras arranged in four chapters must have been Gaudapada wrote or compiled[224] the Māṇḍukya Kārikā,
the last attempt, most probably the best. [216] also known as the Gauḍapāda Kārikā and as the Āgama
Śāstra.[note 16] The Māṇḍukya Kārikā is a commentary in
verse form on the Mandukya Upanishad, one of the short-
4.1.3 Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara est but most profound Upanishads, or mystical Vedas,
consisting of just 13 prose sentences. In Shankara’s
According to Nakamura, “there must have been an enor- time it was considered to be a Śruti, but not particularly
[225]
mous number of other writings turned out in this period, important. In later periods it acquired a higher status,
but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and eventually it was regarded as expressing the essence
[225]
and have not come down to us today”.[201] In his com- of the Upanisad philosophy.
mentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors The Māṇḍukya Kārikā is the earliest extent systematic
of his Sampradaya.[217] In the beginning of his commen- treatise on Advaita Vedānta,[226] though it is not the old-
tary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes est work to present Advaita views,[227] nor the only pre-
the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 8] Pre- Sankara work with the same type of teachings.[227]
Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works
of the later schools, which does give insight into the de-
velopment of early Vedanta philosophy.[201]
4.2.2 Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers
have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamunācārya
(c.1050), the Vedārthasamgraha by Rāmānuja (c.1050– Main article: Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
1157), and the Yatīndramatadīpikā by Śrīnivāsa-
dāsa.[201] Combined together,[201] at least fourteen Around 740 AD Gaudapada founded Shri Gauda-
thinkers are known to have existed between the padacharya Math[note 17] , also known as Kavaḷē maṭha. It
composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara’s is located in Kavale, Ponda, Goa,[web 9] and is the oldest
lifetime.[201][note 15] matha of the South Indian Saraswat Brahmins.[228][web 10]
12 4 HISTORY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

4.3 Adi Shankara of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with

his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka,
Main article: Adi Shankara which states that for proper understanding one must “ac-
cept only meanings that are compatible with all character-
istics” and “exclude meanings that are incompatible with
Adi Shankara (788–820), also known as Śaṅkara Bha-
any”.[235][236]
gavatpādācārya and Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, represents a turn-
ing point in the development of Vedanta.[229] After the Hacker and Phillips note that this insight into rules of
growing influence of Buddhism on Vedanta, culminat- reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps
ing in the works of Gaudapada, Adi Shankara gave a is “doubtlessly the suggestion” of Shankara in Brahma-
Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these sutra, an insight that flowers in the works of his com-
works,[229] synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of panion and disciple Padmapada.[237] Merrell-Wolff states
Advaita.[219] Using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source
systematized the foundation for Advaita Vedanta in the of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet
8th century CE, though the school was founded many he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves
centuries earlier by Badarayana.[230] His thematic focus each thesis, point by point using pranamas (epistemol-
extended beyond metaphysics and soteriology, and he laid ogy), reason and experience.[238][239]
a strong emphasis on Pramanas, that is epistemology or
“means to gain knowledge, reasoning methods that em-
power one to gain reliable knowledge”. Rambachan, for 4.3.1 Historical context
example, summarizes the widely held view on one as-
See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Mid-
pect of Shankara’s epistemology before critiquing it as
dle Ages
follows,

Shankara lived in the time of the so-called “Late clas-

According to these [widely represented sical Hinduism”,[240] which lasted from 650 till 1100
contemporary] studies, Shankara only ac- CE.[240] This era was one of political instability that fol-
corded a provisional validity to the knowledge lowed Gupta dynasty and King Harsha of the 7th cen-
gained by inquiry into the words of the Śruti tury CE.[241] It was a time of social and cultural change
(Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique as the ideas of Buddhism, Jainism and various traditions
source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The af- within Hinduism were competing for members.[242][243]
firmations of the Śruti, it is argued, need to Buddhism in particular influenced in India’s spiritual
be verified and confirmed by the knowledge traditions in the first 700 years of the 1st millennium
gained through direct experience (anubhava) CE.[241][244] Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a
and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and
secondary. the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the ex-
— Anantanand Rambachan[82] tant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition
of Hinduism, making it India’s most important tradition
for more than a thousand years.[241]
Sengaku Mayeda concurs, adding Shankara maintained
the need for objectivity in the process of gaining knowl-
edge (vastutantra), and considered subjective opinions 4.3.2 Writings
(purushatantra) and injunctions in Śruti (codanatantra)
as secondary.[231] Mayeda cites Shankara’s explicit state- Main article: Adi Shankara bibliography
ments emphasizing epistemology (pramana-janya) in
section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri and section 1.1.4 of Adi Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews
Brahmasutra-bhasya.[231][232] and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts.
Adi Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or Shankara’s masterpiece of commentary is the Brahma-
verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarked sutrabhasya (literally, commentary on Brahma Sutra), a
[245]
that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.
only be correctly understood if one attends to the Saman- His commentaries on ten Mukhya (principal) Upan-
vayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the ishads are also considered authentic by scholars.[245][246]
text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama Other authentic works of Shankara include commen-
(introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); taries on the Bhagavad Gita (part of his Prasthana
(2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique Trayi Bhasya).[82] His Vivarana (tertiary notes) on the
proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); commentary by Vedavyasa on Yogasutras as well as
(5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) those on Apastamba Dharma-sũtras (Adhyatama-patala-
Yukti (verifiable reasoning).[233][234] While this method- bhasya) are accepted by scholars as authentic works
ology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Adi Shankara.[247][248] Among the Stotra (poetic
4.4 Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra 13

works), the Daksinamurti Stotra, the Bhajagovinda Sto- be the major representative of Advaita.[262][263] Other
tra, the Sivanandalahari, the Carpata-panjarika, the scholars state that the historical records for this period are
Visnu-satpadi, the Harimide, the Dasa-shloki, and the unclear, and little reliable information is known about the
Krishna-staka are likely to be authentic.[247][249] various contemporaries and disciples of Shankara.[264]
Shankara also authored Upadesasahasri, his most impor- Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cul-
tant original philosophical work.[230][248] Of other orig- tural influence of Shankara grew centuries later, partic-
inal Prakaranas (प्रकरण, monographs, treatise), sev- ularly during the era of Muslim invasions and conse-
enty six works are attributed to Adi Shankara. Modern quent devastation of India.[261][265] Many of Shankara’s
era Indian scholars such as Belvalkar as well as Upad- biographies were created and published in and after
hyaya accept five and thirty nine works respectively as the 14th century, such as the widely cited Vidyaranya’s
authentic.[250] Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava,
Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shvesh- who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada
vatara Upanishads are attributed to Adi Shankara, but Pītham from 1380 to 1386,[266] inspired the re-creation
their authenticity is highly doubtful.[246][251] Similarly, of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India in re-
commentaries on several early and later Upanishads at- sponse to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sul-
tributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars[252] to tanate.[265][267] He and his brothers, suggest Paul Hacker
be his works, and are likely works of later Advaita and other scholars,[261][265] wrote about Śankara as well as
Vedanta scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, extensive Advaitic commentaries on Vedas and Dharma.
Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Vidyaranya was a minister in Vijayanagara Empire and
Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana enjoyed royal support,[267] and his sponsorship and me-
Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya thodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying
Upanishad.[251] symbol of values, and helped spread historical and cul-
tural influence of Shankara’s Vedanta philosophies. Vid-
The authenticity of Shankara being the author of yaranya also helped establish monasteries (mathas) to
Vivekacūḍāmaṇi[253] has been questioned, but scholars expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita
generally credit it to him.[254] The authorship of Shankara Vedanta.[261]
of his Mandukya Upanishad Bhasya and his supplemen-
tary commentary on Gaudapada’s Māṇḍukya Kārikā has
been disputed by Nakamura.[255] However, other scholars 4.4 Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra
state that the commentary on Mandukya, which is actu-
ally a commentary on Madukya-Karikas by Gaudapada, Main articles: Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra
may be authentic.[247][251]
Sureśvara (fl. 800-900 CE)[268] and Maṇḍana Miśra
were contemporaries of Shankara, Sureśvara often (in-
4.3.3 Influence of Shankara correctly) being identified with Maṇḍana Miśra.[269]
Both explained Sankara “on the basis of their per-
[269]
Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of sonal convictions.” Sureśvara has also been cred-
Advaita Vedanta. He travelled all over India to help ited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita
[268]
restore the study of the Vedas. [256]
His teachings and Vedanta.
tradition form the basis of Smartism and have influenced Maṇḍana Miśra was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower
Sant Mat lineages.[257] He introduced the Pañcāyatana of Kumarila, but who also wrote a work on Advaita,
form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities the Brahma-siddhi.[270] According to tradition, Maṇḍana
– Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Shankara ex- Miśra and his wife were defeated by Shankara in a debate,
plained that all deities were but different forms of the one where-after he became a follower of Shankara.[270] Yet,
Brahman, the invisible Supreme Being.[258] his attitude toward Shankara is that of a “self-confident
Benedict Ashley credits Adi Shankara for unifying two rival teacher of Advaita,”[271] and his influence was such,
seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines in Hinduism, that some regard this work to have “set forth a non-
namely Atman and Brahman.[259] Isaeva states Shankara’s Sankaran brand of Advaita.”[270] The “theory of error”
influence included reforming Hinduism, founding monas- set forth in the Brahma-siddhi became the normative
teries, edifying disciples, disputing opponents and engag- Advaita Vedanta theory of error.[272] It was Vachaspati
ing in philosophic activity that, in the eyes of Indian tra- Misra’s commentary on this work which linked it up with
dition, help revive “the orthodox idea of the unity of all Shankara’s teaching.[273]
beings” and Vedanta thought.[260] Hiriyanna and Kuppuswami Sastra have pointed out that
Some scholars doubt Shankara’s early influence in Sureśvara and Maṇḍana Miśra had different views on var-
[274]
India.[261] According to King and Roodurmun, until the ious doctrinal points:
10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older
contemporary Mandana-Misra, the latter considered to • The locus of avidya:[274] according to Maṇḍana
14 4 HISTORY OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

Miśra, the individual jiva is the locus of avidya, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional
whereas Suresvara contents that avidya regarding factors.[281]
Brahman is located in Brahman.[274] These two dif-
ferent stances are also reflected in the opposing
positions of the Bhamati school and the Vivarana 4.5.3 Prakasatman - Vivarana school
school.[274]
Main article: Vivarana
• Liberation: according to Maṇḍana Miśra, the
knowledge which arises from the Mahavakya is in- Prakasatman (c.1200-1300)[277] wrote the Pancapadika-
sufficient for liberation. Only the direct realiza- Vivarana, a commentary on the Pancapadika by
tion of Brahma is liberating, which can only be at- Padmapadacharya.[277] The Vivarana lends its name to
tained by meditation.[275] According to Suresvara, the subsequent school. According to Roodurmum, “his
this knowledge is directly liberating, while medita- line of thought [...] became the leitmotif of all sub-
tion is at best a useful aid.[271][note 18] sequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita
tradition.”[277]
4.5 Advaita Vedanta sub-schools The Vivarana-school takes an epistemological approach.
Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of
After Shankara’s death several subschools developed. mulavidya or maya as being of “positive beginningless
Two of them still exist today, the Bhāmatī and the nature”,[282] and sees Brahman as the source of avidya.
Vivarana.[web 11][217] Perished schools are the Panca- Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it
padika and Istasiddhi, which were replaced by Prakasat- can't be the source of avidya. Another problem is that
man’s Vivarana-school.[277] contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance,
are attributed to Brahman.[web 11]
These schools worked out the logical implications of vari-
ous Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encoun-
tered were the further interpretations to the concepts of 4.5.4 Vimuktatman - Ista-Siddhi
māyā and avidya.[web 11]
Vimuktatman (c.1200 CE)[283] wrote the Ista-siddhi.[283]
It is one of the four traditional siddhi, together
4.5.1 Padmapada - Pancapadika school with Mandana’s Brahma-siddhi, Suresvara’s Naiskarmya-
siddhi, and Madusudana’s Advaita-siddhi.[284] Accord-
Padmapada (c. 800 CE)[278] was a direct disciple of ing to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is “pure intuitive
Shankara, who wrote the Pancapadika, a commentary consciousness.”[285] His school of thought was eventually
on the Sankara-bhaya.[278] Padmapada diverted from replaced by Prakasatman’s Vivarana school.[277]
Shankara in his description of avidya, designating prakrti
as avidya or ajnana.[279]
4.6 Later Advaita Vedanta tradition
4.5.2 Vachaspati Misra - Bhamati school
See also: Dashanami Sampradaya and List of teachers
of Advaita Vedanta
Main articles: Bhamati and Vācaspati Miśra

According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in the

Vachaspati Misra (c.800-900 CE)[280] wrote the
later Advaita tradition are:[web 12]
Brahmatattva-samiksa, a commentary on Maṇḍana
Miśra’s Brahma-siddhi, which provides the link be-
tween Mandana Misra and Shankara,[273] attempting • Prakāsātman, Vimuktātman, Sarvajñātman (tenth
to harmonise Sankara’s thought with that of Mandana century),
[web 11]
Misra. According to Advaita tradition, Shankara
reincarnated as Vachaspati Misra “to popularise the • Śrī Harṣa, Citsukha (twelfth century),
[280]
Advaita System through his Bhamati.” Only two • ānandagiri, Amalānandā (thirteenth century),
works are known of Vachaspati Misra, the Brahmatattva-
samiksa on Maṇḍana Miśra’s Brahma-siddhi, and his • Vidyāraņya, Śaṅkarānandā (fourteenth century),
Bhamati on the Sankara-bhasya, Shankara’s com-
mentary on the Brahma-sutras.[273] The name of the • Sadānandā (fifteenth century),
[web 11]
Bhamati-subschool is derived from this Bhamati.
• Prakāṣānanda, Nṛsiṁhāśrama (sixteenth century),
The Bhamati-school takes an ontological approach. It
sees the Jiva as the source of avidya.[web 11] It sees medi- • Madhusūdhana Sarasvati, Dharmarāja Advarindra,
tation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, Appaya Dīkśita (seventeenth century),
5.2 Smarta Tradition
• Sadaśiva Brahmendra (eighteenth century),
• Candraśekhara Bhārati, Chandrasekharendra
Saraswati Swamigal, Sacchidānandendra Saraswati Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs
(twentieth century).
Contemporary teachers are the orthodox Jagadguru of
Sringeri Sharada Peetham; the more traditional teachers
Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963), Chinmayananda
Saraswati,[web 13] and Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha
Vidya);[web 13] and less traditional teachers like Narayana
Guru.[web 13]
5 Sampradaya
5.1 Advaita Mathas
See also: Dashanami Sampradaya
Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known
(Vidyashankara temple) at Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Shringeri
as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of
renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely
related:[web 14]
Most of the notable authors in the advaita
tradition were members of the sannyasa tradi-
tion, and both sides of the tradition share the
same values, attitudes and metaphysics.[web 14]
Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of
Shiva,[web 14] established the Dashanami Sampradaya, or-
ganizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an um-
brella grouping of ten names.[web 14] Several other Hindu
monastic and Ekadandi traditions remained outside the
organisation of the Dasanāmis.[286][287][288]
Adi Sankara is said to have organised the Hindu monks of
these ten sects or names under four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ)
(monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the
West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South
and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 14] Each math was The Sringeri monastery is still the centre of the Smarta
15
headed by one of his four main disciples, who each con-
tinues the Vedanta Sampradaya.[note 19]
and practices, and a section of them is not considered
to be restricted to specific changes made by Shankara.
While the dasanāmis associated with the Sankara maths
follow the procedures enumerated by Adi Śankara, some
of these orders remained partly or fully independent in
their belief and practices; and outside the official control
of the Sankara maths.
The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva sect,[web 14][291]
despite the historical links with Shaivism.[note 20] Nev-
ertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influ-
ence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava
communities.[web 14] The greatest influence of the gurus
of the advaita tradition has been among followers of the
Smartha Tradition, who integrate the domestic Vedic rit-
ual with devotional aspects of Hinduism.[web 14]
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the
influence of Shankara, which was “due to institutional
factors”.[292] The mathas which he built exist until today,
and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara,
“while the writings of other scholars before him came to
be forgotten with the passage of time”.[293]
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya
Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.[web 15]
According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara’s
samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples
founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Mad-
hom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke
Madhom.
5.2 Smarta Tradition
Main article: Smarta Tradition
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest
teacher[294] and reformer of the Smartha.[295] According
to Alf Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist in-
terpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a re-
vived smarta tradition:
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapproche-
ment between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy,
which by his time had not only continued to
defend the varnasramadharma theory as defin-
ing the path of karman, but had developed the
practice of pancayatanapuja (“five-shrine wor-
ship”) as a solution to varied and conflicting
devotional practices. Thus one could worship
any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga,
Surya, Ganesa) as one’s istadevata (“deity of
choice”).[296]
16
sect.[294] In recent times bhakti cults have increasingly be-
come popular with the smartas,[297] and Shiva is partic-
ularly favored.[294] In modern times Smarta-views have
been influential in both the Indian and western under-
standing of Hinduism.
6 Influence on modern Hinduism
6.1 Unifying Hinduism
Main article: Unifying Hinduism
Advaita Vedanta came to occupy a central position in the
classification of various Hindu traditions. With the onset
of Islamic rule, hierarchical classifications of the various
orthodox schools were developed to shield Hindu Philos-
ophy from Islamic influences.[19] According to Nichol-
son, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth cen-
tury,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a
single whole the diverse philosophical teach-
ings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and
the schools known retrospectively as the “six
systems” (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
philosophy.[298]
The tendency of “a blurring of philosophical distinc-
tions” has also been noted by Burley.[299] Lorenzen lo-
cates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the in-
teraction between Muslims and Hindus,[300] and a pro-
cess of “mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim
other”,[301] which started well before 1800.[302] Both the
Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term
“Hinduism” in the 19th century were influenced by these
philosophers.[298]
Within these doxologies, Advaita Vedanta was given the
highest position, since it was regarded to be most inclu-
sive system.[19] Vijnanabhiksu, a 16th-century philoso-
pher and writer, is still an influential representant of these
doxologies. He’s been a prime influence on 19th century
Hindu modernists like Vivekananda, who also tried to in-
tegrate various strands of Hindu thought, taking Advaita
Vedanta as its most representative specimen.[19]
6.2 Contemporary views
6.2.1 Historical influence
Scholars are divided on the historical influence of Ad-
vaita Vedanta. Some Indologists state that it is one of
the most studied Hindu philosophy and the most influen-
tial schools of classical Indian thought.[16][17][18] Advaita
Vedanta, states Eliot Deutsch, “has been and continues
to be the most widely accepted system of thought among
6 INFLUENCE ON MODERN HINDUISM
philosophers in India, and it is, we believe, one of the
greatest philosophical achievements to be found in the
East or the West”.[303]
In contrast, King states that its present position as the key
Indian philosophy is a modern phenomenon, which devel-
oped under western Orientalism and Perennialism.[304]
6.2.2 Indian nationalism and Hindu Universalism
Main articles: Hindu nationalism and Hindu reform
movements
With the onset of the British Raj, the colonialisation of
India by the British, there also started a Hindu renais-
sance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed
the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the
west.[305] Western orientalist searched for the “essence”
of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas, and
meanwhile creating the notion of “Hinduism” as a uni-
fied body of religious praxis and the popular picture of
'mystical India'.[306] This idea of a Vedic essence was
taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas
of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all reli-
gions share a common mystic ground.[307] The Brahmo
Samaj, who was supported for a while by the Unitarian
Church,[308] played an essential role in the introduction
and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.[309]
Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hin-
duism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as “then
paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu
religion”.[262] These notions served well for the Hindu na-
tionalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita
Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.[310] It “pro-
vided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist
ideology that could unite HIndus in their struggle against
colonial oppression”.[311]
In modern times, states King, Advaita Vedanta has ac-
quired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond
as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.[304]
6.2.3 Swami Vivekananda
Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Swami Vivekananda, and
Ramakrishna Mission
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Univer-
salist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta
was Vivekananda,[312] who played a major role in the
revival of Hinduism,[313] and the spread of Advaita
Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. His
interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called “Neo-
Vedanta”.[314] Vivekananda discerned a universal reli-
gion, regarding all the apparent differences between var-
ious traditions as various manifestations of one truth.[315]
He presented karma, bhakti, jnana and raja yoga as equal

means to attain moksha,[316] to present Vedanta as a lib- 6.2.5 Neo-Advaita
eral and universal religion, in contrast to the exclusivism
of other religions.[316]
Vivekananda emphasised samadhi as a means to attain
liberation.[317] Yet this emphasis is not to be found in the
Upanishads nor with Shankara.[318] For Shankara, medi-
tation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowl-
edge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman.
Vivekananda also claimed that Advaita is the only reli-
gion that is in agreement with modern science. In a talk
on “The absolute and manifestation” given in at London
in 1896 Swami Vivekananda said,
I may make bold to say that the only reli-
gion which agrees with, and even goes a little
further than modern researchers, both on phys-
ical and moral lines is the Advaita, and that is
why it appeals to modern scientists so much.
They find that the old dualistic theories are not
enough for them, do not satisfy their necessi-
ties. A man must have not only faith, but intel-
lectual faith too”.[web 16]
Mukerji criticizes this view of Vivekananda:
Without calling into question the right of
any philosopher to interpret Advaita according
to his own understanding of it, ... the process
of Westernization has obscured the core of this
school of thought. The basic correlation of re-
nunciation and Bliss has been lost sight of in
the attempts to underscore the cognitive struc-
ture and the realistic structure which according
to Samkaracarya should both belong to, and in-
deed constitute the realm of māyā.[314]
6.2.4 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Main article: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan further popularized Ad-
vaita Vedanta, presenting it as the essence of
Hinduism.[web 17] Radhakrishnan saw other religions,
“including what Radhakrishnan understands as lower
forms of Hinduism,”[web 17] as interpretations of Advaita
Vedanta, thereby Hindusizing all religions.[web 17] His
metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, but
he reinterpreted Advaita Vedanta for a contemporary
understanding.[web 17] He acknowledged the reality
and diversity of the world of experience, which he
saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or
Brahman.[web 17][note 21] Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted
Shankara’s notion of maya. According to Radhakr-
ishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but “a
subjective misperception of the world as ultimately
real.”[web 17]
17
Main article: Neo-Advaita
Neo-Advaita is a New Religious Movement based on a
popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedanta
and the teachings of Ramana Maharshi.[320] Neo-Advaita
is being criticised[321][note 22][323][note 23][note 24] for dis-
carding the traditional prerequisites of knowledge of the
scriptures[325] and “renunciation as necessary prepara-
tion for the path of jnana-yoga".[325][326] Notable neo-
advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja,[327][320] his stu-
dents Gangaji[328] Andrew Cohen[note 25] , and Eckhart
Tolle.[320]
6.2.6 Non-dualism
Main article: Nondualism
Advaita Vedanta has gained attention in western
spirituality and New Age, where various traditions are
seen as driven by the same non-dual experience.[330]
Nonduality points to “a primordial, natural awareness
without subject or object”.[web 22] It is also used to refer
to interconnectedness, “the sense that all things are
interconnected and not separate, while at the same time
all things retain their individuality”.[web 23]
7 Relationship with other forms of
Vedanta
The Advaita Vedanta ideas, particularly of 8th cen-
tury Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedanta
philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the
11th-century Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism) of
Ramanuja, and the 14th-century Dvaita (theistic dualism)
of Madhvacharya.[331]
7.1 Vishishtadvaita
Main article: Vishishtadvaita
Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's
Advaita school are both nondualism Vedanta
schools,[332][333] both are premised on the assump-
tion that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of
blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya and his
Dvaita subschool of Vedanta believed that some souls
are eternally doomed and damned.[334][335] Shankara’s
theory posits that only Brahman and causes are meta-
physical unchanging reality, while the empirical world
(Maya) and observed effects are changing, illusive and
of relative existence.[336][337] Spiritual liberation to
Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of
18
oneness of one’s unchanging Atman (soul) as the same as
Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the
nirguna Brahman.[333][338][339] In contrast, Ramanuja’s
theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are
two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither
should be called false or illusive, and saguna Brahman
with attributes is also real.[337] God, like man, states
Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world
of matter is the glory of God’s body.[332] The path to
Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to
godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and
love of personal god (saguna Brahman, Vishnu), one
which ultimately leads one to the oneness with nirguna
Brahman.[332][336][337]
7.2 Shuddhadvaita
Main article: Shuddhadvaita
Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE), the proponent of the
philosophy of Shuddhadvaita Brahmvad enunciates that
Ishvara has created the world without connection with any
external agency such as Maya (which itself is his power)
and manifests Himself through the world.[340] That is why
shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’
or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’. Brahman or Ishvara desired
to become many, and he became the multitude of indi-
vidual souls and the world. Vallabha recognises Brahmn
as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’ (but devoid of
bliss).[341]
7.3 Dvaita
Main article: Dvaita
Madhvacharya was also a critic of Advaita Vedanta. Ad-
vaita’s nondualism asserted that Atman (soul) and Brah-
man are identical, there is interconnected oneness of all
souls and Brahman, and there are no pluralities[342][343]
Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (soul) and Brah-
man are different, only Vishnu is the Lord (Brah-
man), individual souls are also different and depend on
Vishnu, and there are pluralities.[342][343] Madhvacharya
stated that both Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana Bud-
dhism were a nihilistic school of thought.[344] Mad-
hvacharya wrote four major texts, including Upadhikhan-
dana and Tattvadyota, primarily dedicated to criticizing
Advaita.[344]
8.3
8 Relationship with Buddhism
8 RELATIONSHIP WITH BUDDHISM
8.1 Ontology
Advaita Vedanta is a substance ontology, an ontology
“which holds that underlying the seeming change, vari-
ety, and multiplicity of existence there are unchanging
and permanent entities (the so-called substances)".[345] In
contrast, Buddhism is a process ontology, according to
which “there exists nothing permanent and unchanging,
within or without man”.[346][note 26]
Advaita three levels of reality theory, states Renard,
is built on the two levels of reality found in the
Madhyamika.[348]
8.2 Gaudapada
According to B.N.K. Sharma, the early commentators
on the Brahma Sutras were all realists,[349] or pantheist
realists.[350] They, states Sharma were influenced by Bud-
dhism, particularly during the 5th and 6th centuries Bud-
dhist thought developing in the Yogacara school.[351] The
6th-century Gaudapada bridged Buddhism and Vedanta,
suggests Sharma, by taking over the Buddhist doc-
trines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijñapti-
mātra)[220][note 27] and “that the nature of the world is the
four-cornered negation”.[220][note 28]
Gaudapada took over the Buddhist concept of “ajāta”
from Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy,[355][356]
which uses the term “anutpāda”.[357] [note 29] An
equivalent theory of “Ajātivāda”, “the Doctrine of
no-origination”[361][note 30] or non-creation, is the fun-
damental philosophical doctrine of Gaudapada.[361]
According to Gaudapada, the Absolute Reality, that
is Brahman, is not subject to birth, change and death.
The Absolute is aja, the unborn eternal.[361] Thus both
Buddhism and Gaudapada’s theory posit the doctrine of
unreality of the world.[362]
Gaudapada, states Raju, “wove Buddhist doctrines into
a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was
further developed by Shankara”.[363][note 31] At the same
time, Gaudapada emphatically rejected some theories
of the Buddhists, such as the multiplicity and momen-
tariness of consciousnesses, which were core doctrines
of the Vijnanavada school, and their techniques for
achieving liberation.[365] Other scholars such as Murti
state, that while there is shared terminology, the doc-
trines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally
different.[366][367][note 32]
Similarities with Buddhism
Advaita Vedanta and various other schools of Hindu phi-
losophy share numerous terminology and doctrines with
Buddhism. “Probably because of these similarities,”
writes Natalia Isaeva, “even such an astute Buddhologist
as Rozenberg was of the opinion that a precise differen-
8.5 Influence of Mahayana Buddhism 19

tiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossi- texts. In contrast to Advaita which describes knowing
ble to draw”.[369] Of the various schools, the similari- one’s own soul as identical with Brahman as the path to
ties between Advaita and Buddhism have attracted Indian nirvana, in its soteriological themes, Buddhism has de-
and Western scholars attention.[370] Ramanujacharya, the fined nirvana as that blissful state when a person realizes
founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, for example, ac- that he or she has “no self, no soul”.[381][383]
cused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Ad-
is, a “crypto-Buddhist”,[370] and someone who was un- vaita Vedanta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid
dermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism.[371] The non- means to reliable and correct knowledge – perception and
Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda tradition,
inference, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six (described
similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara’s Advaita as elsewhere in this article).[163][181][384] However, some
“this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been
Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures
chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists”, and a school that is are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, correspond-
undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.[371]
ing to Advaita’s Śabda pramana, however Buddhists have
Given the principal role attributed to Shankara in Advaita treated their scriptures as a form of inference method.[385]
tradition, his works have been examined by scholars for
similarities with Buddhism.[371][372] Buddhism support-
ers have targeted Shankara, states Biderman, while his 8.5 Influence of Mahayana Buddhism
Hindu supporters state that “accusations” concerning ex-
plicit or implicit Buddhist influence are not relevant.[370] Scholars state that Advaita Vedanta was influenced by
Daniel Ingalls writes, “If we are to adopt a metaphysical Mahayana Buddhism, given the common terminology,
and static view of philosophy there is little difference be- methodology and some doctrines.[386][387] Eliot Deutsch
tween Shankara and Vijnanavada Buddhism, so little, in and Rohit Dalvi state:
fact that the whole discussion is fairly pointless. But if
we try to think our way back into minds of philosophers In any event a close relationship between
whose works we read, there is a very real difference be- the Mahayana schools and Vedanta did exist
tween the antagonists”.[370] Other scholars such as Bel- with the latter borrowing some of the dialec-
valkar, Hiriyanna, Radhakrishnan and Thibaut state that tical techniques, if not the specific doctrines,
Advaita’s and Buddhism’s theories on True Reality and of the former.[388]
Maya are similar,[373] and the influence of Buddhism on
Advaita Vedanta has been significant.[371] Both traditions
hold that “the empirical world is transitory, a show of The influence of Mahayana on Advaita Vedanta, states
appearances”,[373][374] and both admit “degrees of truth Deutsch, goes back at least to Gaudapada, where he
or existence”.[375] Both traditions emphasize the human “clearly draws from Buddhist philosophical sources for
need for spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana, kaivalya), many of his arguments and distinctions and even for
however with different assumptions.[376][note 33] the forms and imagery in which these arguments are
cast”.[388] Michael Comans states Gaudapada, an early
Frank Whaling states that the similarities between Ad- Vedantin, utilised some arguments and reasoning from
vaita Vedanta and Buddhism are not limited to the ter- Madhyamaka Buddhist texts by quoting them almost ver-
minology and some doctrines, it includes practice. The batim. However, Comans adds there is a fundamental
monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are sim- difference between Buddhist thought and that of Gauda-
ilar to those found in Buddhism.[371] pada, in that Buddhism has as its philosophical basis the
doctrine of Dependent Origination according to which
“everything is without an essential nature (nissvabhava),
8.4 Differences from Buddhism and everything is empty of essential nature (svabhava-
sunya)", while Gaudapada does not rely on this prin-
Advaita Vedanta holds the premise, “Soul exists, and ciple at all. Gaudapada’s Ajativada is an outcome of
Soul (or self, Atman) is a self evident truth”. Bud- reasoning applied to an unchanging nondual reality ac-
dhism, in contrast, holds the premise, “Atman does not cording to which “there exists a Reality (sat) that is un-
exist, and An-atman (or Anatta, non-self)[378] is self born (aja)" that has essential nature (svabhava) and this
evident”.[379][380] is the “eternal, fearless, undecaying Self (Atman) and
[389]
Buddhists do not believe that at the core of all human be- Brahman”. Thus, Gaudapada differs from Buddhist
ings and living creatures, there is any “eternal, essential scholars such as Nagarjuna, states Comans, by accepting
and absolute something called a soul, self or atman”. [381] the premises and relying on the fundamental teaching of
[389]
Buddhists reject the concept and all doctrines associated the Upanishads.
with atman, call atman as illusion (maya), asserting in- Gaudapada, in his Karikas text, uses the leading con-
stead the theory of “no-self” and “no-soul”.[380][382] Bud- cepts and wording of Mahayana Buddhist school but,
dhism, from its earliest days, has denied the existence of states John Plott, he reformulated them to the Upan-
the “self, soul” in its core philosophical and ontological ishadic themes.[362] Mahadevan states, “At the outset it
20
must be pointed out that, when the critics hurl the charge
of pseudo-Buddhism against Advaita, they use the word
Buddhism rather in a vague and general sense. The doc-
trine of unreality of the world, and the theory of non-
recognition are found to be common as between the ide-
alistic schools of Buddhism and Advaita. Most critics
believe that these are not Upanishadic doctrines, and so,
their conclusion is that Advaita must have borrowed them
from the Mahayana schools. And the earliest teacher who
effected this borrowing, in their view, is Gaudapada.”[362]
The influence of Buddhism on Gaudapada, states John
Plott, is undeniable and to be expected.[362] He writes,
We must emphasize again that generally
throughout the Gupta Dynasty, and even more
so after its decline, there developed such a high
degree of syncretism and such toleration of all
points of view that Mahayana Buddhism had
been Hinduized almost as much as Hinduism
had been Buddhaized.
— John Plott, Global History of Philoso-
phy, [362]
Mahadevan suggests that Gaudapada adopted Buddhist
terminology and borrowed its doctrines to his Vedantic
goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic
terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals;
both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new
meanings.[362]
Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and
Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta represent “different phases
of development of the same non-dualistic meta-
physics from the Upanishadic period to the time of
Sankara.”[390][note 34]
8.6 Common core thesis
See also: Perennial philosophy
Isaeva states in her analysis of scholarly views, that these
have historically and in modern times ranged from “Ad-
vaita and Buddhism are very different”, to “Advaita and
Buddhism absolutely coincide in their main tenets”, to
“after purifying Buddhism and Advaita of accidental or
historically conditioned accretions, both systems can be
safely regarded as an expression of one and the same eter-
nal absolute truth”.[393]
Ninian Smart, a historian of religion, quotes Mudgal view
that “the differences between Shankara and Mahayana
doctrines are largely a matter of emphasis and back-
ground, rather than essence”.[394][note 35] Mudgal addi-
tionally states that the Upanishadic and Buddhist currents
of thought “developed separately and independently, op-
posed to one another, as the orthodox and heterodox, the
11 NOTES
thesis and antithesis, and a synthesis was attempted by the
Advaitin Shankara”.[395]
9 Scholarly perceptions of Advaita
Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is one of the most studied and most in-
fluential schools of classical Indian thought.[16][17][18] Al-
ready in medieval times, it came to be regarded as the
highest of the Indian religious philosophies,[19] a develop-
ment which was reinforced in modern times due to west-
ern interest in Advaita Vedanta, and the subsequent in-
fluence on western perceptions on Indian perceptions of
Hinduism.[20]
Advaita Vedanta is most often regarded as an idealist
monism. It was strongly influenced by Buddhist Mad-
hyamaka and Yogacara,[396] and it further developed “to
its ultimate extreme” monistic ideas already present in
the Upanishads.[21][22][23] According to Dandekar, Gau-
dapada’s Gaudapadakarika aligns Buddhist ideas with
Upanishadic ideas, “creating an irresistible impression”
that those ideas are consistent with each other.[396]
According to Milne, advaita is a negative term, which
denotes the “negation of a difference,” between sub-
ject and object, or between perceiver and perceived.
It is, states Milne, misleading to call Advaita Vedanta
“monistic,” since this confuses the “negation of dif-
ference” with “conflation into one.”[397] Deutsch, in
contrast, states Advaita Vedanta teaches monistic one-
ness, however without the multiplicity premise of vari-
ous monism theories.[398] According to Jacqueline Hirst,
Adi Shankara positively emphasizes “oneness” premise
in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to
all the Upanishads.[399] Nicholson points out that Ad-
vaita Vedanta also contains realistic strands of thought,
both in its oldest origins and in Shankara’s writings.[26]
The Brahma Sutras take a bedhabheda stance,[396] and
Shankara’s writings also contain realistic elements.[26]
10 See also
• Cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta
• Kashmir Shaivism
• Pandeism
• Pantheism
11 Notes
[1] IAST Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त [əd̪ ʋait̪ə
ʋeːd̪ ɑːnt̪ə], literally, not-two

[2] Literally: end or the goal of the Vedas.
[3] Indian philosophy emphasises that “every acceptable phi-
losophy should aid man in realising the Purusarthas, the
chief aims of human life:[39]
• Dharma: the right way to life, the “duties and obli-
gations of the individual toward himself and the
society as well as those of the society toward the
individual";[40]
• Artha: the means to support and sustain one’s life;
• Kāma: pleasure and enjoyment;
• Mokṣa: liberation, release.
[4] “Consciousness”,[47][web 3] “intelligence”,[48][49] “wisdom”
[5] “the Absolute”,[47][web 3] “infinite”,[web 3] “the Highest
truth”[web 3]
[6] Puligandla: “Any philosophy worthy of its title should not
be a mere intellectual exercise but should have practical
application in enabling man to live an enlightened life. A
philosophy which makes no difference to the quality and
style of our life is no philosophy, but an empty intellectual
construction.”[51]
[7] These characteristics and steps are described in various
Advaita texts, such as by Shankara in Chapter 1.1 of Brah-
masutrabhasya,[58] and in the Bhagavad Gita Chapter 10
[8] It is not a philosophy in the western meaning of the word,
according to Milne.[85]
[9] Bill Clinton: “The buck stops here.”
[10] Brahman is also defined as:
• The unchanging, infinite, immanent, and
transcendent reality which is all matter, energy,
time, space, being, and everything beyond in this
Universe; that is the one supreme, universal spirit
without a second.[99][100]
• The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the ori-
gin and support of the phenomenal universe.[101]
• The supreme self. Puligandla states it as “the un-
changing reality amidst and beyond the world”,[102]
• The Self-existent, the Absolute and the Imperish-
able. Brahman is indescribable.
• The “principle of the world”,[103] the “absolute”,[104]
the “general, universal”,[105] the “cosmic
principle”,[106] the “ultimate that is the cause
of everything including all gods”,[107] the
“knowledge”,[108] the “soul, sense of self of each
human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted
and blissful”,[109] the “essence of liberation, of
spiritual freedom”,[110] the “universe within each
living being and the universe outside”,[109] the
“essence and everything innate in all that exists
inside, outside and everywhere”.[111]
[11] Svarupalakshana, qualities, definition based on essence
[12] It provides the “stuff” from which everything is made
[13] It sets everything into working, into existence
21
[14] Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic
ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas,
the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas.[210]
[15] Bhartŗhari (c.450–500), Upavarsa (c.450–500), Bod-
hāyana (c.500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c.500–550),
Dravida (c.550), Bhartŗprapañca (c.550), Śabarasvāmin
(c.550), Bhartŗmitra (c.550–600), Śrivatsānka (c.600),
Sundarapāndya (c.600), Brahmadatta (c.600–700),
Gaudapada (c.640–690), Govinda (c.670–720), Man-
danamiśra (c.670–750).[201]
[16] Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine
between the four chapters.[224]
[17] Sanskrit: श्री संस्थान गौडपदाचायर् मठ, Śrī Sansthāna Gauḍa-
padācārya Maṭha
[18] According to both Roodurum and Isaeva, Sureśvara stated
that mere knowledge of the identity of Jiva and Brahman
is nor enough for liberation, which requires also prolonged
meditation on this identity.[268][276]
[19] According to Pandey, these Mathas were not established
by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams
established by Vibhāņdaka and his son Ŗșyaśŗnga.[289]
Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvārakā and
Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at Śŗngaverapura
to Badarikāśrama, and the ashram at Angadeśa to
Jagannātha Purī.[290]
[20] Sanskrit.org: “Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they ad-
vocate worship of Siva and Visnu equally with that of
the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and
others.”[web 14]
[21] Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to Bhedabheda-Vedanta
than to Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowl-
edgement of the reality of the world. Nicholas F.
Gier: “Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo
(I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled “neo-
Vedantists,” a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins’ claim
that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Di-
vine, declares that he has moved from Sankara’s “universal
illusionism” to his own “universal realism” (2005: 432),
defined as metaphysical realism in the European philo-
sophical sense of the term.”[319]
[22] Marek: “Wobei der Begriff Neo-Advaita darauf hinweist,
dass sich die traditionelle Advaita von dieser Strömung
zunehmend distanziert, da sie die Bedeutung der üben-
den Vorbereitung nach wie vor als unumgänglich ansieht.
(The term Neo-Advaita indicating that the traditional Ad-
vaita increasingly distances itself from this movement, as
they regard preparational practicing still as inevitable)[322]
[23] Alan Jacobs: Many firm devotees of Sri Ramana Ma-
harshi now rightly term this western phenomenon as 'Neo-
Advaita'. The term is carefully selected because 'neo'
means 'a new or revived form'. And this new form is
not the Classical Advaita which we understand to have
been taught by both of the Great Self Realised Sages, Adi
Shankara and Ramana Maharshi. It can even be termed
'pseudo' because, by presenting the teaching in a highly
attenuated form, it might be described as purporting to be
Advaita, but not in effect actually being so, in the fullest
22
sense of the word. In this watering down of the essen-
tial truths in a palatable style made acceptable and attrac-
tive to the contemporary western mind, their teaching is
misleading.[323]
[24] See for other examples Conway [web 18] and Swartz[324]
[25] Presently Cohen has distanced himself from Poonja,
and calls his teachings “Evolutionary Enlightenment”.[329]
What Is Enlightenment, the magazine published by
Choen’s organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita
several times, as early as 2001. See.[web 19][web 20][web 21]
[26] Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a cur-
rent which favours substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees
Madhyamaka and Yogacara as reactions against develop-
ments toward substance ontology in Buddhism.[347]
[27] It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mātra,
but they have different meanings. The standard transla-
tion of both terms is “consciousness-only” or “mind-only.”
Several modern researchers object this translation, and
the accompanying label of “absolute idealism” or “ideal-
istic monism”.[352] A better translation for vijñapti-mātra
is representation-only.[353]
[28] 1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It
neither is nor is not.[web 24][354]
[29] “An” means “not”, or “non"; “utpāda” means “genesis”,
“coming forth”, “birth”[web 25] Taken together “anutpāda”
means “having no origin”, “not coming into existence”,
“not taking effect”, “non-production”.[web 26] The Buddhist
tradition usually uses the term “anutpāda” for the ab-
sence of an origin[355][357] or sunyata.[358] According to
D.T Suzuki, “anutpada” is not the opposite of “utpada”,
but transcends opposites. It is the seeing into the true na-
ture of existence,[359] the seeing that “all objects are with-
out self-substance”.[360]
[30] “A” means “not”, or “non” as in Ahimsa, non-harm;
“jāti” means “creation” or “origination;[361] “vāda” means
“doctrine”[361]
[31] The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on other religions
and philosophies was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana
notes that the Visuddhimagga of Theravada Buddhism
tradition contains “some metaphysical speculations, such
as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even
the Yogacarins".[364]
[32] Gaudapada’s doctrines are unlike Buddhism, states Murti.
Gaudapada’s influential Advaita Vedanta text consists of
four chapters; Chapter One, Two and Three of which are
entirely Vedantin and founded on the Upanishads, with
little Buddhist flavor.[366] Chapter Four uses Buddhist ter-
minology and incorporates Buddhist doctrines, state both
Murti and Richard King, but Vedanta scholars who fol-
lowed Gaudapada through the 17th century never refer-
enced nor used Chapter Four, they only quote from the
first three.[366][368]
[33] Helmuth von Glasenapp writes: “The Buddhist Nirvana is,
therefore, not the primordial ground, the eternal essence,
which is at the basis of everything and form which the
whole world has arisen (the Brahman of the Upanishads)
12 REFERENCES
but the reverse of all that we know, something altogether
different which must be characterized as a nothing in re-
lation to the world, but which is experienced as highest
bliss by those who have attained to it (Anguttara Nikaya,
Navaka-nipata 34). Vedantists and Buddhists have been
fully aware of the gulf between their doctrines, a gulf that
cannot be bridged over. According to Majjhima Nikaya,
Sutta 22, a doctrine that proclaims “The same is the world
and the self. This I shall be after death; imperishable,
permanent, eternal!" (see Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4, 4,
13), was styled by the Buddha a perfectly foolish doctrine.
On the other side, the Katha Upanishad (2, 1, 14) does not
see a way to deliverance in the Buddhist theory of dhar-
mas (impersonal processes): He who supposes a profusion
of particulars gets lost like rain water on a mountain slope;
the truly wise man, however, must realize that his Atman
is at one with the Universal Atman, and that the former, if
purified from dross, is being absorbed by the latter, “just
as clear water poured into clear water becomes one with
it, indistinguishably.”[377]
[34] This development did not end with Advaita Vedanta, but
continued in Tantrism and various schools of Shaivism.
Non-dual Kashmir Shaivism, for example, was influ-
enced by, and took over doctrines from, several ortho-
dox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical
traditions.[391] These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali
Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, includ-
ing Yogacara and Madhyamika,[391] but also Tantra and
the Nath-tradition.[392]
[35] Ninian Smart is a proponent of the so-called “common
core thesis”, which states that all forms of mysticism share
a common core. See also [web 27] and [web 28]
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[1] Advaita Academy, Experience versus knowledge – a brief
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[5] Sanskrit Dictionary, Atman
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[7] Sri Chinmoy. Summits of God-Life.
[8] advaita-deanta.org, Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya
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[11] THE BHAMATI AND VIVARANA SCHOOLS
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[16] Wikisource:The Complete Works of Swami
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[20] What is Enlightenment? 31 December 2001
[21] What is Enlightenment? 1 December 2005
[22] Undivided Journal, About the Journal
[23] Jerry Katz on Nonduality, What is Nonduality?
[24] Anthony Peter Iannini (2001), Nāgārjuna’s Emptiness and
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[27] Stanford Encyclopedia of Mysticism, Mysticism
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nial Theory, India, and 'The Mystic East.
14 Further reading
Primary texts
• Shankara. A thousand teachings: the
Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara. Translated by
Sengaku Mayeda.
• Robert Hume, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Ox-
ford University Press
35
• Allen W. Thrasher (1993), The Advaita Vedanta of
Brahmasiddhi, Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass
Introductions
• Deutsch, Eliot (1969), Advaita Vedanta: A Philo-
sophical Reconstruction, Honolulu: East-West Cen-
ter Press
• Eliot Deutsch and J. A. B. van Buitenen (1971), A
Source Book of Advaita Vedanta, Honolulu: Univer-
sity Press of Hawaii, ISBN 978-0870221897
• Arvind Sharma (1993), The Experiential Dimen-
sion of Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
978-8120810587
• Jacqueline G Suthren Hirst (2005), Samkara’s Ad-
vaita Vedanta: A Way of Teaching, Routledge,
ISBN 978-0415406017
Practice
• Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Ad-
vaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara,
Sureśvara, and Padmapāda, Delhi: Motilal Banar-
sidass
• Dubois, Joël André-Michel (2014), The Hidden
Lives of Brahman: Sankara’s Vedanta through His
Upanisad Commentaries, in Light of Contemporary
Practice, SUNY
History
• Potter, Karl H. (1981). Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies, vol. 3: Advaita Vedanta up to Sankara
and his Pupils. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
• Potter, Karl H. (2006). Encyclopedia of Indian
Philosophies vol. 11: Advaita Vedānta from 800 to
1200. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
• Isaeva, N.V. (1995). From Early Vedanta to Kash-
mir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhi-
navagupta. SUNY Press.
Topical studies
• Arvind Sharma (1995), The Philosophy of Religion
and Advaita Vedanta: A Comparative Study in Re-
ligion and Reason, Pennsylvania State University
Press
• Satyapal Verma (1992), Role of Reason in Sankara
Vedanta, Parimal Publication, Delhi
• Sangam Lal Pandey (1989), The Advaita view of
God, Darshana Peeth, Allahabad
36 15 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Kapil N. Tiwari (1977), Dimensions of renunciation

in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
• Leesa Davis (2010), Advaita Vedanta and Zen Bud-
dhism: Deconstructive Modes of Spiritual Inquiry,
Bloomsbury Academic

Shankara

• Natalia V. Isayeva (1993), Shankara and Indian phi-

losophy, SUNY, New York
• Elayath. K. N. Neelakantan (1990), The Ethics of
Sankara, University of Calicut
• Raghunath D. Karmarkar (1966), Sankara’s Ad-
vaita, Karnatak University, Dharwar
• Paul Deussen (Translated by Charles Johnston), The
System of the Vedanta with Shankara commentaries
at Google Books, Open Court
• Charles Johnston, The Vedanta Philosophy of
Sankaracharya at Google Books, Theosophical So-
ciety

Sringeri Sharada Peetham

• Madhava Vidyaranya, Sankara-Digvijaya, translated

by Swami Tapasyananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math,
2002, ISBN 81-7120-434-1.

Neo-Advaita

• Madhukar, The Simplest Way, Editions India, USA

& India 2006, ISBN 81-89658-04-2
• Madhukar, Erwachen in Freiheit, Lüchow Verlag,
German, 2.Edition, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-363-
03054-1

Indian languages

• Mishra, M., Bhāratīya Darshan (भारतीय दर्शन),

Kalā Prakāshan.
• Sinha, H. P., Bharatiya Darshan ki ruparekha (Fea-
tures of Indian Philosophy), 1993, Motilal Benarasi-
das, Delhi–Varanasi.
• Swāmi Paramānanda Bhārati, Vedānta Prabodha
(in Kannada), Jnānasamvardhini Granthakusuma,
2004

15 External links
• Bibliography of Advaita Vedanta Ancient to 9th-
century literature
• Bibliography of Advaita Vedanta 9th-century to
20th-century literature
• Advaita Vedanta at DMOZ
 37

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