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If there are several vortices of various strengths at different points, the combined complex velocity
is
−i Γ1 Γ2 Γ3
+ + +··· . (3)
2π z − z1 z − z2 z − z3
If there are an infinite number of vortices distributed continuously along a curve C, with strength
per unit length of curve
δΓ = γδz , (4)
the complex velocity at z is
−i γ
Z
dζ . (5)
2π C z−ζ
This is called a vortex sheet, since the curve C in two-dimensions represents a sheet in three
dimensions.
Add to this a uniform stream of speed V∞ and incidence α, and the complex velocity is
i γ
Z
w(z) = V∞ e−iα − dζ . (6)
2π C z − ζ
sin α ∼ α . (11)
2
with a similar transformation for ξ to ϕ. The differential in the integral becomes
c
dξ = sin ϕ dϕ , (14)
2
and (10) becomes
π
1 γ sin ϕ
Z
dϕ = −V∞ α . (15)
2π 0 cos ϕ − cos θ
This is the basic integral equation of thin aerofoil theory, as applied to a flat plate.
Comparing this with (15), we see that the solution for the distribution of vortex strength is
C + cos θ
γ = −2V∞ α . (20)
sin θ
3
5.2.6 Circulation and lift
The total circulation around the aerofoil is just the integral of the vortex strengths along the
vortex sheet:
Z c
Γ = γ dx (22)
0
Z π
c
= γ sin θ dθ (23)
2 0
Z π
c 1 + cos θ
= −2V∞ α sin θ dθ (24)
2 0 sin θ
Z π
= −cV∞ α {1 + cos θ} dθ (25)
0
π
= −cV∞ α [θ + sin θ]0 (26)
= −cV∞ απ . (27)
From the Kutta–Joukowsky Theorem, the lift (per unit length in the third dimension) is
related to the circulation by
` = −ρV∞ Γ , (28)
so
2
` = ρV∞ πcα , (29)
This simple result agrees quite well with the experimentally measured lift for flat plates
for angles of incidence up to about 3◦ [Anderson, 2001, p. 333]. At higher incidence, the flow
separates from the upper surface of the plate and the vortex sheet model is no longer accurate.
` = −ρV∞ Γ (31)
Z c
= −ρV∞ γ dx , (32)
0
we can think of
δ` = −ρV∞ γ δx (33)
as the distribution of the lift along the aerofoil. Each element of lift contributes to the moment
about the leading edge in proportion to its distance from that edge:
4
where the moment is reckoned positive when it tends to increase the pitch of the aerofoil; i.e. to
raise the leading edge and depress the trailing edge. Thus the pitching moment (per unit length)
is given by
Z c
ml.e. = ρV∞ xγ dx . (35)
0
−x` , (42)
and this balances the actual leading edge pitching moment if −x` = ml.e. ,or
x −Cm,l.e.
= . (43)
c C`
For the flat plate this gives x = c/4; i.e. the centre of pressure is at the quarter-chord point.
Note that this result is independent of the incidence.
References
I. H. Abbott and A. E. von Doenhoff. Theory of Wing Sections. Dover, 1959.
J. D. Anderson, Jr. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill, 3rd edition, 2001.
J. J. Bertin. Aerodynamics for Engineers. Prentice Hall, 4th edition, 2002.
H. Glauert. The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory. Cambridge University Press, 2nd
edition, 1947.
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E. L. Houghton and P. W. Carpenter. Aerodynamics for Engineering Students. Butterworth
Heinemann, 5th edition, 2003.
B. W. McCormick. Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics. Wiley, 2nd edition, 1995.
L. M. Milne-Thomson. Theoretical Aerodynamics. Dover, 4th edition, 1973.