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BLAST RESISTANT DESIGN

with
STRUCTURAL STEEL
COMMON QUESTIONS ANSWERED

Anatol Longinow, Ph.D. and


Farid Alfawakhiri, Ph.D.

trategies for blast protection have become an important considera-

Got
que stions
S tion for structural designers as global terrorist attacks continue at an
alarming rate. Conventional structures, particularly those above
grade, normally are not designed to resist blast loads; and because
the magnitudes of design loads are significantly lower than those
produced by most explosions, conventional structures are susceptible to dam-
age from explosions. With this in mind, developers, architects and engineers in-

bla st- creasingly are seeking solutions for potential blast situations, to protect

about design? building occupants and the structures themselves.


The questions and answers that follow offer some explanation of explosions

sistant this
and the potential dangers they present to steel-framed buildings. The authors
re ou t take a look at the historical response of steel-framed structures to blast situa-
k
Chec tear-out
tions and which types of structural frames, connections and steel shapes best
resist blast loads. They also examine strategies designers can use to implement
y
hand rence!
heightened building security and greater structural resistance to blast threats.
Design specifications, code requirements, progressive collapse, seismic re-
refe quirements and composite construction also are considered. Lastly, a list of ref-
erences on the topic of blast protection is provided, along with information
about computer software programs that can aid designers.

GENERAL EXPLOSION SCIENCE (SEE REF. 1,2,3)


What is an explosion? What are some common types of explosions?
An explosion is a rapid release of stored energy characterized by a bright flash and an
audible blast. Part of the energy is released as thermal radiation (flash); and part is cou-
pled into the air as airblast and into the soil (ground) as ground shock, both as radially
expanding shock waves.
To be an explosive, the material:
1. Must contain a substance or mixture of substances that remains unchanged under or-
dinary conditions, but undergoes a fast chemical change upon stimulation.
2. This reaction must yield gases whose volume—under normal pressure, but at the
high temperature resulting from an explosion—is much greater than that of the orig-
inal substance.
3. The change must be exothermic in order to heat the products of the reaction and thus
to increase their pressure.
Common types of explosions include construction blasting to break up rock or to de-
molish buildings and their foundations, and accidental explosions resulting from natural
gas leaks or other chemical/explosive materials.

What is a shock wave?


The rapid expansion of hot gases resulting from the detonation of an explosive
charge gives rise to a compression wave called a shock wave, which propagates

October 2003 • Modern Steel Construction


through the air. The front of the shock centration must be within these limits for minimize casualties and damage. Life
wave can be considered infinitely steep, a deflagration to occur. safety should be the primary design pa-
for all practical purposes. That is, the time 2. The presence of air (oxygen) or other ox- rameter. In certain situations it is also nec-
required for compression of the undis- idant. Higher oxygen concentrations ac- essary to provide for the functional
turbed air just ahead of the wave to full celerate the rate of combustion, and low continuity of the facility. For example, a
pressure just behind the wave is essen- concentrations of oxygen reduce it. hospital must function after an attack in
tially zero. 3. The presence of an ignition source with order to provide services for critical pa-
If the explosive source is spherical, the energy output sufficient to initiate defla- tients. Similar requirements apply to fire
resulting shock wave will be spherical. Since gration. Ignition can result from a hot and police stations. While it is impossible
its surface is continually increasing, the en- surface, flame or spark. Location of the to design all buildings against all threats, it
ergy per unit area continually decreases. ignition source at the geometric center of is possible to design some buildings to be
Consequently, as the shock wave travels a confined fuel-oxidant mixture results in resistant to some threats. Defensive design
outward from the charge, the pressure in development of the highest pressure and often conflicts with aesthetics, accessibil-
the front of the wave, called the peak pres- rate of pressure rise. ity, fire safety regulations and budgetary
sure, steadily decreases. At great distances 4. The combustion of a gas must generate constraints.
from the charge, the peak pressure is infini- a pressure greater than the structural ca-
tesimal, and the wave can be treated as a pability (strength) of the confining struc- What defensive strategies can be
sound wave. ture. An explosion occurs when the employed to reduce risks of terrorist
Behind the shock wave front, the pres- enclosing structure ruptures. attacks involving explosions?
sure in the wave decreases from its initial The first step in the defensive design
peak value. At some distance from the What are the damaging effects of process is to establish the probable risk
charge, the pressure behind the shock front explosions to structures? (see Ref. 5) and the parameters of the threat to a facil-
falls to a value below that of the atmosphere Conventional structures, in particular ity. Risk of “collateral damage” to nearby
and then rises again to a steady value equal those above grade, are susceptible to dam- buildings should also be considered. It is
to that of the atmosphere. The part of the age from explosions, because the magni- then possible to consider countermeasures
shock wave in which the pressure is greater tudes of design loads are significantly lower (defensive strategies) to the threat. Com-
than that of the atmosphere is called the than those produced by most explosions. mon external blast threats are car, van or
positive phase, and, immediately following For example, design snow loads in the Mid- truck bombs. Internal blast scenarios in-
it, the part in which the pressure is less than west range from about 5 psf to about 50 psf. volve a smaller explosive charge packed in
that of the atmosphere is called the nega- The peak pressure in the blast pulse pro- a letter or a brief case, or a car bomb in a
tive or suction phase. duced by 10 lb of TNT at a range of about parking garage.
50’ is approximately 2.4 psi (which is 348 One way to protect a building from a
What is a deflagration? How does it psf!) with a duration of the positive phase of possible attack is to make weapon delivery
differ from a detonation? 7.7 ms. Conventional structures are not nor- difficult. A set back distance and a secure
A deflagration is an exothermic reaction mally designed to resist blast loads. fence around the building can serve this
(a moving flame front), which propagates Recent terrorist attacks demonstrate the purpose. However, this approach often is
from the burning gases to the unreacted types of damage that can be produced. The not viable in a city where buildings adjoin
material by conduction, convection and ra- 1993 terrorist attack on the World Trade other buildings along busy streets. In these
diation. In this process the combustion zone Center in New York City removed several cases, measures such as surveillance, lim-
progresses through the material (flammable thousand square feet of concrete floor slabs its on traffic movement and guards can en-
mixture) at a rate that is less than the speed in the general area of the explosion and se- hance protection.
of sound in the unreacted material. In con- verely damaged several buildings’ commu- In the design of upgrades and retrofits
trast, a detonation is an exothermic reaction nication, transportation and utility systems. of existing facilities, countermeasures that
characterized by the presence of a shock Due to the inherent redundancy of the steel involve establishing a defensive perimeter
wave in the material that establishes and frames, the structures did not collapse. (fences, bollards, etc.) and positioning the
maintains the reaction. A distinctive charac- The 1995 attack on the Alfred P. Murrah building at some distance from this secure
teristic of detonation is that the reaction Federal Building in Oklahoma City revealed perimeter often are not possible. Instead,
zone propagates at a speed greater than the the vulnerability of conventional structural threat countermeasures include the reloca-
speed of sound. designs when subjected to blast loads. When tion of important functions to safer areas
Under proper conditions, flammable and a weapon is located at street level, the blast of the building. Other measure include
combustible gases, mists or dusts sus- shock wave acts up against the underside of hardening the mail area, moving people
pended in air or another oxidant can burn the floor slabs at upper stories. Floor slabs from external walls to inner offices, replac-
when ignited. This could cause a deflagra- are not designed for this magnitude and di- ing or strengthening windows and window
tion-induced explosion to occur when the rection of load—for this direction of load, the frames, hardened safety rooms, hardening
following conditions are met: reinforcement is in the wrong place. portions of the building, or moving the en-
1. The presence of fuel mixed in proper tire operation to a more secure facility. In
proportions with the atmosphere (oxi- PHYSICAL SECURITY all circumstances, defensive strategies
dant). Most gaseous fuels have lower- What are the general objectives of defen- must incorporate some measures of facil-
and upper-flammability limits for their sive design involving a terrorist attack? ity-access control, contingency planning
concentrations in the air; and the con- The main objective of defensive (pro- and emergency training for all occupants.
tective) design of a civilian facility is to

Modern Steel Construction • October 2003


Open-Source References on Blast Design
The following list includes documents specific to the question asked as well as documents that are useful as background informa-
tion on explosions, blast-resistant structural design and survivability of building occupants in blast environments.

Textbooks and Manuals Documents Pertaining to Blast Effects, Structural Design and
Newmark, N. M. An Engineering Approach to Blast Resistant People Survivability in a Blast Environment
Design. University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station, Assheton, R. (Compiler). History of Explosions – On Which the
Reprint Series No. 56, 1953 American Table of Distances Was Based, Including Other Ex-
Norris, C. H., Hansen, R. J., Holley, M. J., Jr., Biggs, J. M., plosions of Large Quantities of Explosives. Bureau for the
Namyet, S., Minami, J. K. Structural Design for Dynamic Safe Transportation of Explosives and Other Dangerous Arti-
Loads. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959 cles, 1930
Biggs, J. M. Introduction to Structural Dynamics. McGraw-Hill Longinow, A., Hahn, E.E., Bertram, L. A.,”Personnel Survivability
Book Company, 1964 in a Blast Wind Environment,” Journal of the Engineering Me-
“Fire and Blast – Criteria and Loading,” Technical Committee 8, chanics Division, ASCE Proc. 103 (EM2), April 1977
Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, International Confer- Longinow, A., Chu, K. H., Thomopoulos, N. T., “Probability of
ence on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Lehigh Univer- Survival in a Blast Environment,” Journal of the Engineering
sity, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, August 21-26, 1972 Mechanics Division, ASCE Proc. Paper 16991, April 1982
Glasstone, S., Dolan P.J., (Editors). The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. American National Standard for Estimating Airblast Characteris-
Prepared and Published by the U.S. Department of Defense and tics for Single Point Explosions in Air, With a Guide to Evalua-
the U.S. Department of Energy, Third Edition, 1977, Reprinted tion of Atmospheric Propagation and Effects. S2.20-1983
by the Federal Emergency Management Agency Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism. Commit-
“Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapons Effects,” ASCE – tee on the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism,
Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice – No. 42, 1985 Building Research Board, Commission on Engineering and
TM 5-855-1, “Fundamentals of Protective Design for Conventional Technical Systems, National Research Council, National Acad-
Weapons,” U.S. Department of the Army, emy Press Washington, D.C. 1988
November 1986 (www.military-info.com/MPHOTO/p021c.htm) “Structures for Enhanced Safety and Physical Security,” Proceed-
TM 5-1300 Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explo- ings of the Specialty Conference sponsored by the Structural
sions,” U.S. Departments of the Army, Navy and Air Force, Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Arlington,
November 1990 Virginia, March 8-10, 1989 (Edited by T. Krauthammer)
(www.military-info.com/MPHOTO/p021c.htm) Protecting Buildings From Bomb Damage—Transfer of Blast-Ef-
“Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities,” fects Mitigation Technologies From Military to Civilian Appli-
ASCE Task Committee on Blast Resistant Design, 1997 cations. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1995
UFC 4-010-01, DoD Minimum Antiterrorism Standards for Build-
ings, Department of Defense, 31 July 2002
(www.tisp.org/files/pdf/dodstandards.pdf)

What is the difference between physical ation, and part is coupled into the air as air the maximum coverage by a given level of
and operational security measures? blast and into the ground (soil) as ground pressure, resulting in maximum damage.
Physical security measures, also called shock. This is referred to as the optimum HOB.
passive security measures, include actions For above-grade structures subject to
such as perimeter protection with walls, surface attack and airbursts, air blast is the How large are design blast loads? How
fences, bollards, planters and intrusion-de- primary mechanism producing the potential are blast loads evaluated?
tection alarms. It also includes actions like for damage and casualties, and this is the Selection of the blast charge size W is
hardening the structure or portions thereof loading that is used in design. based on the perceived risk to the design
to mitigate blast effects if perimeter protec- For buried or below-grade structures, building and any buildings nearby. Various
tion is not sufficient. depending on weapon yield, ground shock factors play a role here, such as the social
Operational security measures, also can be an additional design effect. and economic significance of the building,
called active security measures, involve ac- security measures that deter terrorists, and
tions such as intelligence, surveillance and What is a “stand-off” distance? What is data from previous attacks on similar facili-
guards. a “height of burst” (HOB)? ties. The minimum standoff distance R is
Stand-off distance refers to the direct, determined from the layout of a building’s
What specific blast effects are unobstructed distance between a weapon surroundings and reflects the expectation of
considered in defensive structural and its target. Height of burst refers to aer- how close to the building the design charge
design? ial attacks. It is the direct distance between could explode.
As mentioned previously, in an explosion the exploding weapon in the air and the tar- W and R are two necessary inputs for
produced by a vehicle bomb, part of the en- get. For a bomb capable of being detonated the scaled distance parameter Z = R/W0.33
ergy is released in the form of thermal radi- above a target, an optimum height produces that is used to determine “equivalent” de-

October 2003 • Modern Steel Construction


sign pressure impulses using published ping, supported on steel beams and gird- similar to an earthquake, though much
curves [see Ref.10]. For greater accuracy, ers. Exterior walls consisted of 9” brick less intense.
computer programs such as AT Blast are and tile facing. Interior walls were 3” brick A second difference is the duration of
available for free download at with plaster surfaces. loading. For earthquakes, the duration of
www.oca.gsa.gov. A 1,100-lb bomb perforated the roof induced motions (shaking) can range
Blast loads are applied to external and three floors and detonated just above from seconds to minutes. Additional load-
building cladding if it is assumed to trans- the fourth floor. Damage to the seventh ings are produced by “aftershocks,”
fer the loads to structural elements. floor consisted of a failed girder due to which are generally less intense than the
Where windows, doors and external walls impact from the bomb and about 100 sq. initial shaking. For conventional explo-
are not expected to remain intact, blast ft of floor area removed. Damage to the sives, the duration of a pressure wave is
loads also should be applied to internal sixth floor included a buckled girder with on the order of milliseconds.
structural elements. Floor slabs especially torn out connections, several deflected For example, in the Oklahoma City
should be checked for uplift-pressure im- beams and approximately 190 sq. ft of event, the yield of the weapon was ap-
pulse. Blast loads usually are not factored floor area removed. On the fifth floor, one proximately 4,000 lb TNT equivalent. The
and used in combination with unfactored girder deflected about 7”. Several other truck containing the explosive was posi-
gravity loads. floor beams were bowed. Approximately tioned about 10’ from the building. The
650 sq. ft of floor area was demolished. peak pressure at the face of the buildings
What are the most popular and cost- On the fourth floor, one girder was blown was about 1,900 psi, and the duration of
effective methods for upgrading existing down together with four beams. One col- the positive phase of the pulse was ap-
buildings for physical protection? umn deflected 7” and twisted, and about proximately 3 ms. Judging by the size of
Some level of blast resistance is re- 700 sq. ft of floor area was demolished. the crater, a fair portion of the energy
quired for new Federal Buildings. Existing The fifth floor was blown up; the fourth coupled into the ground, producing
Federal Buildings undergoing expansion was blown down. One bay on each of the ground shock. However, judging by the
also must include blast resistance. In each first, second and third floors is believed to damage, clearly air blast was the primary
case the General Services Administration have collapsed due to weight of debris damage mechanism. Further, earthquakes
(GSA) establishes design requirements. from above. There was no fire. Due to the shake an entire building, but produce
Specific actions can involve: protecting sufficient redundancy of the steel frame, mostly horizontal loads at floor-slab lev-
windows; installing a secure perimeter the building did not collapse. els, concentrating in the specially de-
fence and/or hardening a portion of the Another example of a steel-framed signed, laterally stiffer structural systems.
building; and determining the likelihood of building subjected to an internal explosion Blast usually does not attack the entire
progressive collapse and designing was the World Trade Center on Feb. 26, structure uniformly, but produces the
against it. There is no comparable, univer- 1993. A van containing approximately most severe loads to the nearest struc-
sal guidance in the civilian sector. How- 1,800 lb. of fertilizer-based explosives was tural elements, both vertical and horizon-
ever, some of the guidance developed by parked on an exit ramp just south of col- tal, with little regard to their stiffness.
the Federal Government is available to the umn 324, one of the main steel columns Uplift pressure load on floors is also a
general public. supporting the 110-story tower structure. specific blast effect.
The column measured about 4’ by 4’
BLAST RESISTANT across. It and six adjacent columns lost What is the role of structural ductility
STRUCTURAL DESIGN their fireproofing and lateral restraint (the in blast resistance?
What is the historical experience with bracing provided by the concrete floors The term ductility refers to the ability
steel-framed structures subjected to that were blown out around them), but of the material to absorb energy inelasti-
Blast? otherwise were not damaged by the explo- cally without failure—the greater the duc-
A study of 17 British buildings hit by sion. The fact that the column did not tility, the greater the resistance to failure.
German bombs during World War II exam- buckle from the significant increase in its Blast-resistant designs often conserva-
ined eight steel-framed buildings, five re- effective length speaks well for the redun- tively assume elastic response in order to
inforced concrete buildings and four dancy in a building that probably was not simplify design, minimize permanent
wall-bearing buildings (see Ref. 6). The designed for blast loading. (plastic) deformations, and reduce post-
steel-framed buildings included office, blast repairs, especially where functional
apartment and industrial buildings, and a How different are seismic and blast continuity of the facility is considered.
two-story railway station. effects on structures? Due to their highly ductile features, struc-
The weight of bombs ranged from 110 The first difference is in the way a tural steel frames provide additional ulti-
lb to 3,100 lb. In each case the charge given structure is loaded. In the case of an mate resistance for a blast event
weight was approximately 50 percent of earthquake the structure is subject to exceeding in severity the design blast.
the bomb weight. With one exception all ground motions that shake the structure Ductile inelastic structural response
were internal explosions and the type of from the base up. In the case of an explo- can be expected during both severe blast
damage was fairly typical. sion produced by an air or a surface burst, and severe earthquake events. However, it
One example is the explosion damage the structure is loaded by means of a is generally recognized that plastic hinge
to a seven-story apartment building. This compression wave (shock wave) over zones and ductility demands in the two
building consisted of a concrete-encased some area. Since a portion of the blast en- events do not necessarily match because
steel frame (for fire protection). The floors ergy is coupled into the ground, the struc- of the differences in the loading patterns
were 6” hollow tile with 3.5” concrete top- ture is also subject to ground motions and effects.

Modern Steel Construction • October 2003


Does the mass of the structural frame by an explosion from a gas deflagration. In available for free download at
play a role in blast-resistant design? the aftermath, the UK introduced building www.tisp.org/files/pdf/dodstandards.pdf.
Yes. The inertia, as measured by the regulations addressing progressive col-
mass of the structure or structural member, lapse. In North America, some examples of STRUCTURAL MEMBERS AND
is an important factor in the response to a progressive collapse include the 12-story CONNECTIONS
dynamic-impulse lateral load such as a steel-framed Union Carbide office building, How does high-rate loading, as produced
shock wave. Because steel is the most in Toronto, 1958; a 16-story cast-in-place by blast loads, affect steel properties?
dense construction material, heavy and ro- reinforced concrete apartment building, (See ref. 8, 9)
bust steel members are especially effective Boston, 1970; and a 16-story post-ten- The yield stress of low-carbon struc-
in resisting blast loads. This is evident in the sioned concrete lift-slab building in Bridge- tural steel subjected to dynamic loads
performance of heavy tanks and battleships, port, CT, 1987. tends to increase. The ultimate strength
the ultimate blast-resistant structures. The Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in is less affected. Elastic modulus remains
Oklahoma City was a dramatic example of the same. Steels with higher-static yield
Do building codes require structures to progressive collapse of a weakly redundant stresses achieve a lower percentage in
be blast resistant? reinforced-concrete building, with collapse yield-stress increase under dynamic load-
For ordinary buildings, like apartments, triggered by the vehicle bomb near the front ing, as do weaker steels.
offices, and stores, building codes do not of the building. As mentioned earlier, the For example, an experiment on struc-
require blast resistance. For buildings that building had minimal resistance to upward tural steel members consisting of mild
house hazardous processes, building codes loads generated by the blast at street level. steel (static yield stress of Fy = 37 ksi) as-
require special safety considerations. For sociated with time to yield, showed dy-
example, the Uniform Building Code states What is robustness? How can one add namic-yield stresses in the range of 45
that “walls, floors and roofs separating a robustness to a building? ksi and 50 ksi (an increase in the range of
use from an explosion exposure shall be de- When referring to a building, the term 22 percent and 35 percent). In this series,
signed to resist a minimum internal pres- robustness implies the strength and sturdi- the time to yield ranged from approxi-
sure of 100 pounds per square foot in ness to resist excessive loads. A highly re- mately 1 s to 1 ms, and the fundamental
addition to other conventional loads.” dundant steel-framed building can be period of the respective structural mem-
considered robust. bers was approximately 100 ms. For
Which is better at resisting blast load It is more difficult and expensive to add structural members with fundamental pe-
effects—a moment frame or a braced strength to an existing building than to con- riods of less than 100 ms, test results in-
frame? sider this aspect in a new design, especially dicated a dynamic yield stress of more
The lateral stability of a moment frame is for high-rise buildings. One notable building than 50 ksi.
dependent on the bending stiffness of rigidly that has undergone strengthening (an in-
connected beams and columns. Adequate crease in its robustness) is the Citicorp What are the common ranges for
diagonal bracing or shear walls at selected Building in New York City. After the building steel-deck gages and concrete-slab
locations provide the lateral stability of a was built, it was discovered that it would not thickness in floors designed for blast
braced frame. Elements of lateral stability likely survive a particular wind condition. resistance? Can lightweight concrete
often are distributed more uniformly in mo- The building was strengthened effectively, be used in blast-resistant design?
ment frames, in which case each part of the but at a significant expense. The traditional reinforced-concrete
building is more likely to be stable on its slab on top of steel deck, composite and
own. Therefore, moment frames are the bet- What official design specifications exist non-composite, is an efficient blast-re-
ter choice for blast-resistant design. In for reducing the risk of progressive sistant floor system. Concrete-slab thick-
braced frames, the diagonal braces or shear collapse? ness depends on the magnitude of
walls can be knocked out by an engulfing The sector of our economy that re- design-blast pressure, and the span be-
blast wave, reducing the effectiveness of the searches the protection of government tween supporting beams. Two layers of
braced frame, unless special features are in- buildings from terrorist attack and mitigates reinforcement usually are required to
cluded to mitigate this potential behavior. progressive collapse of these buildings is sustain upward and downward loads.
the General Services Administration (GSA), Steel deck can effectively prevent con-
PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE Department of Defense (DoD) and their con- crete fragmentation. Steel-deck type and
What is progressive collapse? tractors. GSA and DoD have developed gage are selected to support construction
Progressive collapse is the propagation, guidelines for the protection of buildings loads during concrete placement. Light-
by a chain-reaction, of a local structural fail- against blast effects. Civilian-sector engi- weight concrete is less effective in resist-
ure into the failure of a substantial portion of neering firms that work for GSA on Federal ing blast loads than normal-weight
the building, disproportionate in magnitude Buildings receive these guidelines as dic- concrete.
to the original failure. tated by a particular project. Some of these
are available to the general public. In blast-design applications, what can
What events caused progressive The GSA’s “Progressive Collapse Analy- be done to ensure that concrete floor
collapse incidents in the past? sis and Design Guidelines for New Federal slabs do not separate from structural
The 1968 failure of one corner of a 23- Office Buildings and Major Modernization steel beams when subjected to uplift
story residential precast concrete building Projects,” is available for free download at blast pressures?
in London (Ronan Point) was caused by www.oca.gsa.gov. Also, “DoD Minimum One approach is to weld slab rein-
poor connection detailing and was triggered Antiterrorism Standards for Buildings,” is forcement to connector studs (in com-

October 2003 • Modern Steel Construction


posite floors) or directly to steel support top and bottom flange angles, can sustain ing at Illinois Institute of Technology in
beams. Another option is to design and significant inelastic deformations and some- Chicago, and an adjunct professor of civil
cast the beams integrally with the slabs. times are preferred in blast-resistant design. engineering at Valparaiso University, Val-
paraiso, IN. Farid Alfawakhiri, Ph.D. is Se-
What structural shape is the optimal ANALYSIS METHODS AND nior Engineer–Fire Design with AISC in
choice for beams in blast-resistant LITERATURE SOURCES Chicago.
floors? What analysis methods are used in blast-
The choice of structural members sup- resistant design? REFERENCES
porting a slab depends on the load magnitude Most structures are complex in behavior 1. Fire Protection Handbook. National Fire
and where it is expected to act. If the blast even under static loads, and their response Protection Association, Thirteenth Edi-
load is expected only on the top of the slab, to dynamic loads might include additional tion, 1969
such as a slab over a basement, then either a complications from combinations of elastic 2. Glasstone, S. and Dolan P. J. (Editors),
W-shape or hollow structural section (HSS) and inelastic vibration modes. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. U.S.
is likely to be effective. If the maximum blast A common approach to determine the Department of Defense and the U.S. De-
load is as likely to act on top of the floor slab dynamic response of a structure to some partment of Energy, Third Edition, 1977
as on its lower surface, then both shapes are specific loading is to model the structure as Reprinted by the Federal Emergency
likely to be effective. When the underside is a system of finite structural elements and Management Agency
loaded, the support beams will be loaded masses connected together at a discrete 3. Guide for Explosion Venting. NFPA
both on the bottom and on their sides. The number of nodal points. If the force-dis- 68–1978
net direct load on the webs of W-shapes is placement relationships are known for the 4. Clayton S. White, “The Nature of the
likely to be minimal. Where significant torsion individual elements, structural analysis can Problems Involved in Estimating the Im-
effects are likely, HSS are preferred for their be used to study the behavior of the assem- mediate Casualties from Nuclear Ex-
superior torsion resistance. bled structure. plosions,” CEX-71.1, Civil Effects Test
It is prudent for practical design pur- Operations U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
What types of column sections are poses to adopt approximate methods that sion, July 1971
preferred in blast-resistant design? permit rapid analysis of complex structures 5. Longinow, A., “The Threat of Terrorism –
Military manuals for blast-resistant de- with reasonable accuracy. These methods Can Buildings be Protected?” Building
sign base procedures on material properties usually require that both the structure and Operating Management, July 1995
increased by approximately 10% to account the loading be idealized to some degree. 6. “Effects of Impact and Explosion,” Sum-
for strain-rate effects. Columns designed to During the 1950s and 1960s, much work mary Technical Report of Division 2,
resist high blast loads usually have suffi- was done to develop simple methods for the NDRC (National Defense Research Com-
ciently small slenderness ratios, and buck- design of structures subjected to blast loads mittee) Volume 1, Washington, D.C.
ling occurs plastically rather than elastically. produced by blast from nuclear weapons. 1946
Also, because dynamic-impulse load tends [The book by J. M. Biggs (Ref. 12) which is 7. GSA Security Criteria. Building Technolo-
to suppress the occurrence of buckling, it is a revision of an earlier book (Ref. 11) written gies Division, Office of Property Devel-
conservative to adapt static formulas to the by several authors including J. M. Biggs opment, Public Buildings Service,
dynamic case. The choice of structural contains an excellent introductory presenta- General Services Administration, 1997
shape will depend on a number of factors, tion of such methods.] 8. Air Force Design Manual, Principles and
like whether the column is subjected to an Practices for Design of Hardened Struc-
axial load, or to flexural and axial load. Since What design/analysis software is tures. Research Directorate, Air Force
in the latter case the load can come from available? Special Weapons Center, Air Force Sys-
any direction, it is useful to use a shape that Blast design/analysis software for the tems Command, Kirtland Air Force Base,
has equal flexural strength in all directions, general public is not available at this time. New Mexico, December 1962
such as a round or square HSS. Software and design manuals exist in the 9. Crawford, R. E., Higgins, C. J., Bult-
U.S. Government and military sector, but mann, E. H. The Air Force Manual for De-
What types of steel-frame connections these items generally are made available sign and Analysis of Hardened
are effective in mitigating blast and only to contractors doing work for U.S. Gov- Structures. Air Force Weapons Labora-
progressive collapse effects? ernment agencies, such as the U.S. Army tory, Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mex-
Both bolted and welded connections per- Corps of Engineers and the General Services ico, October 1974
form well in a blast environment. If a welded Administration (GA). 10.“Structures to Resist the Effects of Acci-
connection can develop the strength of the As mentioned earlier, the software prod- dental Explosions,” Dept. of the Army
connected elements (or at least the weakest uct AT Blast, deals with blast pressures and Tech. Manual, TM5-1300, Dept. of the
of the connected elements), the connection is available from the GSA website. There are Navy Pub. NAVFAC P-397, Dept. of the
will remain intact. The same is true for a programs available for the dynamic-re- Air Force Manual, AFM 88-22, June 1969
bolted connection. However, welded con- sponse analysis of single-degree-of-free- 11.Norris, C. H., Hansen, R. J., Holley, M. J.,
nections need to be carefully detailed and dom systems, such as Nonlin, which can be Biggs, J. M., Namyet, S., Minami, J. K.
constructed. downloaded for free at: Structural Design for Dynamic Loads.
With large members (especially in mo- www.app1.fema.gov/EMI/nonlin.htm McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1959
ment frames), it can be difficult to develop 12.Biggs, J. M. Introduction to Structural
member strength using bolts. However, cer- Anatol Longinow, Ph.D., is a an adjunct Dynamics. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
tain bolted connections, such as those using professor of civil and architectural engineer- 1964 ★

Modern Steel Construction • October 2003

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