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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Field Instrument Devices


 Understand the measurement principle, installation the field instrument including
Temperature, Pressure, Level and Flow.
 Understand the important drawings which are commonly used in instrument and
control engineering.

Concept and terminology in instrument

Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control. Applications of this


science abound in modern research, industry, and everyday living. From automobile engine
control systems to home thermostats to aircraft autopilots to the manufacture of
pharmaceutical drugs, automation is everywhere around us. This piece will focus on the
fundamental principle of measurement terminology.
The objective of any measurement endeavor is to be able to measure a given process
variable to possibly control it. Hence what you cannot measure, you cannot control.
Instruments are used to measure and control the condition of process streams as they pass
through a Plant. Instruments are used to measure and control process variables such as:
Temperature; Flow; Level; Pressure; Quality. Automatic instrument control systems are
most commonly used to continually monitor these process conditions and correct them,
without operator intervention, if there is a deviation from the process value required. The
main reason for using automatic controls is that production is achieved more economically
and safely. In fact, some of our processes could not be controlled in a stable condition
without automatic control systems.

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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Measured Variable:
Is the physical quantity or condition, which is to be measured. Common measured
variables are: Temperature, pressure, rate of flow, level, speed, etc
Measured Signal:
Is the electrical, mechanical, pneumatic, or other variable applied to the input of a
device. In a thermocouple, the measured signal is an E.M.F, which is the electrical
analogue of the temperature applied to the thermocouple. A measured signal is
normally produced by the primary element (sensing element) of an instrument.
Input Signal:
Is a signal applied to a device element, or system. The pressure applied to the input
connection of a pressure transmitter is an input signal.
Output Signal:
Is a signal delivered by a device, element, or system. The signal (3 to 15 psig, 4 to 20
mA dc, etc) produced at the output connections of a transmitter is an output signal.
Range
Is the region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received or
transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range-value (LRV and URV)
Example: -20 to + 2000C ; 20 to 1500C ; 4mA to 20mA
Span
Is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range-values.
Range: -20 to 2000C, Span is 2200C; Range: 20 to 1500C, Span is 1300C.
Suppressed zero,
Is used when lower range-values is greater than zero. Range = 20 to 1500C

Elevated zero,
Is used when lower range-values is less than zero; Range = -20 to 2000C
Rangeability or turndown
Ratio of the maximum adjustable span / the minimum adjustable span for a given
instrument, for example R = 100 bars / 10 bars = 10
Repeatability
Ability of an instrument to give identical indications or responses for repeated
applications of the same value of the quantity measured under the same conditions
of used. Good repeatability does not guarantee accuracy.
Uncertainty
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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Range of values within which the true value lies with a specified probability.
Uncertainty of +/-1 % at 95 % confidence means the instrument will give the user a
range of +/-1 % for 95 readings out of 100.
Sensitivity
Is the ratio of the change in transducer output to the corresponding change in the
measured value, i.e. sensitivity = (change of output signal) / (change of input signal).
For example: A pressureto-current converter could have a sensitivity of 0.1 mA /
mbar.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard value, or
true value. It is usually measured in terms of inaccuracy and expressed as accuracy.
It is a number or quantity, which defines the limit that errors will not exceed, when
the device is used under reference operating conditions. The units to be used must
be stated explicitly. It is preferred that a + and - sign precede the number or
quantity.
The absence of a sign infers both signs (±). Accuracy can be expressed in a number of
forms:
Accuracy expressed in terms of the measured variable
Accuracy = ± 1Degree F.
Accuracy expressed in percent of span.
Accuracy = ± 1/2 % span
Accuracy expressed in percent of the upper range-value
Accuracy = ±1/2 % of URV.

Accuracy expressed in percent of actual reading


Accuracy = ±1% of actual output reading
Accuracy for an instrument loop: for an instrument loop including three elements:
A sensor with an accuracy of 1 %
A transmitter with an accuracy of 0.5 %
An indicator with an accuracy of 1 %
Absolute accuracy: +or-1+ or -0.5+ or -1 = + or -2.5 %
Most likely accuracy (Root Mean Square) = SQRT[(±1)2 ±(0.5)2±(1)2] = 1.5 %
Absolute Error

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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Algebraic difference between the indication and the true value of a quantity
to be
measured. Absolute Error = indication - true value. ΔX = X’ – X
Relative Error
Ratio between the absolute error and the true value of the quantity to be measured.
Expressed in percent: x = (ΔX/X) x 100
Linearity
Linearity expresses the deviation of the actual reading from a straight line. If all
outputs are in the same proportion to corresponding inputs over a span of values,
then input output plot is straight line else it will be non linear
Response
When the output of a device is expressed as a function of time (due to an applied
input) the time taken to respond can provide critical information about the
suitability of the device. A slow responding device may not be suitable for an
application. This typically applies to continuous control applications where the
response of the device becomes a dynamic response characteristic of the overall
control loop. However, in critical alarming applications where devices are used for
point measurement, the response may be just as important. The diagram below
shows response of the system to a step input.
Ambient
The surrounding or environment in reference to a particular point or object.
Calibration
The procedure of comparing and determining the performance accuracy is called
calibration. To configure a device so that the required output represents (to a
defined degree of accuracy) the respective input.
Closed loop
Relates to a control loop where the process variable is used to calculate the
controller output. In a closed loop system, the control action is independent on
desired output.
Controller
A device, which operates automatically to regulate the control of a process with a
control variable.
Reliability
The probability that a device will perform within its specifications for the number of
operations or time period specified.
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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Reproducibility
The similarity of one measurement to another over time, where the operating
conditions have varied within the time span, but the input is restored.
Resolution
The smallest interval that can be identified as a measurement varies.
Sensitivity
This defines how much the output changes, for a specified change in the input to the
device.
Setpoint
Used in closed loop control, the setpoint is the ideal process variable. It is
represented in the units of the process variable and is used by the controller to
determine the output to the process.
Span Adjustment
The difference between the maximum and minimum range values.
Transducer
An element or device that converts information from one form (usually physical,
such as temperature or pressure) and converts it to another (usually electrical, such
as volts or millivolts or resistance change). A transducer can be considered to
comprise a sensor at the front end (at the process) and a transmitter.
Transmitter
A device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually from mechanical to
electrical for the purpose of signal integrity for transmission over longer distances
and for suitability with control equipment.
Vibration
This is the periodic motion (mechanical) or oscillation of an object.

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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Zero adjustment
The zero in an instrument is the output provided when no, or zero input is applied.
The zero adjustment produces a parallel shift in the input-output curve.

Loop wiring in Instrumentation


2-wire connection
Advantages of two-wire connections
- Simple to setup, lower cost (less instrument cable), commonly feature hazardous
area approvals, and do not require local power.
- Disadvantage is limit in power supply

4-Wire connection
Advantages:
- Because four-wire devices are externally powered, they can accommodate a lot
more energy intensive features such as mechanical relays, bright LED displays,
- There is no need to worry about voltage drop across the current loop.
- Have excellent built in signal isolation. In a device with power-to-signal isolation, the
current signal and the power supply utilize completely separate wires.
Disadvantages:
- Require a separate power supply for the device, more expensive.
- More wiring, more cable glan, conduit and assessories for installation and
maitenance, troubleshooting.
- Four-wire connections also have fewer options when it comes to hazardous areas.

3-Wire connection
- Advantages are same as 4-wire connection but there is no signal-power isolation as
signal and power share one common cable.
- Disadvantages are same as 4-wire

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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Instrument output options


Analog Current
Industry standard 4-20 mA analog signals are used globally to communicate with field
mounted devices over long distances. These robust signals are highly resistant to electrical
interference. Typically, 4 mA represents 0% of the measured value and 20 mA represents
100%.
Signals outside of this range indicate a system abnormality or failure condition. Current from
the 0 mA to 4 mA portions of the signal range is used to provide operating power to the
loop device. This is commonly referred to as a loop-powered device. In a current loop the
signal is not affected by the voltage drop of long cable runs or junction boxes.

HART®
The HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) protocol
is a digital protocol that provides for the superimposing of a
digital signal onto the 4-20 mA signal wires. This superimposed digital signal allows two-way
communications for configuration and for extracting operational and alarm data from the
transmitter. HART protocol is widely accepted and utilized throughout the world. Using
HART along with the 4-20 mA signal offers enhanced diagnostics options including status
and alarm data that can be useful for maintenance or process analysis.
On a very basic level, field configuration tools can access any of this information by request
one instrument at a time. An alternative solution to accessing this information exists on a
higher level where this data can be accessed continuously from all field devices
simultaneously using fieldbus or HART-enabled multiplexors interfaced with the DCS and/or
an asset management system.

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INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus
Foundation Fieldbus is an all-digital, serial, two-way communications
system that can serve as the base-level network in a plant or factory
automation environment. It is an open architecture, developed and
administered by the Fieldbus Foundation.
It’s targeted for applications using basic and advanced regulatory control, and for much of
discrete control associated with those functions. Foundation fieldbus technology has been
widely used globally in the process industries.

PROFIBUS
PROFIBUS is an international fieldbus communications standard for
linking process control and plant automation modules. Instead of
running individual cables from a main controller to each sensor and
actuator, a single multi-drop cable is used to connect all devices, with
high speed, bi-directional, serial messaging used for transfers of information.
Profibus DP is used for discrete signals and has had extensive use in factory automation
applications. Profibus PA is used for analog process control signals and has gained
widespread use in the process control industry. Both protocols may be connected together
using a coupling device. Similar to foundation fieldbus, Profibus networks use a distributed
system of measurement and control devices connected to a plant control highway.

WirelessHART™
WirelessHART™ is an open-standard wireless networking
technology developed to complement the existing HART
standard. The protocol was defined specifically for the requirements of process field device
networks and utilizes a time synchronized, self-organizing, and self-healing mesh
architecture This protocol currently operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM Band using IEEE 802.15.4
standard radios. It is backward compatible with existing HART systems and configuration
tools allowing for easy adoption with minimal training.

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