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Radioactive decay follows first order kinetics. This means that the rate of decay is
proportional only to the amount of unstable isotope present. We can write:
where y = the number of atoms of the unstable isotope at time t. As we saw in class, we
can solve this differential equation and get
y = y0ekt.
The decay constant k (“relative rate of decay”) depends on the particular isotope and
nothing else.
In the lab, you will be looking at the radioactive isotope 137mBa. It is produced in a
container called an isogenerator, or “nuclear cow”, by the decay of 137 Cs. The decay
process looks like
137Cs → Ba + β137 → Ba
137m ־ + γ
The cesium decays to metastable barium with the emission of a beta particle β(־an
electron). The half-life for that reaction is about 30 years. The metastable barium has a
short half-life; it loses excess energy as low-energy gamma radiation (γ) to form
stable 137Ba.
Both types of barium, stable and unstable, are produced inside the cow from the decaying
cesium. They are separated from the cesium and flushed out by “milking the cow”—that
is, by passing a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid and NaCl through the cow. Barium
reacts with the acid to form soluble barium chloride and the solution is drained out. The
cesium does not react, being held by an ion-exchange medium inside the cow.
You will be using a Geiger counter, located next to a small beaker with the barium
solution, to measure the “activity rate” R (number of clicks in each time interval). Each
γ from a decaying nucleus picked up by the Geiger counter produces a click—
representing the decay of one barium nucleus. So the number of clicks we record/minute
has something to do with the number of nuclei that have decayed/minute.
To be more specific,
If we let R(t) denote the activity rate of the Geiger counter (clicks/min), then we have
You will collect and plot your data about the activity rate R(t) and see how well it fits
such a model. You’ll use the model to estimate the relative decay rate and half-life for
137mBa .
Materials
Note: the radioactive material we’ll be working with is harmless. The acid solution
is very dilute and not a danger. However, common sense indicates that you should
be careful; please wear gloves and goggles when working with these materials.
Procedure
“Milking the cow.” Both partners should put on goggles and rubber gloves before
drawing acid from the bottle.
• Take the top and bottom plastic covers off of the cow and set them on a
piece of paper toweling.
• Position the cow on top of your beaker so the outlet port is in the middle
of the beaker.
• Withdraw about 1 ml. (no more ) of dilute hydrochloric acid from the
bottle, using the plastic syringe.
• Place the tip of the syringe into the top part of the cow and slowly inject
the solution into the cow. Some solution may overflow the top. If so, try to
inject a little slower. If quite a bit of solution overflows, pull it up into the
syringe and re-inject it.
This can be a bit tricky. When putting through the 1 ml. of HCl, it tends to
back up and overflow, even when you go slowly. Suck up the overflow at
least once and put it through again, then blow in 1 ml. of air. Even so,
you might get a sample with a low initial count.
• When the syringe is empty, remove it from the port, take in about 1 ml. of
air and blow this through the cow.
• When the liquid has drained through, put the stoppers in the cow, wipe up
any spills, and return the cow immediately to the designated storage space
—away from the Geiger counter.
The other partner should now place the beaker directly in front of the Geiger
counter window, as close to the window as you can, and click Collect. The
beaker should not be moved at all during data collection. (The amount of
radiation the counter picks up decreases with the square of the distance to
the beaker.) You need to collect data for 25 minutes.
While the milker is putting the cow away, the other partner should keep an
eye on the data. Answer Lab Report, 1. If the initial count is less than 150,
or the curve starts to look flat before about 10 minutes have passed, then you
will have to repeat the experiment.
(Possible sources of the problem: The beaker may have been too far away
from the counter, or not enough solution was passed through the cow.)
If you have to repeat the experiment, the same cow should not be milked
again for 30 min.
While you are waiting for the data to collect, do Lab Report, 2.
Print the graph and the table of data. (Be sure the printed table is complete.) Turn off
the counter and dispose of the solution as instructed by the lab coordinator.
For Lab Report, 4, calculate the average value of the random background radiation.
On the graph of Radiation vs. Time, you should see that after 15 minutes or so,
the data points seem to be scattered about a horizontal line. Those data points
reflect the (random) background radiation counts.
• With the graph window active, click at Time = 20 minutes and drag over to
Time = 25 minutes. The table window should show the last fifth of the data as
selected.
• Click on the Statistics button (or use the toolbar Analyze, Statistics). A
floating box will appear with the average (mean) Radiation count for the time
period (20, 25). This is the number you will use for the level of background
radiation.
We want to look at whether our data fits the model in the opening discussion—according
to which we should be able to describe the activity rate R (counts vs. time) with an
exponential model R = Aekt + B ( k < 0 ).
During the early minutes of the data collection, most of the “counts” registered are from
the barium decay rather than background radiation—that is, B is a relatively small part of
R. Therefore for these times, we’d expect a curve like R = Aekt to fit our early data fairly
well.
Therefore, we’ll plot the logarithm of our R data vs. time and see what it looks like.
• From the Window menu, select New Wide Window -> Graph. A new
graph window will appear beneath the original graph window.
• Use View, Graph Options, The title of the graph will be highlighted in
the Graph Options window that appears. Type in the new title “Natural
Log of Radiation vs. Time”, then click Apply.
• Click on the Axis Options tab.
• Deselect the variable Radiation in the y-axis section.
• The graph should now be empty, with the new title.
• Select New Column -> Formula from the Data menu. The New
Column window will appear.
• Enter the following information in the Options section:
Long Name: ln(radiation)
Short Name: ln(rad)
Units: #
• Click on the Definition tab. Enter ln(“Radiation”) in the
Equation field (You can select ln() from the Functions list and select
Radiation from the variables list.) Click Try New Column, then click
OK.
• Look at the graph of ln(Radiation). You probably need to rescale
to see what’s happened: use View, Autoscale (with the ln(radiation)
graph window active). (The last part of the graph on the right may look
a little ragged; that’s because as time passes, the background radiation
is represented more and more in the counts, so that the model R = Aekt
becomes less plausible.)
Fit a regression line to the ln(radiation) data over the first 15 minutes.
Use an exponential curve to model the original radiation data over the first 15 minutes.
Using the data table (not the parameters from the exponential models), make a reasonable
estimate of the half-life of 137Ba. Lab Report, 8a
The “mean square error” (MSE) reported for each of the models is a measure of how well
the model actually fits the actual data: smaller MSE indicates a better fit. (For each time
value t in our table of data, we can imagine substituting t into the exponential equation
and getting a “predicted” value of R. We could then compute, for each t value, the
squared error: (actual R value – predicted R value)2 . The MSE is roughly the average
of the squared errors. The precise definition has a slight twist that is discussed in
statistics courses.)
Using the estimated relative decay rate, k, from the better of your two exponential
models, make a calculation of the half-life of 137Ba. Lab Report 8b