FLOOD CAUSES DUE TO SOME GEOLOGICAL

ASPECTS: A CASE STUDY IN KOTA BHARU,

KELANTAN, MALAYSIA.

NOR ASHIKIN BINTI SHAARI

MASTER OF SCIENCE

2016
Flood Causes Due to Some Geological Aspect: A case
study in Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia.

by

Nor Ashikin Binti Shaari

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science (Geoscience)

Faculty of Earth Science

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN

2016
 THESIS DECLARATION

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. All praise and
thanks to Allah, lord of the universe and all that exists. Prayers and peace be upon His
prophet Muhammad, the last messenger for all human kind.

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to ALLAH.
My special thanks also I dedicated to my supervisor Dr Mohamad Muqtada Ali Khan
for his supervision and also to Mr Arham Muchtar Achmad Bahar as my co supervisor
for his supervision and advice. Not to forget laboratory staff of Universiti Malaysia
Kelantan who has been assisting me all this while during all the fieldwork and
laboratory test. I also want to give my thanks to all the staff in Department of Survey
and Mapping (JUPEM), Department of Drainage and Irrigation (DID), Agency of
Remote Sensing (MACRES), Department of Mineral and Geoscience (JMG) and all
the other related agencies which has supplies all the data and information in enhancing
my research.

Special thanks also I want to dedicate to both of my parents En Shaari Bin

Semail and Pn Che Rahmah Bt Mahmood and also my family for their support and
patience towards me all this while.

Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to all the staff in UMK and also to my
friends Madihan, Marlia, NurAin, Amirah, Razanah and Mardhiah for supporting me
all this time and being with me in my hardness time.
Thank for all the people which I mention above for all you courage and
support. Only Allah can repay your kindness. Thank you very much.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

THESIS DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

ABSTRAK x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the research 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Objectives 4

1.4 Significant of study 4

1.5 Hypothesis 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Flood Definition 6

2.2 Causes of Flood Due to Geological Changes 8

2.2.1 Infiltration rate of the ground soil 10

2.2.2 Sediment in the river 12

2.2.3 Geomorphology of the river banks 15

2.3 Impact of Flood 17

2.4 Flood Mitigation 20

2.4.1 GIS in Natural Hazard Management 24

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 Description of the study area 29

3.2.1 Location 29

3.2.2 Topography 31

3.2.3 Population 34

3.2.4 Land Use 35

3.2.4 Geology 35

3.3 Early preparation 37

3.4 Primary Sources 37

3.5 Secondary sources 37

3.6 Method use in the research 40

3.7 Flood Causes 41

3.7.1 Geomorphological changes of the river banks. 41

3.7.2 Infiltration rate of ground soil. 45

(a) Particle Size Distribution Test 45

(b) Double Ring Infiltrometer Test 51
3.7.3 Physical Water Quality 56
(a) Turbidity 59
(b) Total Suspended Solid (TSS) 59

3.8 Flood Hazard Mapping 60

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Causes of Flood due to Geological Changes 62

4.1.1 Infiltration rate of ground soil. 64

4.1.2 Sediment in the river 76

4.1.3 Geomorphological changes of the river banks. 88

4.2 Production of Flood Hazard Map 97

4.2.1 Introduction 97

4.2.2 Flood Hazard mapping 99

4.2.3 Flood Hazard area 100

4.2.4 Flood Hazard map 101

4.3 Summary 103

CHAPTER 5 SYNTHESIS OF DATA & RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary of the thesis 105

5.2 Findings of the study 107

5.3 Limitation of the study 108

5.4 Recommendation 108

REFERENCES 110

APPENDIX A 117

APPENDIX B 119

APPENDIX C 124
 LIST OF TABLES

NO. PAGE

2.1 Steady infiltration rates for different soil types (Hillel, 2004). 12

3.1 Secondary data used in the research. 39

3.2 Details of the satellite image used for this analysis 42

3.3 Temperature and time for sample to settle down with the depth of 20cm. 48

3.4 Specified time and depth for C sampling. 49

3.5 Permeability Indication ratio 55

4.1 Soil clasification for study area 65

4.2 Results of Infiltration analysis 67

4.3 Results of Turbidity & TSS concentration of before rain 77

4.4 Results of Turbidity & TSS concentration of After rain. 78

4.5 Data calculation for obtaining TSS “before rain” and “after rain”. 82

4.6 Correlation between TSS (mg/L) “before rain” and “after rain”. 83

4.7 Correlation between TSS (mg/L) and Turbidity (NTU) “before rain”. 85

4.8 Correlation between TSS (mg/L) and Turbidity (NTU) “after rain”. 86

4.9 Difference in length (meter) for 20 sets of cross section along

Sungai Kelantan from Kemubu to Kuala Besar for year 2004,
2011 and 2012. 90

4.10 The difference in length of the cross section between the year
2004, 2011 and 2012. 95

4.11 Flood hazard area. 100

 LIST OF FIGURES

NO. PAGE

1.1 GIS Data on historical flood map 3

2.1 Ilustration of a few factors influencing sedimentation 14

2.2 The geomorphology of Kelantan Delta 17

2.3 The amount of damage by state 19

2.4 The damage of flood in Malaysia 19

2.5 Flood control strategy to overcome the flood problem in Malaysia 21

2.6 The framework of NADDI 23

2.7 The colaboration of NADDI (Mahmood, 2004) 24

3.1 Flow chart of methodology 28

3.2 Location map of the research area 30

3.3 Topography map of study area. 32

3.4 Major rivers in Kelantan (DID, 2005). 33

3.5 Population of people in Kota Bharu. 34

3.6 Geological map of the study area. 36

3.7 Method use in the research. 40

3.8 Stages of method for the process of analyzing the satellite images. 43

3.9 Soil Texture Classification. 46

3.10 Location Map of Infiltration test using double ring infiltrometer. 52

3.11 Set up of the double ring infiltrometer (Diamond and Shanley, 2003) 54

3.12 Field Infiltration test using double ring infiltrometer. 54

3.13 Sampling location map for Turbidity and TSS analysis 58

3.14 The flow chart of the methodology used to produce the flood risk map. 61

4.1 Rainfall data from rainfall station in Jeti Kastam, Kota Bharu 63

4.2 Soil clasification triangle for study area 66

4.3 (a) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L1 68

(b) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L2. 68

(c) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L3. 69

(d) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L4. 69

(e) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L5. 70

(f) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L6. 70

(g) Infiltration curve of Infiltration rate (mm/hr) vs time (min) for L7. 71

4.4 Infiltration map of the study area. 73

4.5 Lag time diagram. 75

4.6 Turbidity and TSS “before rain”. 79

4.7 Turbidity and TSS “after rain”. 79

4.8 Graph Turbidity “before rain” and “after rain” samples. 80

4.9 Graph TSS concentration “before rain” and “after rain” samples 81

4.10 Correlation graph between TSS (mg/L) “before rain” and “after rain”. 84

4.11 Correlation between TSS (mg/L) and Turbidity (NTU) “before rain”. 85

4.12 Correlation between TSS (mg/L) and Turbidity (NTU) “after rain”. 87

4.13 Process of subset the image in pre-processing 89

4.14 Twenty cross section along Kelantan River from Kemubu to Kuala Besar 91

4.15 Kelantan River changes for the year 2004, 2011 and 2012. 92
4.16 Closer image to all the cross section (a) Cross section No.16
(b) Cross section No.17 (c) Cross section No.19 94

4.17 Flood hazard map in Kota Bharu 102

Punca Banjir dan Faktor-faktor Geologi yang Mempengaruhinya: Kajian kes di
Kota Bharu, Kelantan.

ABSTRAK

Banjir adalah satu fenomena semula jadi yang berlaku apabila aliran besar air yang
mengalir ke sungai, melimpah tebing sungai dan membanjiri kawasan berhampiran.
Banjir di kawasan kajian, disebabkan oleh hujan lebat yang dibawa oleh angin
Monsun Timur Laut dan dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor seperti kejuruteraan dan
struktur sistem saliran dan perancangan bandar. Selain daripada itu, faktor-faktor
geologi juga turut menyumbang kepada banjir dan beberapa aspek turut dikaji seperti
sedimen di dalam sungai, geomorfologi tebing sungai dan penyusupan kadar air dalam
tanah. Dalam usaha untuk mengurangkan kesan kemusnahan akibat banjir, kaedah
untuk meningkatkan lagi keberkesanan dalam proses pemindahan semasa banjir perlu
diwujudkan dan keutamaan perlu diberikan kepada kawasan yang berisiko tinggi.
Tetapi sehingga kini, belum ada lagi model pemindahan mangsa banjir yang spesifik
dan tersusun. Oleh itu, objektif kajian adalah untuk mengkaji punca banjir dari aspek
hidrologi dan geologi dan untuk menghasilkan peta risiko banjir. Dua parameter telah
digunakan untuk mengkaji sedimen sungai iaitu kekeruhan dan jumlah pepejal
terampai. Perisian Envi, ERDAS dan ArcGIS telah digunakan untuk menganalisis
imej satelit untuk analisis geomorfologi sungai. Analisis taburan saiz zarah dan ujian
dua gelung besi telah digunakan untuk menentukan kebolehtelapan tanah di kawasan
kajian. Hasilnya, keputusan sampel kekeruhan selepas banjir meningkat enam kali
lebih tinggi daripada sebelum banjir manakala keputusan sampel jumlah pepejal
terampai selepas banjir meningkat 1.5 kali lebih tinggi berbanding sebelum banjir.
Analisis geomorfologi tebing Sungai Kelantan menunjukkan proses geomorfologi
berlaku secara meluas dan merubah corak sungai manakala analisis penyusupan tanah
tanah menunjukkan bahawa 70% daripada kawasan itu dikategorikan sebagai
kebolehtelapan rendah hingga sederhana dan 15% daripada kawasan kajian
mempunyai kebolehtelapan yang tinggi dan 5% lagi mempunyai kebolehtelapan yang
sangat tinggi. Sebuah peta risiko banjir telah dihasilkan dengan menggunakan ArcGIS
versi 10 di mana 217,41 km2 kawasan kajian dikategorikan sebagai kawasan berisiko
rendah, 137,22 km2 adalah kawasan yang berisiko sederhana, dan 47,14 km2
dikategorikan sebagai kawasan berisiko tinggi. Daripada kajian ini, satu langkah
pencegahan dan pemulihan yang berkesan perlu dirancang untuk mengurangkan risiko
banjir dan juga untuk mengurangkan kerugian kepada rakyat di kawasan kajian dan
meningkatkan taraf hidup mereka.
 Flood Causes Due to Some Geological Aspects: A case Study in Kota Bharu,
Kelantan.

ABSTRACT

Floods are a natural phenomenon that occur when a great flow of water into
the river overflows the river banks and floods the nearby land. Floods in the study area
were mainly caused by heavy rainfall brought by the Northeast Monsoon, and were
also affected by several factors such as the engineering and structure of the drainage
system also town planning management. Geological factors also contribute to
flooding, and aspects studied in this research were sediment in the river,
geomorphology of the river banks and the infiltration rate of the ground soil. In order
to reduce the risk of flooding, a method to enhance the efficiency of the process for
evacuation during the flood event needs to be created and priority must be focused on
high risk areas. But until now, a specific evacuation model was not available. Hence,
the research objectives were to determine the causes of flooding from hydrological
and geological aspects and to produce a flood hazard map. The two parameters used to
study the sediment in the river were turbidity and total suspended solid. Software
Envi, Erdas and ArcGIS were used for river geomorphology analysis of satellite
images. Particle size distribution analysis and double ring field test were used to
determine the permeability of the study area. As a result, turbidity results after flood
increased six times compared to before flood while total suspended solid results after
flood increased 1.5 times compared to before flood. Analysis of the geomorphology of
the Kelantan River banks shows geomorphological processes have extensively
occurred and modified the river pattern, while infiltration analysis of ground soil
shows that 70% of the area was categorized as low permeability, 15% as moderate to
high permeability and 5% as very high permeability. A flood hazard map was
produced by using ArcGIS version 10 where 217.41 km2 of the study area was
categorized as low hazard, 137.22 km2 as medium hazard, and 47.14 km2 as high
hazard. This study shows that effective mitigation measures should be planned in
order to reduce the risk of flooding, which will also reduce the loss to people living in
the study area and enhance their standard of living.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the research

Streams are the source of water for consumption, agriculture and also for

industrial uses. High volumes of water flowing in streams often leads to flooding,

which is one of the more common and costly types of natural disaster in the world.

A flood results when a stream runs out of its confines and submerges the

surrounding areas (Nelson, 2011).

A flood is a simple natural phenomenon that occurs in the hydrological

cycle. It may be defined as a great flow of water, considered to be a usually high

stage of the river at which a stream channel becomes filled and above which it

overflows its banks and floods the nearby land (Gupta, 1979).

Flood hazard in Kelantan occurs every year during the monsoon season.

Malaysia receives the highest amount of rainfall during the transition period of the

monsoon season. The two monsoon seasons are the Northeast monsoon from

December to March and the Southeast monsoon from June to September.

 The most intense rainfall usually occurs in the months of April, October

and November every year (DID, 2005). Flooding due to heavy rainfall not only

causes damage to properties but also loss of life and serious trauma to the victims.

Several major floods have been experienced in the last few decades. For

example, in 1886, a severe flood occurred and caused extensive damage (DID,

2005). The flood in 1926 badly affected most of Peninsular Malaysia, including

Kelantan, resulting in extensive damage to property, road systems, agriculture land

and crops. In 1967 disastrous floods surged across the Kelantan, Terengganu and

Perak river basins taking 55 lives (DID, 2005).

From the data given by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID,

2005), from 1983 to 2004 there were several major flooding events. The flooding

in1988 resulted in the evacuation of a record number of people.

Major floods in Kelantan were recorded using a GIS database in year 1981,

1988, 1991, 1992, 1993 and 1994 by MACRES in 2004 (Figure 1.1). The data

shows that the most recent flood in 1994 occurred in the floodplain area of the

river. Flooding occurs when the river loses its ability to contain the water and the

water overflows the river bed inundating the low lying areas and adversely

affecting the human settlements.

 Figure 1.1: GIS Data on historical flood map (Mahmood, 2004).

1.2 Problem Statement

Flooding in Kota Bharu has occurred for a very long period of time and it’s

become worse due to geological aspects which are causing widespread destruction

of life and property. Hence, more specific research is needed to measure the effect

of geological factors on flooding in Kota Bharu and Kelantan as a whole.

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of the study are given as following:-

1.3.1 To determine the causes flooding from hydrological and geological

aspects

1.3.2 To produce a flood hazard map.

1.4 Significance of the study

This study will contribute to the knowledge of the causes of flooding from

geological aspects.

The flood hazard map produced during this research will help the

government through DID, to reduce the risks associated with floods by issuing

early warnings to the people in the flood prone area.

The study will be useful in developing a better understanding of flood

conditions in the area, which in turn would be useful for the development of

agriculture and would help raise the living standard of the inhabitants in the area.

1.5 Hypothesis

Flooding in the study area has occurred for a long period of time and causes

damage to people and properties. Factors which cause flooding in the study area
include human intervention and natural factors. One of the natural factors which

affects flood condition in the study area are geological factors such as

geomorphological changes of the river banks, sediment deposited at the main river

and the infiltration rate of the ground soil. The geomorphology of the Kelantan

River has changed due to continuous erosion which leads to high amount of

sediment being deposited at the river banks. This affects flood conditions as it

reduces the area for the high amount of water from upstream to flow to the sea,

resulting in the water overflowing the river banks and causing flooding.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Flood Definition

The terms ‘flood’ and ‘flooding’ are often used in different ways. Flood is

a temporary condition of surface water (river, lake, sea) in which the water level

and/or discharge exceed a certain value, thereby escaping their normal confines.

Flooding is defined as the overflowing or failing of the normal confines of a river,

stream, lake, canal, sea or accumulation of water as a result of heavy precipitation

where drains are lacking or their discharge capacity is exceeded (Schultz, 2001).

Gupta (1979) stated that flood is a simple natural phenomenon occurring in the

hydrological cycle. A flood may be defined as great flow of water, considered to

be a usually high stage of the river at which a stream channel becomes filled and

above which it overflows its banks and floods the near-by land.

River flood hazards results from a water level that overtop the natural or

artificial banks of a river and threatens human life and properties. For a

hydrologist, flood magnitude is best expressed in terms of instantaneous peak river

flow (discharge) while the hazard potential will relate more to the maximum height

(stage) that the water reaches.

 From a geological perspective, floods are natural consequence of stream

flows in a continually changing environment. Floods have been occurring

throughout the Earth’s history and are expected so long as the water cycle

continuous to run. Flood condition can worsen year by year due to the human

intervention to the Earth surface (Nelson, 2011).

Flooding is a natural and recurring event for a river or stream. Statistically,

streams will equal or exceed the mean annual flood once every 2.33 years.

Flooding is a result of heavy or continuous rainfall exceeding the absorptive

capacity of soil and flow capacity of rivers, streams and coastal area. This causes

a watercourse to overflow its banks onto adjacent land (Leopold et al., 1964;

Florsheim and Davis, 2005).

Flooding can be defined as a body of water that flows out of the river, lake

or drainage system caused by heavy rains, melting ice, tides and obstacles in the

channel. There is no specific category for flooding in Malaysia but floods are often

categorized as seasonal or tidal flooding. In addition, flooding is also described

based on the location, characteristics, cause, time and duration of its occurrence

(DID, 2013).
2.2 Causes of flood due to geological changes.

Ngai (1997) suggest that flood risk in Malaysia, which has increased

alarmingly in recent decades largely due to changing physical characteristics of the

hydrological caused by human activities: continued development of already

densely populated flood plains, encroachment on flood prone areas and destruction

of forest and hill slope development. Smith and Petley (2009) suggest that the

primary causes of floods mainly result from widespread climatological forces and

secondary flood intensifying condition that are more drainage basin specific. It is

also possible to relate the physical causes of floods to other environmental hazards.

Ngai & Dennis (1996) suggest that rapidly industrializing, developing countries

face increasing environmental disaster potential. Rising disaster losses are an

indicator of non-sustainable development. Analysis of flood hazard in

peninsular Malaysia exemplifies these problems. Malaysia has a rapidly-growing

economy and evidence suggests that the increasing flood hazard is largely because

of rapid urbanization and development revealed by analysis trends in five ‘flood-

hazard factor’, variable which explain flood disaster potential. Leong (2007)

suggested that river discharge at any point is made up of direct runoff and

subsurface runoff which comprises interflow and groundwater flow. Direct runoff

contributes more to flood flows because it produces a large concentration in a

shorter period compared to subsurface runoff.

 In Malaysia, two main causes of flooding are natural causes and human

activity. Flooding caused by natural factors is due to the high intensity of rainfall

in a short period of time causing flash floods. Heavy rain also caused flooding

stagnant in certain places which will cause flooding. Human activity also plays an

important role in causing flooding, for example disposal of solid waste into the

river, sediment from land clearing and construction and the increase in impervious

areas and obstacles in rivers (DID, 2013).

Floods in Malaysia are caused by a combination of both natural and human

factors. Malaysians are historical river dwellers as early settlements grew on the

banks of the major rivers in the peninsula. Coupled with natural factors such as

heavy monsoon rainfall, intense convection rain storms, poor drainage and other

local factors, floods have become a common feature in the lives of a significant

number of Malaysians. Monsoon rains have a profound influence on many aspects

of the lives of the people in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Chan, 1995).

The role of precipitation, coastal flooding and dam and levee failure are the

major causes of flooding. Weather patterns determine the amount and location of

rain and snowfall. Unfortunately, the amount of precipitation and the time over

which it occurs are not constant for any given area. Sometimes, the amount of

water flowing to a certain area is greater than the capacity of the system to hold it

within natural confines, resulting in flood.

 Areas along coastlines become subject to flooding as a result of tsunamis,

hurricanes (cyclonic storms), and unusually high tides. All types of dam (natural

and human constructed) may fail as the sudden release of water into the

downstream drainage (Nelson, 2011).

2.2.1 Infiltration Rate of Ground Soil

Infiltration is the process of water entering the soil. The rate of infiltration

is the maximum velocity at which water enters the soil surface. When the soil is in

good condition, it has a stable structure and continuous pores to the surface. This

allows water from rainfall to enter unimpeded throughout a rainfall event. A low

rate of infiltration is often produced by surface seals resulting from weakened

structure and clogged or discontinuos pores. Soils that have reduced infiltration

have an increase in the overall amount of runoff water.This excess water can

contribute to local and regional flooding of streams and rivers or result in

accelerated soil erosion of field or streambanks. A number of factors impact soil

infiltration, such as texture, crust on the soil surface, compaction, aggregation and

structure, water content, frozen surface, organic matter and pores. (USDA, 1998).
 The transition from surface to groundwater takes place through infiltration.

Infiltration is a key loss parameter and often minimum infiltration values

determined by the Soil Conservation Services are used in modelling situations.

However, many methods are available to describe infiltration. Brakensiek and

Rawls (1989) classified 23 different methods as empirical, approximate or

physical. Most methods are derivatives of Richards’ Equation, which combines

Darcy’s Law for vertical unsaturated flow with the conservation of mass

(Dingman, 1994).

Each infiltration model has specific strengths and weaknesses depending

on its application to different situations such as constant vs. variable rainfall, data

availability and rainfall intensity.

Infiltration is the term applied to the process of water entry into the soil,

generally by downward flow through all or part of the soil surface. The rate of this

process, relative to the rate of water supply, determines how much water will enter

the the root zone and how much it will run off (Table 2.1).

Hence, the rate of infiltration affects not only the water economy of

terestrial plants but also the amount of overland flow and its attendant dangers of

soil erosion and stream flooding (Hillel, 2004).

 Table 2.1: Steady infiltration rates for different soil types (Hillel, 2004).

Soil types Steady infiltration rate (mm/h)

Sands >20
Sandy and silty soils 10-20
Loams 5-10
Clayey soils 1-5
Sodic clayey soils <1

2.2.2 Sediment in the river

Sedimentation is a process of accumulation of sediment in the river

resulting from the process of erosion at the land area. Sedimentation of river beds

and deforestation of water catchments areas can exacerbate conditions leading to

river valley floods. The process of sedimentation is mainly caused by factor such

as erosion at the river banks. The erosion is controlled by two categories, human

activities and natural factors. Human activities that leads to soil erosion include

poor land use, construction, reclamation, and also urbanization. Natural factors that

affect soil erosion include meteorology, topography, geology, composition of the

Earth’s surface and vegetation cover (Hudson, 1987).

Soil erosion involves the process of detachment, transport, and deposition

of soil particles by water. One of the major force of soil erosion such as water

flowing over the land surface.