INDUCTION (ASYNCHRONOUS) MACHINES

Introduction
§ The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used machine
in industry.
§ The induction machine has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and
separated from the stator by an air gap.
§ However, in the induction machine both stator winding and rotor winding
carry alternating current.
§ The alternating current (ac) is supplied to the stator winding machine.
§ The induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator.
§ However, it is seldom used as a generator supplying electrical power to a
load.
§ The performance characteristics as a generator are not satisfactory for most
applications.
§ The induction machine is extensively used as a motor in many applications.
§ Of all the ac motors the poly-phase induction motor is the one which is
extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.

§ It has the following main advantages and also some disadvantages.

1
 Advantages
9 It has very simple and extremely
rugged, almost unbreakable
Disadvantage
construction (especially squirrel a Its speed cannot be varied
cage type). without sacrificing some
9 Its cost is low and it is very of its efficiency.
reliable. a Just like a dc shunt motor,
9 It has sufficiently high efficiency. its speed decreases with
In normal running condition, no increase in load.
brushes are needed, hence a Its starting torque is
frictional losses are reduced. somewhat inferior to that
9 It has a reasonably good power of a dc shunt motor.
factor.
9 It requires minimum of
maintenance.
9 It starts up from rest and needs
no extra starting motor and has
not to be synchronized.
9 Its starting arrangement is
simple especially – for squirrel-
cage type motor.
2
The induction motor is used in various sizes:
‰ Large three-phase induction motors (in tens or hundreds of
horsepower) are used in pumps, fans, compressors, paper mills, textile
mills and so forth.
‰ Small single-phase induction motors (in fractional horsepower rating)
are used in many household appliances, such as blenders, lawn
mowers, juice mixers, washing machines, refrigerators, and stereo
turntables.
‰ Two-phase induction motors are used primarily as servomotors in a
control system.
‰ The linear version of the induction machine has been developed
primarily for use in transportation systems.

The induction machine is undoubtedly a very useful electrical

machine.

 Three-phase induction motors are the most important ones and are
most widely used in industry.
 In this chapter the constructional futures, principle operation,
characteristic futures, and steady- state performance of the three-
phase induction machine are studied in detail.

3
 Constructional Features
An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts:
a) the stator and
b) the rotor
Stator
‰ The stator is composed of laminations of high-grade sheet steel and is built up of
sheet steel lamination of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness.
‰ Laminations are insulated from each other by means of varnish coating or oxide.
‰ A three-phase winding is put in slots punched out on the inner surface of the
stator frame.
‰ It is made up of a number of stampings which are slotted to receive the windings.
‰ The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply.
‰ It is wound for a definite number of poles, the number of poles being determined
by the requirements of speed.
‰ Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa.
‰ The stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents , produce a magnetic
flux which is of constant magnitude but which revolves ( or rotates) at
120. f
synchronous speed (given by N s = ).
P

‰ This revolving magnetic flux induces an emf in the rotor by mutual induction.

4
 Stator and rotor laminations
Stator iron core
Stator Slots

Air-gap

Rotor Slots Rotor iron core

5
Rotor
‰ The rotor also consists of laminated
ferromagnetic material, with slots punched out
on the outer surface.
‰ The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a
result thicker laminations can be used without
excessive iron losses.
‰ Two types of rotor construction is normally used
for three phase induction motor.
• Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this
type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage
induction motors.
• Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors
employing this type of rotor are variously
known as phase-wound motors or wound
motors or slip-ring motors.
6
 Squirrel-cage rotor
‰ Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this
type ‘rotor' has the simplest and most rugged construction and is almost
indestructible.
‰ The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for
carrying the rotor conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires
but consist of heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys.
‰ One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are inserted from the end
when semi-closed slots are used.
‰ The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or bolted to two heavy and
stout short circuiting end-rings.
‰ Without the rotor core, the rotor bars and end-rings look like the cage of a
squirrel, hence the name squirrel cage induction motor.
‰ It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on
themselves, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in series
with the rotor circuit for starting purposes.
‰ The rotor slots are usually not quit parallel to the shaft but are purposely
give a slight skew. This is useful in two ways :
¾ it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
¾ it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the
rotor teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction
between the two.
‰ In small motors, another method of construction is used.
¾ It consists of placing the entire rotor core in a mould and casting all the bars and
end-rings in one piece. The metal commonly used is an aluminum alloy.
7
 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM

Fan (ventilator)
Terminal box

Ball-
Bearings bearings
shield Bearings
shields
Ventilator
Ball
shield
bearings rotor core
stator core
frame
shaft basement

8
 Cage type rotor
Skewed
rotor slots

Actual Squirrel cage Rotor

Rotor cage Schematic 9

Diagram
 Phase –Wound Rotor
‰ This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding
consisting of coils as used in alternators.
‰ The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is
always wound 3-phase even when the stator is wound two-phase.
‰ The three phase are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are
brought out and connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft
with brushes resting on them.
‰ These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star-
connected rheostat.
‰ This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor
circuit during the starting period
¾ for increasing the starting torque
¾ for decreasing starting current and
¾ for changing its speed-torque characteristic.
‰ When running under normal condition , the slip-rings are automatically short-
circuited by means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and
connect all the rings together.
‰ Next, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce the
frictional losses and the wear and tear.
‰ Hence , it is seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is
short –circuited on itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.
10
Cut-away view of wound-rotor IM
stator core
rotor core
enclosure with windings
Bearings
Bearings shield
shield Ball
Ball bearings
bearings shaft

Terminal box

basement
Slip rings

11
Phase-wound/slip-ring rotor

12
 Phase wound rotor
Induction motor
3-phase
supply

stator

Slip-rings

rotor

Starting
Rheostat

13
Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with
the wound rotor machine
9 No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor
terminals for starting rheostats are required. The star delta
starter is sufficient for staring.
9 It has slightly higher efficiency.
9 It is cheaper and rugged in construction.
9 It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang
and consequently a smaller copper loss.
9 It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the
cooling conditions are better.
9 It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better
power factor and greater pull out torque and overload
capacity.
‰ The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is
not possible to insert resistance in the rotor circuit for the
purpose of increasing the starting torque.
‰ The cage rotor motor has a smaller starting torque and larger
starting current as compared with wound rotor motor.
14
 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD
‰ It will now be shown that when three-phase
windings displaced in space by 1200 are fed
by three-phase current displaced in time by
1200 they produce a resultant magnetic flux
which rotated in space as if actual magnetic
poles were being rotated mechanically. Φ
Φm

‰ Let a 3-phase , two-pole stator having three

identical winding placed 120 space degrees
apart and the flux ( assumed sinusoidal)
due to three-phase windings as shown in
Fig.1a. θ

‰ The assumed positive directions of the

fluxes are shown Fig. 1b.
ΦB
‰ Let the maximum value of flux due to any
one of the three phases to be φm .
120°
ΦA
‰ The resultant flux φr, at any instant, is given 120°
by the vector sum of the individual fluxes 120°
φA, φB and φC due to three phases.
ΦC
‰ Let us consider values of φr at four instants
1/6 time-period apart corresponding to 15
points marked 0,1,2 and 3 in fig1a.
 Proving
i) When θ = 00 i.e. corresponding to point 0 in Φ
Φm
fig.1a.
Here,
θ

φA = 0 ; φB = −
3
φm ; φC =
3
φm
2 2
• The vector for φB in fig (i) is drawn in a − ΦB ΦC
direction opposite to the direction
assumed positive in fig.1b.
i) θ = 0°

3 60 0 3 3
φr = 2× φmCos = 3 × φm = φm
2 2 2 2 − ΦB ΦC

Φr = 1.5Φ m
i) θ = 0° 16
ii) When θ = 600 i.e. corresponding to point 1 in Φ
fig1a. Φm

Here,

φC = 0
θ
3 3
φA = φm ; φB = − φm ;
2 2 ΦA

3 3 3
φr =2× φm Cos30 = 3× φm = φm
° − ΦB
2 2 2
ΦA
3
It is found that the resultant flux is again φm
2
but has rotated clockwise through an angle of 600. − ΦB

Φr = 1.5Φm
17
ii) θ = 60°
 iii) When θ =1200 i.e. corresponding to point 2 Φ
in fig1a. Φm

Here,

3 3 θ

φA = φm ; φB = 0 ; φC = − φm
2
2
− ΦC
3 3 3
φr =2× φm Cos30 = 3× φm = φm
°

2 2 2 ΦA
Φr = 1.5Φm

3 iii) θ = 120°
It can be again proved that r 2φm
φ = .So, the resultant flux is again of the
same value but has further rotated clockwise through an angle of 600
[Fig2c].
18
iv) When θ =1800 i.e. corresponding to point 3 Φ
in fig1a. Φm

Here,

3 3
φA = 0 ; φB = φm ; φC = − φm
2 Φr = 1.5Φm
2

3 3 3
φr =2× φm Cos30 = 3× φm = φm
° ΦC ΦB
2 2 2

3 iv) θ = 180°
φ
The resultant is r = φm and has rotated
2
clockwise through an additional angle of 600
or through an angle of 1800 from the start.
19
 Conclusion
ΦB

1. The resultant flux is of constant

3 120°
value = φm i.e. 1.5 times the ΦA
2 120°
maximum value of the flux due to 120°
any phase.
2. The resultant flux rotates around the ΦC
stator at synchronous speed given
by 120. f
Ns = ΦA ΦB ΦC
P
3. Fig. 2 shows the graph of the rotating
Φm
flux in simple way. As before the
positive directions of the flux phasors
have been shown separately in Fig. 2
below part. Arrows on these flux
phasors are reversed when each phase
passes through zero and becomes
negative.
4. As seen , positions of the resultant flux
phasor have been shown at intervals of
600 only. The resultant flux produces a
field rotating in the clockwise direction. 0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°
20
 Principle Operation
‰ When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a
magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed
, is set up.
‰ The flux pass through the air gap sweeps past the rotor surface and so
cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet stationery. Fig.(a)
‰ Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to Faraday’s laws
of electro-magnetic induction. (Fig.b)
‰ The frequency of the induced emf is the same as the supply frequency.
‰ Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed between the flux and
the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule.
‰ Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current
is produced direction, as given by Lenz’s law is such as to oppose the
very cause producing it.
‰ In this case, the cause which produce the rotor current is relative speed
between the rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor
conductors.
‰ Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same
direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch up with the rotating flux.
21
 The setting up of the torque for rotating the rotor
‰ In fig (a) is shown the stator field which is
assumed to be rotting clockwise.

‰ The relative motion of the rotor with

respect to the stator is anticlockwise (fig
b1).

‰ By applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, the

direction of the induced e.m.f. in the rotor
is found to be outwards.

‰ Hence the direction of the flux due to the

rotor current alone is as shown in fig b2.

‰ Now by applying the left-hand rule or by

the effect of combined field (fig. c) it is
clear the rotor conductors experience a
force tending to rotate them in clockwise
direction.

‰ Hence , the rotor set into rotation in the

same direction as the of the stator flux ( or
field). 22
 SLIP
‰ In practice the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field.
‰ If it really did so, then there would be no relative speed between the
two hence no rotor emf, no rotor current and so no torque to maintain
rotation.
‰ That is why the rotor runs at a speed , which is always less than the
speed of the stator field.
‰ The difference in speeds depends upon the load on the motor .
‰ The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual
speed N of the rotor is known as slip.
‰ Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second , yet it is
usual to express it as a percentage of the synchronous speed .
‰ Actually, the term 'slip' is descriptive of the way in which the rotor
'slips back' from synchronism.
Ns − N
S% = X 100
Ns
‰ Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed
‰ Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is

N = N s (1 − S ) 23
 Frequency of rotor current
‰ When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current
is the same as the supply frequency.
‰ But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency
depends upon the relative speed or on slip-speed.
‰ Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be f2 .
Then,
120 f 2
Ns − N =
p
120f1
Also N S =
p
‰ Dividing one by the other, we get

f2 N s − N
= =S
f1 Ns

∴ f 2 = sf1 24
‰ As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of 2 1
f = sf
and when flowing
through the individual phases of rotor winding give rise to rotor magnetic
fields.
‰ These individual rotor magnetic fields produce a combined rotating
magnetic field whose speed relative to rotor is
120 × f 2 120 × sf1
= = = sN s
P P
‰ However, the rotor itself is running at speed N with respect to space.
Hence,
speed of rotor field in space = speed of field to rotor + speed of rotor relative to space

= SN s + N = SN s + N s − SN s = N s
‰ It means that no matter what the value of slip, rotor currents and stator
currents each produce a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field of
constant magnitude and constant space speed of Ns.
‰ In other words, both the rotor and stator field rotate synchronously which
means that they are stationary with respect to each other.
‰ These two synchronously rotating magnetic fields in fact , superimpose
on each other and given rise to the actually existing rotating field which
corresponds to the magnetizing current of the stator winding.
25
 EUQIVALENT CIRCUIT OF INDUCTION MOTOR
‰ Developing an equivalent circuit model is useful
to study and predict the performance
characteristics of the induction machine with
reasonable accuracy.
‰ In this section a steady-state per-phase equivalent
circuit will be derived.
‰ For convenience, consider a three-phase wound-
rotor induction machine as shown in fig 1.
‰ If currents flow in both stator and rotor windings,
rotating magnetic fields will be produced in the air
gap. Fig.1 3-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model

‰ Because they rotate at the same speed in the air

gap, they will produce a resultant air gap field
rotating at the synchronous speed.
‰ This resultant air gap field will induce voltages in
both stator windings (at supply frequency f1) and
rotor windings (at slip frequency f2).
‰ It appears that the equivalent circuit may assume
a form identical to that of a transformer. 26
 STATOR WINDING
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

‰ The stator winding can be represented as shown in Fig. 2a

Fig.2a

Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage

R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the stator winding
Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance
27
 Stator winding equivalent circuit of IM
Vs
primary winding equivalent circuit of Transformer
‰ There is no difference in form between this equivalent
circuit and that of the transformer primary winding.
‰ The difference lies only in the magnitude of the
parameters.
For example
‰ The excitation current Io is considerably large in the
induction machine because of the air gap.
9 In induction machines it is as high as 30 to 70 % of the rated
current, depending on the motor size
9 where as it is only 2 to 6 % in transformers .
‰ The leakage reactance X1 is large because of the air gap
and also because the stator and rotor windings are
distributed along the periphery of the air gap rather than
concentrated on a core , as in the transformer. 28
 ROTOR WINDING
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
‰ The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in fig
2b. SX2
where
E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill I2
SE2 R2
(i.e. at stator frequency f1)
R2 = per–phase rotor circuit resistance
X2 = per–phase rotor leakage reactance at standstill
‰ Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. Fig.2b
‰ The rotor current I2 is

sE2
I2 = (1)
R 2 + jsX 2

‰ The power involved in the circuit is

P2 = I 2 R 2
2 (2)

Which represents the rotor copper loss per phase 29

‰ Equation (1) can be rewritten as

E2
I2 = (3) 2
(R 2 /s) + jX 2

‰ Equation (3) suggests the rotor equivalent circuit of

R2
fig.2c. 2 S
‰ Although the magnitude and phase angle of I2 are the
same in Eqs.1and 3, there is a significant difference
between these two equations and the circuits (figs2b
& 2c) they represent. Fig.2c
‰ The current I2 in Eq.1 is at slip frequency f2, where as
I2 in Equation (3) is at line frequency f1.
sE2
‰ In Eq.1 the rotor leakage reactance SX2 varies with I2 = (1)
speed but resistance R2 remains fixed, whereas in eq.3 R 2 + jsX 2
the resistance R2/s varies with speed but the leakage
reactance X2 remains unaltered.
‰ The per-phase power associated with the equivalent
circuit of Fig.2c
R 2 P2 (4)
P = I2 =
2

S S
30
‰ Because induction machines are
operated at low slips (typical values of
slip s are 0.01 to 0.05).
‰ The power associated with Fig 2c is
considerably larger .
‰ Note that the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2c
is at the stator frequency , and therefore
R2
this is the rotor equivalent circuit as seen (1 − S )
S
from the stator.
‰ The power in Eq.4 therefore represents
the power that crosses the air gap and
thus includes the rotor copper loss as Fig.2d
well as the mechanical power developed.
‰ Equation (4) can be rewritten as.
⎡ R ⎤
P = Pag = I 2 2 ⎢ R2 + 2 ( 1 − s ⎥
⎣ S ⎦ (5)
R
= I 22 2
S
‰ The corresponding equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig2d. 31
‰ The speed dependent resistance R2 represents the mechanical power
(1 − S )
developed by the induction machine. S
R2
P mech = I 22 ( 1− S)
s
= ( 1 − S ) P ag
1− S
= . P2
and S
P2 = I 22 R 2 = SP ag
Thus

P ag : P 2 :P mech = 1 : S : 1 − S

‰ This equation indicates that, of the total power input to the rotor (ie., power crossing
the air gap, Pag),
9 a fraction S is dissipated in the resistance of the rotor circuit (known as rotor copper
loss) and
9 the fraction 1-S is converted into mechanical power.
‰ Therefore, for efficient operation , the induction machine should operate at a low
slip so that more of the air gap power is converted into mechanical power.
9 Part of the mechanical power will be lost to overcome the windage and friction.
9 The remainder of the mechanical power will be available as out put shaft power.
32
 COMPLETE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
‰ The stator equivalent circuit,
Fig.2a and the rotor
I2
equivalent circuit of Fig.2c or I 2' =
a
X 2' = a 2 X 2

2d are at the same line

frequency f1 and therefore
can be joined together. E2' = aE2 = E1 R2' a 2 R2
=
‰ However,E1 and E2 may be S S

different if the turns in the

stator wining and the rotor
winding are different.⎛
N K ⎞
⎜⎜ a = 1
⎟
w1

‰ If the turns ratio ⎝ N K ⎟⎠ is

2 w2
Fig.2e
considered, the equivalent
circuit of the induction
machine is that shown in
Fig.2e.
‰ Note that the form of the
equivalent circuit is identical
to that of a two-winding
transformer, as expected.
33
 VARIOUS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

‰ The equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2e is not

convenient to use for predicting the performance of
the induction machine .
‰ As a result, several simplified versions have been
proposed in various textbooks on electric machines.
‰ There is no general agreement on how to treat the
shunt branch( i.e., Rc and Xm), particularly the
resistance RC representing the core loss in the
machine .
‰ Some of the commonly used versions of the
equivalent circuit are discussed here.

34
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
‰ If the voltage drop across R1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V1
does not appreciably differ from the induced voltage E1, the magnetizing
branch (i.e. Rc and Xm), can be moved to the machine terminals as shown in
Fig.3a. I
I 2' = 2
X 2' = a 2 X 2
a

E2' = aE2 = E1 ' '

RR a 2 R2
=
2 2

SS S

Fig.3a

‰ This approximation of the equivalent circuit will considerably simplify

computation, because the excitation current (Io) and the load component
(I'2) of the machine current can be directly computed from the terminal
voltage V1 by dividing it by the corresponding impedance.
35
‰ Note that if the induction machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage
and frequency the stator core loss is fixed.
‰ At no load, the machine will operate close to synchronous speed. Therefore,
the rotor frequency f2 is very small and hence rotor core loss is very small.
‰ At a lower speed f2 increases and so does the rotor core loss. The total core
losses thus increase as the speed falls.
‰ On the other hand, at no load, frication and windage losses are maximum and
as speed falls these losses decreases.
‰ Therefore, if a machine operates from a constant voltage and constant-
frequency source, the sum of core losses and friction and windage losses
remains essentially constant at all operating speeds.
‰ These losses can thus be lumped together and termed the constant rotational
losses of the induction machine.
‰ If the core loss is lumped with the windage and frication loss Rc can be
removed from the equivalent circuit, as shown in fig.3b.

R2'
S

Fig.3b 36
 IEEE RECOMMENDED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
‰ In the induction machine , because
of its air gap, the exciting current Io
is high of the order of 30 to 70
percent of the full-load current.
‰ The leakage Reactance X1 is also
high .
'

‰ The IEEE recommends that in such I '

2
X 2

situation, the magnetizing reactance

Xm not be moved to the machine
terminals (as is done in fig. 3b), but
'
R
2

be retained at its appropriate place , S

as shown in fig. 4.
‰ The resistance RC is however,
omitted, and the core loss is lumped
with the windage and friction
losses. Fig.4
‰ This equivalent circuit (Fig.4) is to
be preferred for situation in which
the induced voltage E1 differs
appreciably from the terminal 37
voltage V1.
 THEVENIN'S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
‰ In order to simplify computations
V1, R1, X1 and Xm can be replaced
by Thevenin's equivalent circuit
values Vth, Rth and Xth , as shown Rth Xth X2
in Fig.5,
Where, Xm
V = ⋅V
[R + ( X + X ) ]
th 1 1
2 2 2 R2
Vth
1 1 m S

‰ If R12 <<(X1+Xm)2, as is usually the

case
X
V ≈ V m

X +X Pag
th 1
1 m
Fig.5
V =K Vth th 1
Where
X
K = m

X +X
th
1 m

38
‰ The Thevenin impedance is
jX ( R + jX )
Z = m 1 1

R + j( X + X )
th
1 1 m

= R + jX
th th
Rth Xth X2

‰ If R12 <<(X1+Xm)2 Vth

R2
S

2
⎛ X ⎞
R ≈ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ R m

⎝X +X ⎠
th 1
1 m Pag

= K R 2
th 1

‰ and since X1 << Xm

Xth ≈ X1

39
 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
‰ The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section
can be used to predict the performance characteristics of
the induction machine.
‰ The important performance characteristics in the steady
state are:
9 the efficiency
9 power factor
9 current
9 starting torque
9 maximum (or pull-out) torque and
9 so forth.

40
‰ The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is
given by
R2
Pmech = Tmech . ω mech = I 2 2 . (1 − S) (1)
S

Where 2π N
ω =
60
mech

‰ The mechanical speed ωmech is related to the synchronous

speed by
ω mech
= (1 − S )ω syn

N
= 2π (1 − S )
s (2)
60
and
120 f
ω = × 2π (3)
P.60
syn

41
‰ From equations (1) and (3)
2
I R
T .ω =
mech
=p syn
2 2
ag (4)
S
1
T = .P (5)
mech
ω syn
ag

1 R
=
2
.I . 2

ω syn
S
2 (5a)

1 R
=
2
2
I (6)
ω syn
2
S
‰ From Thevenin equivalent circuit and Equation (6)
2
1 V R
T = . th
. 2
mech
ω syn (R +
R 2
) + (X + X ) S
2 2
(7)
42
th
S th 2
‰ Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits
(fig3b) are used to determine I2 in Eq.7 Vth, Rth and
Xth should be replaced by V1, R1 and X1. respectively.
The prediction of performance based on the
approximate equivalent circuit may differ by 5
percent from those based on the equivalent circuit of
fig.4 or fig.5.
‰ For a three-phase machine Eq.7 should be multiplied
by three to obtain the total torque developed by the
machine.
2
3 V R
Tφ = . th
. 2
3 ,mech
ω syn (R + R 2
) + (X + X ) S
2 2
th
S th 2

43
 Torque–speed characteristics
‰ Using eq.(7) the torque speed characteristics of IM can be
derived.
2
1 V R
T = . . th 2
mech
ω syn(R + R ) + (X + X )
2
2 S 2

S
th th 2

‰ At low values of slip

R '2
( R th + ) >> ( X th + X '2 )
S
and '
R 2
>> R th
S
and thus 1 V2th (8)
Tmech ≈ . .S
ω syn R'2
‰ Hence, the torque-speed relationship is linear at low value of
44
slip.
‰At larger values of slip,
'
R
R th + << X
2
th + X '
2
S
and

1 V th R '2
T mech ≈ . . 9
ω syn ( X th + X '2 ) 2
S

‰Hence, the torque varies almost inversely

with slip near S=1

45
 T

At large value of slip

( T∝1/S) At low value of slips
( T∝S)

Tmax

TST
N
0 NS
1 0 S

Fig.6 Torque-speed characteristics

46
Stable Operation Region of IM

n
ati o
r

Sta
pe
o

b
le

le o
a b
s t

per
un
ue

a
r q

tion
To
um )
xim (T ma
x
Ma

47
‰ Equation (7) also indicates that at a particular speed (i.e. a fixed
value of s) the torque varies as the square of the supply voltage
Vth (hence V1).
T∝V 1
2

Fig.7 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages

‰ This aspect will be discussed further in a later section on speed
control of induction machines by changing the stator voltage.
48
 Maximum Torque
‰ An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting
dT mech
= 0
dS
‰ Differentiating Eq.(7) with respect to slip s and equating the
result to zero gives the following condition for maximum torque.
R '2
= [R th + (Xth + X2 ) ]
1
2 ' 2 2
10
ST max
‰ This expression can be also be derived from the fact that the
condition for maximum torque corresponds to the condition for
maximum air gap power (Eq.5).
‰ This occurs, by the familiar impedance-matching principle in
circuit theory, when the impedance of R'2/S equals in magnitude
the impedance between it and the supply voltage V1(Fig.5) as
shown in Eq.(10). 49
‰ The slip STmax at maximum torque Tmax is

R'2
STmax = 11
[R 2
th + (Xth + X ) ]
' 2
2
1
2

‰ The maximum torque per phase from Eqs. (7) and (11) is
2
1 Vth
Tmax = . 12
2ω syn R th + [ R 2th + ( X th + X '2 ) 2 ]
1
2

‰ Equation 12 shows that the maximum torque developed by

the induction machine is independent of the rotor circuit
resistance.
‰ However, from Eq. (11) it is evident that the value of the rotor
resistance R2 determines the speed at which this maximum
torque will occur.
50
‰ The torque-speed characteristics for various values of R2 are shown
in fig.8.

Tst4=Tmax

Tst3
Tst2
Tst1 R2 increasing

Fig.8 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R2

‰ In a wound–rotor induction motor, external resistance is added to the
rotor circuit to make the maximum torque occur at standstill so that
high starting torque can be obtained.
‰ As the motor speeds up, the external resistance is gradually
decreased and finally taken out completely.
‰ Some induction motors are, in fact, designed so that maximum
torque is available at start, that is, at zero speed ( Tst4). 51
‰ If the stator resistance R1 is small (hence Rth is negligibly
small), from Eqs. (11) and (12).
R '2
S T max ≈ 13
X th + X '2
2
1 Vth
Tmax ≈ ⋅ 14
2ω syn Xth + X'2
‰ Equation 14 indicates that the maximum torque developed by
induction machine is inversely proportional to the sum of the
leakage reactances.
‰ From Eq.(7),the ratio of the maximum torque developed to the
torque developed at any speed is
2
⎛ R '2 ⎞
⎜ R th + ⎟ + (X th + X ' 2
2
)
T max S S
= ⎝ ⎠
2 ⋅ 15
T ⎛ R '
⎞ S T max
⎜ R th + 2 ⎟ + (X th + X 2 ) ' 2
⎜ ST ⎟
⎝ max ⎠ 52
‰ If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,
2
⎛ R '2 ⎞
⎟ + (X th + X 2 )
2
⎜
'

T max S S
= ⎝ ⎠ ⋅
T ⎛ R '2 ⎞
2
S T max 16
⎜ ⎟ + (X th + X 2 )
' 2

⎜ S ⎟
⎝ T max ⎠
‰ From Eqs. (13) and (16)
2
⎛ R '2 ⎞
2
⎛ R '2 ⎞
+ ⎜⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎟
T max ⎝ S ⎠
⎝ ST ⎠ ⋅ S
= 2
max
17
T ⎛ R '2 ⎞ S T max
2 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ ST ⎠ 2
⎛ R '2 ⎞
max

‰ Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (17) by ⎜ ⎟

⎜S ⎟
⎡ ⎤ ⎝ T ⎠
2
T 1 ⎛ S T ⎞ S max
max
= ⎢ ⎜⎜ max
⎟⎟ + 1 ⎥
T 2 ⎣⎢ ⎝ S ⎠ ⎦⎥ S T max

1 ⎡ S 2
+ S 2
⎤ S
=
T max
⎢ 2 ⎥
2 ⎣ S ⎦ S T max

1 ⎡ S + S
2 2
⎤
=
T max
⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣ S ⋅ S T max ⎦
‰ Hence,
T S 2
+ S 2
max
= T max

18
T 2 S T max
S
‰ Equation (18) shows the relationship between torque at any speed and the maximum torque
53 in
terms of their slip values.
 STATOR CURRENT
‰ From IEEE recommended equivalent circuit, the input
impedance is ⎛ R 2' ⎞
Z 1 = R 1 + jX 1 + X m // ⎜ + jX '
2 ⎟
⎝ S ⎠
= R 1 + jX 1 + X m // Z 2'
⎛ R '2 ⎞
jX m ⎜⎜ + jX '
2 ⎟⎟
⎝ S ⎠
Z 1 = R 1 + jX 1 +
R '2
+ j( X m + X '
2 )
S
= Z 1 ∠ θ1

V1
‰ The stator current is I1= = I o + I 2'
Z1
‰ At synchronous speed (i.e., S=0), R2'/s is infinite and so I2' = 0.
The stator current I1 is the exciting current Io.
‰ At larger values of slip Z2'(=R2'/s +jX2' ) is low and therefore I2'(
and hence I1) is large .
‰ In fact, the typical starting current (i.e. at S=1) is five to eight
times the rated current. 54
‰ The typical stator current variation with speed is shown
in Fig 9.

Fig.9 Stator current as a function of speed

55
 INPUT POWER FACTOR
‰ The supply power factor is given by
PF = Cosθ1
where θ1 is the phase angle of the stator current I1.
‰ This phase angle θ1 is the same as the impedance angle of the
equivalent circuit of Fig.10.
‰ The typical power factor variation with speed is shown in fig.10.

Fig.10. Power factor as a function of speed 56

 EFFICIENCY
‰ In order to determine the efficiency of the induction machine as a power
converter, the various losses in the machine are first identified.
‰ These losses are illustrated in the power flow diagram of Fig9. For a 3φ machine
the power input to the stator is

Pin = 3 V1 I 1 cos θ 1
‰ The power loss in the stator windings is

1P = 3I R2
1 1
Where, R1 is the ac resistance (including skin effect) of each phase winding at
the operating temperature and frequency.
‰ Power is also lost as hysteresis and eddy current loss in the magnetic material
of the stator core.
‰ The remaining power, Pag , crosses the air gap. Part of it is lost in the resistance
of the rotor circuit.
P2 = 3 I 2 R
2
2
Where, R2 is the ac resistance of the rotor winding.
‰ If it is a wound-rotor machine, R2 also includes any external resistance
connected to the rotor circuit through slip rings.
57
‰ Power is also lost in the rotor core.
‰ Because the core losses are dependent on the frequency f2 of the
rotor, these may be negligible at normal operating speeds, where f2
very low.
‰ The remaining is converted into mechanical form.
‰ Part of this is lost as windage and friction losses, which are dependent
on speed.
‰ The rest is the mechanical output power Pout which is the useful power
output from the machine.
‰ The efficiency of the induction motor is
Pout
η = (1)
Pin
‰ The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected
except those in the resistance of the rotor circuit,
Pag = Pin
P2 = sPag
Pout = Pmech = Pag (1-S)
‰ and the ideal efficiency is
Pout
η (ideal)= =1− S (2)
Pin 58
‰ Sometimes η(ideal) is also called the
internal efficiency as it represents the
ratio of the power output to the air
gap power.
‰ The ideal efficiency as a function of
speed is shown in fig.12. η
‰ It indicates that an induction machine
must operate near its synchronous
speed if high efficiency is desired.
‰ This is why the slip is very low for
normal operation of the induction
machine.
‰ If other losses are included, the
actual efficiency is lower than the
ideal efficiency of Eq.2 as shown in Fig. 12 Efficiency as a
fig.12. function of speed

‰ The full-load efficiency of a large

induction motor may be as high as 95
percent.
59
 Power flow Diagram
Stator Rotor Friction and
Core loss Core loss Windage Loss

Pag
Pmech

Pin Pout
(PShaft)

Fig. 11 Power flow diagram

Stator Cu loss Rotor Cu loss 60
2 2
(3I R 1 )
1 (3I R 2 )
2
 Determination of Equivalent Circuit
Parameters
‰ The equivalent circuit parameters of poly phase
induction motors can be determined from
9 no load test,
9 blocked-rotor test and
9 stator winding dc resistance.
‰ The object of this article is to describe the methods of
determining the parameters from these tests.

61
 a) No-load test (or running light test).
‰ The induction motor is made to run at no load at rated
voltage and frequency.
‰ Per phase values of applied stator voltage Vnl, input
current Inl and input power Pnl are recorded.

A A1 W1

V
3-Phase
B A2 IM

C A3 W2

Fig. Circuit diagram for no-load and blocked-rotor Test

62
 Two-Wattmeters Method
‰Current through W1 is IA and P.D across voltage coil of W1 is
VAB = VA − VB

‰The phase difference between VAB and IA = 300+θ

W1 = VAB ⋅ I A ⋅ Cos (30° + θ)
∴
‰Current through W2 is IC and P.D across voltage coil of W2 is
VCB = VC − VB
‰The phase difference between VCB and IC = 300 − θ θ

∴ W2 = VCB ⋅ I C ⋅ Cos (30° − θ)

‰If a balanced three-phase load is connected
VAB = VBC = VCA = VL and IA = I B = IC = I L
‰Hence W1 = VL ⋅ I L ⋅ Cos (30° + θ)
W2 = VL ⋅ I L ⋅ Cos (30° − θ)
W1 + W2 = VL ⋅ I L ⋅ (Cos 30o ⋅ Cos θ − Sin 30o ⋅ Sin θ + Cos 30o ⋅ Cos θ + Sin 30o ⋅ Sin θ)
63
= VL ⋅ I L (2 Cos 30 ⋅ Cos θ) = 3 VL I L Cos θ
o
 r
‰ The no-load slip S is very small, therefore 2 in fig of IEEE
s
recommended equivalent circuit, is very large as compared to Xm.
‰ In view of this, the resultant of parallel branches jXm and ⎛⎜ r2 + jx 2 ⎞⎟ is
almost equal to jXm as illustrated in fig 1. ⎝s ⎠

R1 X1

INL

Xm
VNL

Fig.1 Induction motor equivalent circuits for no-load test

‰ Thus the no-load reactance Xnl seen from the stator terminals is equal
to x1 + Xm, i.e.
Xnl = x1 + Xm = X1 (1)

Where, X1 is the stator self-reactance.

64
‰From the instrument readings at no load, stator
no-load impedance: V
Z n1 = n1
I n1
‰and stator no-load resistance:
Pn1
R n1 = 2
I n1

‰Hence, X n1 = Z nl − R n1
2 2

‰The rotational losses Prot (friction, windage loss

and core loss) are usually assumed constant and
can be obtained from the relation.
PRot = m( Pnl − I 2nl r1 )
Where m is the number of stator phases and r1 is the per
phase stator resistance
‰Thus the no-load test gives Xn1 and the rotational
losses PRot.
65
 b) Blocked-rotor test
‰ Blocked-rotor test, similar to the short-circuit test on a
transformer, is performed on the induction motor to
calculate its leakage impedance.
‰ For performing this test, the rotor shaft is blocked by
external means, i.e. the rotor shaft is held stationary by
belt-pulley arrangement or by hand.
‰ Now balanced poly phase voltages at rated frequency are R2
applied to the stator terminals through a poly phase variac.
‰ This applied voltage is adjusted till rated current flows in
the stator winding.
‰ Per phase values of applied voltage Vbr; input current Fig.2 Induction motor equivalent circuits
(=rated current) Ibr and the input power Pbr are recorded. for blocked-rotor test

‰ Current Ibr may be affected by rotor position; in view of this

the rotor should be held in a position that gives Ibr equal to
the mean of maximum and minimum current value.
‰ Measure the dc resistance per phase of the stator winding
soon after this test and multiply it by 1.1 to 1.3 in order to
obtain the per phase effective stator resistance r1.
66
‰ From the instrument readings during blocked-rotor test,
the parameters can be obtained as under:
žThe blocked-rotor impedance
V br
Z br =
I br
and the blocked-rotor resistance
Pbr
R br =
2
I br
∴ Blocked-rotor reactance

Xbr = Zbr2 − Rbr2

67
 An examination of fig.2 reveals that the blocked-rotor
impedance seen from the stator terminals is given by
jXm( r2 + jx2 )
Zbr = Rbr + jXbr = r1 + jx1 +
r2 + j(x2 +Xm)

jXm [r2 + jr2x2 − jr2 (x2 + Xm ) + x2 (x2 + Xm ]

2

= r1 + jx1 +
r2 + (x2 + Xm )2
2

or
jXm [r2 + x2X2 − jr2Xm ]
2

Rbr + jXbr =r1 + jx1 + (2)

r2 + X2
2 2

Where X2 = x2 +Xm, is the rotor self-reactance 68

 Comparison of the imaginary components of both sides of Eq.
(2) gives X m [ r22 + x 2 X 2 ]
X br = x 1 +
r 22 + X22
⎡ r22 ⎤
Xm ⎢ + x2 ⎥
⎣ X2 ⎦
= x1 +
r22
+ X2
X2
r22
 Since X 2 >> r2 ,therefore X 2 may be neglected. With this
X x X m x2
X br = x1 + m 2 = x1 +
X2 X m + x2
x2
= x1 +
x
1+ 2
Xm
 Usually, Xm>>x2 ,therefore x 2 is negligible small and this
gives Xm

Xbr = x1 +x2 (3)

69
‰ There is no practical method of separating x1 and x2 . For
wound rotor machines x1 is assumed equal to x2
i.e. x1 = x2= ½Xbr
‰ For squirrel cage induction machines, total leakage
reactance Xbr (=x1+ x2) can be distributed between stator
and rotor as per the following table:
Empirical distribution of leakage reactance Xbr
Class of motor Fraction of Xbr

X1 X2

1.Class A (normal Tst , high Ist and low slip) 0.5 0.5
2.Class B (normal Tst, low Ist and low slip) 0.4 0.6
3.Class C (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.3 0.7
4.Class D (high Tst , low Ist and high slip) 0.5 0.5

70
‰ Once x1 is known, then from Eq.(1), the stator magnetizing
reactance is given by
Xm= Xnl –x1

‰ Now taking the real components of both sides of Eq.(2), blocked-

rotor resistance Rbr as seen from the stator terminals is
Xm2
Rbr = r1 + r2
r22 + X 22

‰ For machines of normal design, X2>> r2 therefore, r2 in the

denominator can be neglected as compared to X2
2
⎛X ⎞
Rbr = r1 + r2 ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟
⎝ X2 ⎠
∴Per phase rotor resistance
2
⎛ X2 ⎞ (4)
r2 = (R br − r1 )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Xm ⎠ 71
‰ Thus Xm from Eq. (1) r2 from Eq. (4), r1 form d.c.
resistance per phase of stator winding and x1, x2 from Eq.
(3) and Table 1 can be determined from three tests.
‰ The equivalent circuit can now be used for computing the
motor performance.
 Note: For large motors (above 20KW or so), if induction
motor characteristics are required near s =1 (e.g. for
starting torque etc.); then since rotor frequency f2 is
equal to the line frequency, the blocked- rotor test should
be carried out at line frequency and with currents equal
to those encountered at the time of starting.
 In case induction motor characteristics are required near
synchronous speed (e.g. during normal operation), then
rotor frequency is equal to sf, therefore , the blocked-
rotor test should be carried out at reduced frequency
and with normal currents.

72
 Separation of friction and windage loss
from the no-load test
ž The power input to the induction motor at no-load has to
supply
ž the stator copper loss,
ž core loss and
ž friction and windage loss.
ž The dc resistance of the stator winding is measured and its per
phase effective value r1 is calculated from the relation
r1 = (1.1 to 1.3) (dc resistance per phase)
ž For computing the friction and windage loss, the applied
voltage to the unloaded induction motor is varied from 1.25
times the rated voltage to about 20% of the rated voltage.
ž The input power, current and voltage are recorded so that a
graph can be plotted.
ž The speed, with reduction in voltage, will fall only slightly so
that the friction and windage loss remains substantially
constant 73
ž From each of the input-power readings, the corresponding stator ohmic
loss is subtracted to obtain the core loss and friction and windage loss,
i.e.
Prot = m ( Pnl − I nl r1 )
2

Where, Pnl - is the per phase power input,

Inl - is the per phase stator current and
r1 - is the effective per phase stator resistance.
ž The plot of the rotational loss Prot with variable stator voltage is shown in
fig below.

ž The intercept of the extraplotted Prot curve with the ordinate gives the
friction and windage loss, because the core loss is zero for zero applied
voltage.
ž In order to get a motor accurate value of mechanical loss (friction and
windage loss), rotational loss Prot should be plotted against (Voltage)2.
ž This plot of Prot with (voltage)2 is almost linear and, therefore, the
extrapolation is easier. 74
 Prot Vs V

Prot

Core loss at
rated voltage (Pc)

Friction & windage

loss (Pf&w)
V
Vrated
75
 Prot Vs V 2

Prot

Core loss at
rated voltage (Pc)

Friction & windage

loss (Pf&w)
V2
Vrated
76
Modes of Operation of a 3-phase
Induction Machines

77
 Modes of Operation of a 3-phase
Induction Machines
‰ The three phase induction machine has the following
three modes or operating regions of operations
depending upon the values of slips:
a) Motoring Mode : 1> S >0
‰ Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction
of rotating field produced by the stator currents.
‰ As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at
synchronous speed, i.e. 1 > S > 0.
‰ The corresponding speed values are zero (S=1) and
synchronous speed (S=0).
78
b) Generating Mode: S < 0
‰ For this operating modes, slip is negative, i.e. S<0.
‰ An induction motor will operate in this region only
when its stator terminals are connected to
constant-frequency voltage source and its rotor is
driven above synchronous speed by prime mover.
‰ The connection of stator terminals to voltage
source is essential in order to establish the
rotating air gap field at synchronous speed.
‰ In case stator is disconnected from voltage source
and rotor is driven above synchronous speed by
the prime mover, no generating action takes place.

79
c) Braking Mode: S > 1
‰ For this mode, slip is greater than 1.
‰ A slip more than one can be obtained by driving the
rotor , with a prime mover, opposite to the direction of
rotating field.
‰ But such a use in practice is rare. A practical utility of
slip more than 1 is obtained by bringing the rotor to a
quick stop by braking action, called plugging.
‰ For obtaining S>1, or for obtaining plugging, any two
stator terminal leads are interchanged.
‰ With this the phase sequence is reversed and, therefore,
the direction of rotating magnetic field becomes
suddenly opposite to that of the rotor rotation.
‰ The electromagnetic torque T, now acting opposite to
rotor rotation, produces the braking action.
‰ Thus the motor can be quickly brought to rest by
plugging, but the stator must be disconnected from the
supply before the rotor can start rotate in the other
direction. 80
 Torque-Speed characteristics for 3-
modes of operation of IM
‰ All the three regions of operation (braking, S=2 to S=1; motor
region, S=1 to S=0 and generator region, S=0 to S=-1) are
illustrated in figure below.
BRAKING MOTOR GENERATOR
REGION REGION REGION

Tmax

-NS 0 NS 2NS
-Tmax

S=2 S=1 S=0 S=-1 81

 INDUCTION MOTOR PHASOR DIAGRAM
‰ At standstill, E2 is shown equal to I2 (r2 +
jx2). The core-loss component of stator
current, i.e. Ic is in phase with Vl' or - E1.
‰ At standstill, friction and windage loss is
zero.
‰ The stator no-load current is I 0 = I m + I c and
the stator load current is I1 = I '2 + I o . θ1
‰ The stator applied voltage Vl must balance
the stator counter emf Vl' (= - E1) and the φ
stator leakage impedance drop I1 (rl +jxl) θ2
as shown in Figure (a).
‰ The power factor angle θ1 (between V1
and Il) at the stator terminals is very high,
i.e. stator power factor is very poor at the
time of starting a 3-phase induction
motor. a) At standstill 82
‰At normal operating speed, slip s is small. The rotor V1 jI x
voltage equation now becomes, sE2 = I2 (r2 + jsx2)
11
I1r1
and this is illustrated in the phasor diagram of V’1=-E1 I1
Figure (b). I’2

‰In this Figure, I 0 = I m + I fc , where Ifc, is the θ1

friction, windage and core-loss component of stator
current. I0
φ
‰The rest of the phasor diagram is drawn in the same
manner as illustrated in Figure (a).
θ2
‰Figure (b) reveals that full load power factor at the
sE2=I2Z2
stator terminals has considerably improved (0.8 to I2

0.9 lagging) from its power factor at starting. jSI2x2

E1

b) At full-load slip s
83
SPEED CONTROL OF
INDUCTION MOTORS

84
 SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS
‰ The synchronous speed Ns of an ac motor is related to supply frequency
f and poles P by the equation.
120 f
Ns =
p
‰ As regards induction motor, the rotor speed is given by
N = (1 − s ) N s
Where S is the slip
‰ It is found from the above two equations that the basic methods of
speed control of an induction motor are:
a) by changing the number of poles and
b) by varying the line (input) frequency.
‰ By the above two methods, the synchronous speed of an induction
motor can only be changed. These methods are applicable only to cage
induction motors
‰ The slip can be changed by the following methods.
c) by varying the input voltage
d) by varying the rotor resistance
‰ The methods (c-d) are applicable to slip-ring (wound rotor) induction
motors, whereas only the method (c) can be applied to machines with
85
cage rotor.
 a) by changing the number of poles
(Pole changing method)
 In pole changing induction motors, the stator
winding of each phase is divided into two equal
groups of coils.
 These coil groups are connected in series and
parallel with the current direction being reversed
only in one group, to create two different numbers of
poles (even) in the ratio 2:1 respectively.
 When the connection is changed from series to
parallel or vice versa, the current in one group of
coils is also reversed at the same time.
 This technique, termed the consequent pole method,
is applied to all three windings (phases).
 This type of induction motor has always the squirrel
cage rotor, which can adapt to any number of stator
poles.
86
 Eight-Poles connection
 Fig. 1a shows schematically only four coils of one phase of the
windings connected in series, along with the direction of
current in them, producing eight poles in the stator.

S N S N S N S N S

1 1’ 2 2’ 3 3’ 4 4’

A’
A
Fig.1 (a) Eight pole (Series
87
 Four-Poles connection
 If the current in coils 2 and 4 is reversed and the connection is
changed to parallel with two coils (1 and 3, and 2 and 4)
connected in series for each path, four poles are formed in the
stator (fig. 1b).
 Note that the direction of current in coils 1 and 3 remains the
same. Only one type of connection is shown.

N S N S

1 1’ 2 2’ 3 3’ 4 4’

A A’ 88
Fig.1 (a) Four pole (Parallel)
 Normally, poles are changed in the ratio 2:1.
 This method provides two synchronous speeds.
 If two independent sets -of polyphase windings are
used, each arranged for pole changing, four
synchronous speeds can be obtained for the
induction motor.
 In many industrial application induction motor with
4/6/8/12 poles are used to provide
1500/1000/750/500 synchronous speeds
respectively.
 Squirrel-cage motors are invariably used in this
method because the rotor can operate with any
number of stator poles.
 It is obvious, however, that speed can be changed
only in discrete steps and that the elaborate stator
winding makes the motor expensive. 89
Fig.1 (a) Eight pole (Series)

Fig.1 (a) Four pole (Parallel) 90

 Constant torque and constant
horsepower operations
žThis type of pole changing in the stator
results in constant torque or constant
horsepower operations.
žFor constant torque operation, the change of
stator winding is made from series-star to
parallel- star,
žwhile for constant horsepower operation the
change is made from series-delta to parallel-
star.
žRegenerative braking takes place during
changeover from higher to lower speeds.

91
 Two-Speeds Motor Terminal Connections
L1 L2 L3

1U 1V 1W
1U 1V 1W

LEFT
OPEN 2U 2V 2W
2U 2V 2W

L1 L2 L3
LOW SPEED HIGH SPEED
2P- Poles P- Poles

92
 Constant torque operation :(Y/YY)
ž In any pole changing (P-pole/2P-pole) induction motor, there
are two equal parts as stated above.
ž The changeover for constant torque operation takes place as
shown in fig.2.

Fig.2a Series-Star (Y) Fig.2b Parallel-Star (YY)

93
♫ Let V – Line voltage
I – Maximum current that the winding can carry
♫ Then the power drawn from the supply is given by:-
1. For series-star (Y) connection ( Fig. 2a)
PY = 3 (VI cos φ Y )
2. For parallel-star connection ( fig. 2b)
PY Y = 2 3 (VI cos φ Y Y )
♫ It is assumed that the power factor remains unchanged and the motor losses
are negligible.
♫ With the changeover of stator winding from series star to parallel star, the
power drawn from the supply is doubled.
♫ Simultaneously, the speed is also doubled. So the motor torque remains
constant.
♫ Constant torque operation is more common.

Ns
2
94
Fig.2c Torque-speed characteristics for constant torque operation
 Constant horsepower operation: (∆/YY)
♫ The power drawn from the supply is given by:
1. For series-delta ( ∆) connection (Fig.3a)
P∆ = 3 (VICosφ ∆ )
2. For parallel-star connection (Fig. 3b)

PY Y = 2 3 (VI CosφYY ) =3.46 (VI CosφYY )

♫ After changeover from series-delta to parallel-star, the power increases slightly
(about 15%), if power factor is assumed to remain constant.
♫ The constant horsepower connection is the most expensive, because in this
case the motor size becomes the largest.

Ns
2

95
Fig.3c Torque-speed characteristics for constant power operation
b) by varying the line (input) frequency)
♫ A variable frequency supply is connected as the key factor in speed
control of induction motors.
Constant Volt/Hz operation
♫ The emf per phase of an induction motor is given by
E = 4.44 Φ m f Tph K w
♫ The induced emf E is nearly equal to the applied voltage V (neglecting
drop in stator impedance). Then, we can write
V
f
= 4.44 Φ m Tph K w (V Hz )
♫ When the frequency is reduced, the applied voltage also must be
reduced proportionally so as to maintain constant flux, otherwise the
core will get saturated resulting in excessive iron losses and
magnetizing current.
♫ The maximum torque also remains constant under this condition.
♫ However, the voltage is not varied proportionally in the lower frequency
range to account for the voltage drop in the winding resistance.
♫ This type of control (constant V/f) is used for speed control below base
frequency (line frequency of 50Hz).
96
♫ As the voltage increase above rated value, when the input frequency goes
above base frequency, only constant (rated) voltage with variable frequency
(frequency control) is used for speed control.
♫ Under this condition, both flux and maximum torque decrease as the frequency
is increased.
♫ Advantages of constant volt/Hz operations are the following:
1. Smooth speed control,
2. Small input current and improved power factor at low frequency start, and
3. Higher starting torque for low cage resistance

Fig.4 Torque-speed characteristics of an IM with variable-voltage, variable –frequency control

♫ The torque-speed characteristic of the load is superimposed on the motor

torque-speed characteristic.
♫ Note that the operating speeds N1…N7 are close to corresponding synchronous
speeds.
97
♫ In this method of speed control, therefore, the operating slip is low and the
efficiency is high.
Maximum Torque
♫ Neglecting the stator winding resistance, the maximum torque is
3V 2
Tmax ≈
2ωsyn (X1 + X '2 )
♫ So, the maximum torque remains constant as stated earlier for constant volt/Hz
ratio for frequencies below base frequency, except for very low values of
frequency (Fig.4).
♫ This is taken as constant torque control with constant flux or volt/Hz ratio.
♫ For input frequency above base frequency, only constant (input) voltage with
variable frequency is applied as stated earlier. In this case the maximum torque
changes to
2
3 ⎛V⎞
T max = ⎜ ⎟
2 ω syn (X 1 + X '2 ) ⎝ α ⎠
where supply frequency
α=
base frequency

♫ With α >1 as frequency is higher than base frequency, both maximum torque and flux, as
given by volt/Hz ratio, decrease as frequency increases (as shown in fig.4).

♫ This is taken as constant power control with variable flux.

98
 c) by varying the line voltage
♫ Recall that the torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to
the square of the terminal voltage.
♫ A set of torque-speed characteristics with various terminal voltages is
shown in fig.5 T

1 Fan Load
TL = N 2
1
Fig.5 Torque-speed characteristics with various
terminal voltages
N1 N2 N3
N
♫ Note that for this method of speed control the slip increase at lower
speeds, making the operation inefficient.
♫ However, for fans, or, similar centrifugal loads in which torque varies
approximately as the square of the speed, the power decreases
significantly with decrease in speed.
♫ Therefore, although the power lost in the rotor circuit (=sPag) may be a
significant -portion of the air gap power, the air gap power itself is small
and therefore the rotor will not overheat.
♫ The voltage controller circuits are simple and, although inefficient, are
99
suitable for fan, pump, and similar centrifugal drives.
 TL = N 2

N1 N2 N3

100
 d) by varying the rotor resistance
♫ The speed of a wound-rotor induction machine can be controlled by
connecting external resistance in the rotor circuit through slip-rings.
♫ The torque- speed characteristics for four external resistance are
shown in fig.6.
♫ The load torque-speed characteristic is also shown by dashed line.
♫ By varying the external resistance 0 < Rex < Rex4, the speed of the load
can be controlled in the range of N1 < N < N5 . Note that by proper
adjustment of the external resistance (Rex=Rex2), maximum starting can
be obtained for the load.
3φ

Induction
motor

Rex

101
Fig.6 The torque- speed characteristics for four external resistances
 The major disadvantage of the rotor resistance control
method is that the efficiency is low at reduced speed
because of higher slips.
 However, this control method is often employed because
of its simplicity.
 In applica-tion where low-speed operation is only a small
proportion of the work, low efficiency is acceptable.
 A typical application of the rotor, resistance control
method is the hoist drive of a shop crane.
 This method also can be used in fan or pump drives,
where speed variation over a small range near the top
speed is required.

102
 Three-Speeds Motor Terminal Connections
(750/1000/1500)
Show the connection diagram of 3-speed Induction motor for speed of 750/1000/1500

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

1U 1V 1w 1U 1V 1w 1U 1V 1w

2U 2V 2w 2U 2V 2w 2U 2V 2w

3U 3V 3w 3U 3V 3w 3U 3V 3w

LOW SPEED MEDIUM SPEED HIGH SPEED

103
 STARTING OF IM
‰ Most induction motors large and small are rugged enough that
they could be started across the line without incurring any
damage to the motor windings, although about five to eight
times the rated current flows through the stator at rated
voltage at standstill.
‰ However, in large induction motors, large starting current are
objectionable in two respects:
, First, the mains supplying the induction motor may not be of a sufficiently large capacity.
, Second, because of large starting current, the voltage drops in the lines may be excessive,
resulting in reduced voltage across the motor.
‰ Because the torque varies approximately as the square of the
voltage, the starting torque may become small at the reduced
line voltage that the motor might not even start on load.
Thus we formulate the basic requirement for starting:
, The line current should be limited by the capacity of the mains, but only to the extent that the
motor can develop sufficient torque to start (on load , if necessary).
‰ A number of methods is available of for starting both cage-
104
rotor and wound-rotor motors:
 Starting of squirrel-cage motors
‰ For cage motors, the choice of any particular method of starting
depends
i. on size and design of the motor
ii. capacity of the power lines and
iii. type of the driven load.
‰ There are primarily two methods of starting of squirrel-cage induction
motors:
a) full-voltage starting and
b) reduced-voltage starting
‰ The full-voltage starting consists of DOL (direct-on-line) starting
only.
‰ The reduced-voltage starting has the advantage of reducing the starting
current, but it produces an objectionable reduction in the starting
torque, on account of the fact that T ∝ V .
2

‰ Despite this, reduced-voltage starting is the most popular method of

starting three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors and consists of
9 stator resistor (or reactor) starting,
9 auto-transformer starting and 105
9 star-delta starting.
 a) Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting
♫ As the name suggests, this method involves the direct
switching of polyphase stator on to the supply mains.
♫ The motor takes low-power factor starting current of 5 to 8
times its full-load current, depending upon its size and
design.
♫ Such large currents of short duration don't harm the rugged
squirrel cage motor, but the high currents may cause
objectionable voltage drop in the power supply lines feeding
the induction motor.
♫ These large voltage drops cause undesirable dip in the supply
line voltage; consequently the operation of other equipments
connected to the same supply line is affected considerably.
♫ A common example is the momentary dimming of lamp and
tube-lights in the home at the instant a refrigerator motor
starts.
♫ If the supply system is of sufficient power capacity and the
low-power factor starting-current surges don't cause
objectionable voltage dips in the supply line voltage, then the
direct-on-line starting should be preferred.
106
 Starting torque Tst Vs full-load torque Tfl
, Let Ist and Ifl be the per-phase stator currents drawn from the supply mains
corresponding to starting and full-load conditions respectively.
, From Torque equation 1 2 R2
T mech = .I2
R2 ω syn S
I ⋅
2
⎛ I 2st ⎞
2
Tst 2 st
∴ = 1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ Sfl
R
Tfl I 2 ⋅ 2 ⎝ I 2 fl ⎠ 1
2 fl
Sfl
, Here I2st and I2fl are the per-phase rotor currents at starting and full-load
conditions respectively.
, If no-load current is neglected, then
I st × effective stator turns = I 2st × effective rotor turns
, Or
I st = I 2st × (effective rotor to stator turns ratio )
, Or
I st (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio)I 2st
=
I fl (Effective rotor to stator turns ratio)I 2 fl 107
, Or I st I 2 st
=
I fl I 2 fl 2
Tst ⎛ I st ⎞
, From equation (1), = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ Sfl
Tfl ⎝ I fl ⎠

, If V1 is the per phase stator voltage and ZSC is the standstill per
phase leakage impedance referred to stator, then per phase
short-circuit current at standstill (or at starting) is,
V1
I sc =
Z sc
Where, Z sc = (R 1 + R 2 ) + j(X1 + X 2 )
Note that here shunt branch of the induction motor equivalent
circuit is neglected.
, Therefore, for direct switching, V
I =I = 1
st sc
Zsc
, Equation (1) can, therefore, be written as
2
Tst ⎛ I sc ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ Sfl 2
Tfl ⎝ I fl ⎠ 108
 b) Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
, In this method, a resistor or a reactor is
inserted in between motor terminals and
the supply mains, as illustrated in Fig 1.
, At the time of starting, some voltage drop
occurs across the starting resistor or 3V1 3xV1

1
xV
reactor and, therefore, only a fraction x
(less than 1) of the supply voltage appears V1
across the stator terminals. xV1

, This reduces the per-phase starting

current Ist drawn by the motor from the Fig.1
supply mains.
, As the motor speeds up, the reactor is cut
out in steps and finally short-circuited
when the motor speed is near to its
operating speed. 109
, Since per phase voltage is reduced to xV1, see Fig.1 , the per-phase starting current Ist is
given by
xV1 3
I st = = xI sc
Zsc
2
, As before Tst ⎛ I st ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ Sfl
Tfl ⎝ I fl ⎠

, Or Tst ⎛ x Isc ⎞
2 2
2 ⎛ I sc ⎞ 4
⎜
=⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⋅ Sfl = x ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ Sfl
Tfl ⎝ I fl ⎠ ⎝ I fl ⎠
, In an induction motor, torque ∝ (voltage) 2
2
∴ Starting torque with reactor or resistor starting ⎛ xV1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = x 2 5
Starting torque with direct starting ⎝ V1 ⎠

, Series reactor is more costly than the series resistor, but the former has lower energy
loss and is more effective in reducing the voltage, because the induction-motor power
factor at starting is quite low. 110
 c) Autotransformer starting
, A fraction of xV1 of the supply voltage V1 is
applied to the stator terminals at the time
of starting, by means of an autotransformer
as shown in fig 2.
, This reduces the motor current and also
the current drawn from the supply.
, After the motor has accelerated near to its
operating speed, auto-transformer is
disconnected and full line voltage is applied Fig .2
to the induction motor by connecting it
directly across the supply mains.
Note that here x is less than 1.
, With autotransformer, per phase starting
current in motor winding is
xV 1
= 1 = x Isc 111
Zsc
, If no-load current of autotransformer is neglected , then per phase output VA of an
autotransformer must be equal to its per phase input VA.
, That is
I st V1 = xV1 (per phase starting current in motor winding)
, or
I st V1 = xV1 (x I sc )
∴ Per phase starting current from the supply mains,
2
I st = x 2.I sc
, Eq.(1) shows that the motor starting current per phase is reduced only to x times the direct
switching current Isc ; but the per phase starting current from the supply mains is reduced to x2
times the direct switching Isc .
, Now Tst (per phase starting current in motor winding) 2
= .Sfl
Tfl (per phase motor full − load current) 2

, From Eq.(1)
Tst (xIsc )
2
= 2 .Sfl
Tfl I fl

= x2
(Isc )2 .S 3
2 fl 112
I fl
, Per phase staring current, Ist, from the supply mains can be calculated in Eq.(3) with the help of
Eq.(2). Substitution of the value of Isc in terms of Ist gives
2
Tst ⎛ 1 I ⎞
= x 2 ⎜ 2 ⋅ st ⎟ .S fl
T fl ⎜x I ⎟
⎝ fl ⎠
4
2
1 ⎛⎜ I st ⎞⎟
= 2 ⎜
.S fl
x ⎝ I fl ⎠ ⎟
, The ratio of the starting to full-load torque in terms of both Ist and Isc can be obtained from Eq.(3)
as follows. T (x 2 I ) I
st
= sc
2
sc
.S fl
T fl I fl 5
I st I sc
= ⋅ S fl
I 2fl
, For an induction motor, torque ∝ (voltage) 2
2
Tst with an autotransformer ⎛ xV1 ⎞ 6
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = x 2
Tst with direct switching ⎝ V1 ⎠
, It is seen from above that with an autotransformer, the starting current Ist from the mains and the starting
torque Tst are reduced to x2 times their corresponding values with DOL starting, see Eqs. (2) and (6).

113
 d) Star-Delta Method
, A Star-Delta method starting may also be
employed to provide reduced voltage of
start.
, In this method, the normal connection of the
stator windings is delta while running.
, If these windings are connected in star at
start, the phase voltage is reduced, resulting
in less current of starting.
, As the motor approaches its full-speed, the
windings will be connected in delta.
, Thus, the line current under each of these
connection are: Fig.3
Vph VL
IY = = with the windings connected in Star
Z ph 3 Z ph

VL
I∆ = 3 with the windings connected in Delta
Z ph 114
, So that the ratio of the current is
I V Z
Y = L ph 1
⋅ =
I 3Z 3V 3
∆ ph L

, Showing that the current drawn from the line under a star connection is only one-third ( 1 3 )
of that under delta connection. On the other hand, the ratio of the current in the stator
windings is V ph
I ph Y Z ph 1
= =
I ph ∆ 3 V ph 3
Z ph

also 2
⎛ VL ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Tst with Star − Delta Starter 1
= ⎝ 2⎠ =
3
Tst with direct switching in Delta VL 3
, This shows the star-delta starter also reduce the starting torque to one-third of that produced
by direct switching in delta. 115
 Starting of wound-rotor motors
, The methods used for starting squirrel- cage motors can also be
employed for starting wound-rotor motors, but it is usually not done
so because then the advantages of wound-rotor induction motors
can't be fully realized.
, The simplest and cheapest method of starting wound-rotor
induction motors is by means of added rotor resistance, with full-
line voltage across the stator terminals.
, It has already been discussed that at the time of start, the addition of
external resistance in the rotor circuit of a wound-rotor induction
motor
 decreases its starting current
 increases its starting torque (for a suitable external resistance) and
 improves its starting power factor.
, At the time of start, the entire external resistance is added in the
rotor circuit.
, As the rotor speeds up, the external resistance is decreased in steps
so that motor torque tends to remain maximum during the
accelerating period.
, Finally, under normal operation, the external resistance is fully cut
off and the slip rings are short-circuited so that motor now develops
full-load torque at low value of slip for which it is designed. 116
e) Calculation of Resistance of elements (or sections)
, Consider one phase of the rotor of a wound-rotor induction motor, with resistance r2 and
standstill leakage reactance x2. Let R1, R2 ,R3 …….Rn be resistance of the n resistance
elements (or sections) and R1’ , R2’, R3’,….Rn’, Rn+1’ be the total resistance in each phase of the
rotor circuit on 1st ,2nd ,3rd ,…,nth and (n+1)th stud respectively as shown in Fig 1a , such that
R1= R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R2 = R2 + R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
R3’ = R3 +R4 +………+ Rn-1+Rn + r2
:
:
Rn+1= r2.

117
‰ Note that Fig 1a illustrates n-
elements starter, n-section
starter, (n+1) stud starter or n-
step starter.
‰ For calculation of the section
resistances, the following
assumptions are made:
i. During starting time , a constant
load torque is assumed
ii. The stator leakage impedance
and its no-load current are
neglected
iii. Stator current is taken to
fluctuate between fixed limits
I1max (maximum value) and I1min
(minimum value) as shown in fig
1b.
118
 At the time of start, the movable handle is at stud 1 and the rotor circuit resistance
is R1’.
 When the supply is switched on to the stator, the input current shoots to I1max and
its value is given by
I 1 max =
V1
2
........ (1 )
⎛ R 1' ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x 22
⎝ S1 ⎠

Note that at the time of start, slip S1 = 1

 On first stud, R1’ remains in the circuit until the motor has started and the current
has fallen from I1max to I1min . At the same time the slip falls from S1 to S2

∴ I 1 min =
V1
2
........ (2 )
⎛ R1' ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
⎝ S2 ⎠
119
 As soon as I1min is reached at stud 1, resistance R1 is cut out by moving the handle
from stud 1 to stud 2.
 During the notching process (the process of moving the handle from one stud to
the next), the speed is assumed to remain constant, i.e. the slip remains as S2 but
current at stud 2 becomes I1max as illustrated in Fig1b.
∴ (3)
V1
I1max = ........
2
⎛ R2' ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
⎝ S2 ⎠
 At stud 2, the speed rises so that the slip becomes S3 and current decreases to I1min,
I1min =
V1
2
........ (4)
⎛R ⎞
∴
'
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
2

⎝ S3 ⎠

 During the next notching process, i.e., at the third stud when R2 is cut out,

I1max =
V1
........ (5)
∴ ⎛ R3' ⎞
2

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
⎝ S3 ⎠
120
 and ∴ I1min =
V1
2
........ (6)
⎛R ⎞
'
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
3

⎝ S4 ⎠
M
M
and so on

 From Eqs. (1), (3), (5) etc, we get I1max =

V1
2
⎛ R1' ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
⎝ S1 ⎠
V1
=
2
⎛ R2' ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
⎝ S2 ⎠
V1
= = ................
2
⎛R ⎞
'
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + x22
3

⎝ S3 ⎠
 From the above it follows that
R1' R '2 R '3
= =
S1 S2 S3
R 'n R 'n +1 r2
= ......... = = = (7 )
Sn Sn +1 Sm 121
 Where Sm = Sn+1 is the slip under normal operating conditions when all external
resistance in rotor circuit is reduced to zero and the input current is I1max .
 From Eqs. (2), (4), (6), etc., we get
R1' R '2 R '3
= =
S 2 S3 S 4
R 'n −1 R 'n R 'n
= ......... = = = (8)
Sn Sn +1 Sm

 From Eq. (7), we get S 2 S3 S 4

= =
S1 S2 S3
Sn Sn +1 Sfl
= ...... = = =
Sn −1 Sn Sn
R '2 R '3 R '4
= ' = ' = '
R1 R 2 R 3

R'n−1 R'n
= .......= ' = '
R n−2 R n−1
R'n+1 r2
= ' = ' = α (say) (9)
Rn Rn 122
 Since the slip S1=1, the total resistance in rotor circuit on the first step (or first stud)
from Eq.7, is
S1 r2
R =
'
1 r2 = (10)
Sm Sm
 From Eq. (9),
R2' = R1' α , R3' = R2' α = R2' α 2
R4' = R3' α = R2' α 2 = R1' α 3
M
Rn' +1 = R1' α n
or r2 = R1' α n (11)
 Substituting the values of R1’ from Eq. (10) in Eq. (11), we get
⎛ r2 ⎞ n
r2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟α
⎝ Sm ⎠
or αn = Sm
1
or α = (Sm ) n
(12)
123
 Therefore, resistances of the sections are:
R 1 = R 1' − R '2 = R1' (1 − α ) (13)
R 2 = R '2 − R '3
= R '2 (1 − α ) = αR 1' (1 − α ) = αR1
R 3 = R '3 − R '4 = R '3 (1 − α )
= αR '2 (1 − α ) = α2 R 1

 Similarly R4 = α 3 R1
M
Rn = α n −1R1 (14)
 The slip Sm=Sfl provided I1max=Ifl. In case I1max is different from Ifl, slip Sm should be
calculated accordingly and then from Eq. (12), α can be obtained.
 Once R1’is determined by using Eq.(10), first the resistance element R1 is obtained by
using Eq.(13) and then R2, R3, R4……. Can be calculated from Eq. (14)
124