Cracks

Cracks may be detectable in severe cases by eye, or by surface NDT techniques, such as dye penetrant or magnetic
particle inspection (ferritic materials) or eddy current testing. Buried cracks can only be found by volumetric
inspection (radiography or ultrasonic inspection). Hydrogen cracks, in particular, may be tight, and difficult to
detect by radiography if not ideally oriented

Solidification cracking
Cause
Weld beads contract as they solidify.
This contraction may be increased by thermal or other strains imposed on the joint during cooling. When the
supply of liquid metal to fill gaps which open up between developing crystals is insufficient, the weak
solid-liquid-solid interface may rupture under the influence of contraction stress to produce a solidification crack.

Prevention methods
Weld pool composition Impurities which widen the solidification temperature range and encourage the formation of
low melting point films should be minimised. Some elements can also limit the detrimental
effects of others.
Weld bead shape Use welding conditions which encourage a depth to width ratio of ~0.5 - 0.8.
Aim for a slightly convex weld cap. Avoid wide root gaps. The use of high performance weld
process gas mixtures, eg. Alumaxx® Plus, may reduce the risk of solidification cracking by
producing a broader penetration profile.

Welding speed Excessive welding speeds should be avoided, as these give rise to long weld pools, which may
increase the risk of cracking.

The effect of composition on solidification cracking

Ferritic steel

Steels with high levels of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and niobium tend to present a greater risk of
solidification cracking, whereas additions of silicon and magnesium can help to reduce the risk of solidification
cracking. For example, the risk of cracking in submerged arc welds is indicated by the UCS formula:

UCS = 230C* + 190S + 75P + 45Nb -12.3Si - 5.4Mn - 1

where the composition is in wt%, and C* = the carbon content or 0.08, whichever is higher. It is the weld metal
composition which should be used. The formula is valid for weld metals containing the following range
of elements:

C: 0.03-0.23 Ni: <1 Ti: <0.02

S: 0.010-0.050 Cr: <0.5 Al: <0.03
P: 0.010-0.045 Mo: <0.4 B: <0.002
Si: 0.15-0.65 V: <0.07 Pb: <0.01
Mn: 0.45-1.6 Cu: <0.3 Co: <0.03
Nb: 0-0.07

Values of <10 indicate a high resistance to cracking, and >30 a low resistance.

Further information can be found in BS EN 1011-2:20011, and Weldability of Ferritic Steels2.

Solidification cracking
Austenitic steel

The key feature is the weld metal microstructure. Weld deposits containing a few per cent of the high temperature
delta-ferrite phase are much more resistant to cracking than fully austenitic weld metal. The effect of composition
on the microstructure is shown in the Schaeffler diagram (below). Generally, reducing sulphur and phosphorus is
beneficial, as is increasing molybdenum and especially manganese. However, the effects of chemical composition
are secondary to that of microstructure.

Aluminium alloys

Alloy-lean aluminium alloys are generally sensitive to solidification cracking. Many important heat treatable
and low alloy 5XXX (Al-Mg) alloys can be prone to cracking. The problem may be overcome by using filler alloys
which are overalloyed with silicon, manganese or copper. The success of this approach depends on filler wire
composition and dilution achieved. Guidelines for the selection of filler wires for British Standard alloys are
given in the following table:
Parent metal Al-Si Al-Mg
combination castings castings 3XXX 2XXX 1XXX 7020 6XXX 5005 5XXX 5083
5083 NR (1) Al-Mg Al-Mg NR (2) Al-Mg 5556A Al-Mg Al-Mg Al-Mg 5556A
5XXX NR (1) Al-Mg Al-Mg NR (2) Al-Mg Al-Mg Al-Mg Al-Mg (3) Al-Mg (3)
5005 Al-Si Al-Mg Al-Si NR (2) Al-Si Al-Mg Al-Si Al-Mg (3)
6XXX Al-Si Al-Mg Al-Si NR (2) Al-Si Al-Mg Al-Si or
Al-Mg
7020 NR (1) Al-Mg Al-Mg NR (2) Al-Mg 5556A
1XXX Al-Si Al-Mg Al-Si NR (2) Pure Al
2XXX NR (2) NR (2) NR (2) NR (2)
3XXX Al-Si Al-Mg 3103
Al-Mg castings NR (1) Al-Mg
Al-Si castings Al-Si

NR = not recommended.
(1) The welding of alloys containing approximately 2% or more of Mg with Al-Si filler metal (and vice-versa) is not recommended because
sufficient Mg2Si precipitate is formed at the fusion boundary to embrittle the joint.
(2) 2XXX alloys covered by British Standards are not regarded as weldable alloys, but 4047A gives the best chance of success.
(3) The corrosion behaviour of weld metal is likely to be better if its alloy content is close to that of the parent metal and not markedly
higher. Thus for service in potentially corrosive environments it is preferable to weld 5154A with 5154A filler metal or 5454 filler metal.
However, in some cases this may only be possible at the expense of weld soundness, so a compromise will be necessary.
(4) For welding 1080A to itself, 1080A filler metal should be used.

1.
Welding - Recommendations for welding of metallic materials, Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels. BS EN 1011-2:2001, Inc.
Amendment 1:2003.
2
Bailey N. “Weldability of ferritic steels” Abington Publishing 1994.

The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice, and provided as reference material only.
If you require specific advice about your own, your customers’ or your organisations’ position in relation to anything
covered in the document, that advice should always be obtained in person from an Air Products expert.