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Received 1 February 2004; received in revised form 1 November 2005; accepted 12 April 2006
Available online 22 June 2006
Abstract
An analytical model based on Green’s function method is developed to analyze the temperature distribution and heated
regions in a material irradiated by a high-energy laser beam. The model is multi-dimensional, transient and incorporates
different types of beam characteristics and boundary conditions. The multi-dimensional integration formulas in the
Green’s function solution equation are evaluated using an adaptive numerical integration algorithm. A parametric study
is conducted to show the effect of various laser beam parameters and material properties on the laser heating process.
2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
High-energy lasers are increasing being used in the industry for many different material processes due to their
many advantages including high power density; high directionality and smaller heat-affected zones. These indus-
trial applications include heat-treating to modify surface structures through intense heating followed by cooling;
melting the surface layer to modify the properties such as wear and corrosion; surface alloying through surface
melting and addition of alloy elements; drilling and cutting that involve melting and ablation of materials.
In order to enhance the potential for such laser machining process, it is essential to get better understanding
of the physical process associated with the laser material interaction and the effect of various operating param-
eters on the performance. In metallurgical processes such as heat treatment and surface hardening there is a
correlation between the materials properties such as hardness and the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The heat-
affected zone depends on the laser and optical properties such as beam power, beam spot size and material
optical properties such as absorptivity. A mathematical model is a powerful tool for simulating such process
operation and it reduces the need for expensive and time-consuming trial and error approaches normally used
on most of the production floor.
Brugger [1] presented an exact solution for temperature rise in infinitely extended laser-heated slab of finite
thickness. His analytical model is based on an instantaneous point source and a combination of source and
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 815 753 9963; fax: +1 815 753 0416.
E-mail address: majumdar@ceet.niu.edu (P. Majumdar).
0307-904X/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apm.2006.04.007
P. Majumdar, H. Xia / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 1186–1200 1187
sinks pairs following the principles of method of images. Warren and Spark [2] developed an exact solution for
the temperature in a laser-heated slab with temperature dependent surface absorptance. The solution was
developed for one-dimensional heat diffusion equation using Laplace transformation techniques. Cline and
Anthony [3] presented an analytical model based on a Green’s function for a unit source and assuming the
media to be semi-infinite. Dabby and Peak [4] presented analytical model for material removal by a high-inten-
sity laser beam. The model assumed volumetric heat absorption in a one-dimensional semi-infinite media. The
analytical solution method involves use of perturbation techniques and use of Laplace transformation for
obtaining a close form solution to the perturbation problems. Rogersan and Chayt [5] presented the exact
solution for the melting time in an ablating slab using a one-dimensional heat conduction model. Minardi
and Bishop [6] studied temperature distribution within metals subjected to laser irradiation of different spatial
intensity profiles. Lemczyk and Yovanovich [7,8] used Hankel integral transform to present analytical solution
in their study of thermal constriction resistance with convection boundary condition in half space contacts and
assuming semi-infinite contact layer attached to half-space. It can be noted here that all these analytical solu-
tions are primarily based on one-dimensional analysis and/or semi-infinite media, and with or with out a uni-
form heat generation.
Barrilot [9] validated his numerical solution of the transient heating of an anisotropic two-object with
Gaussian laser beam using a limiting case analytical solution. The governing heat equation was modified using
co-ordinate transformation technique to immobilize the moving boundary involving ablation. The derived
analytical solution is limited to two-dimensional semi-infinite medium and requires one-dimensional numer-
ical integration involving error and Bessel functions.
Kaylon and Yilbus [10] used Laplace transformation method to derive close form analytical solution for
temperature rise for laser evaporative heating process time exponentially decaying pulse laser. The solution
was limited to one-dimensional and semi-infinite region. Yilbas and Kalyon [11] and Kalyon and Yilbus
[12] also used using Laplace transformation method to obtained close from analytical solution for pulsed laser
heating of metallic substrate with convective boundary condition at the surface.
Yanez et al. [13] presented an analytical solution for a time dependent temperature field in a semi-infinite
medium in their study of laser hardening process. The solution was obtained in terms of Green function, which
was derived using Fourier transformation. Gustavo and Guillermo [14] presented analytical solution for tran-
sient temperature distribution in a three-dimensional finite region using separation of variable. Pantelis [15]
used an analytical model for studying heat-affected zone during laser surface treatment. The model is based
on Duhamel’s principle leading to a convolution integral, which is integrated analytically.
The major objective of this study is to develop an analytical model based on Green’s function method to
analyze the temperature distribution, heat flux distribution and heat-effected zone in a two-dimensional finite
block irradiated by a continuous wave laser beam. The effects of various laser beam operation parameters as
well as effect of material parameters are discussed.
2. Mathematical formulation
Fig. 1 shows a general arrangement of the laser installation and the work piece. The laser beam is focused
by a lens through which the laser beam passes and behind which it converges to a minimum beam waist
around the focal point of the lens.
The absorbed heat contributes to the generation of heat in the workpiece. High performance is achieved
through better ability to control this heat input precisely and/or minimize the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
The physical mechanism that occurs at the processing surface is a function of laser beam intensity and char-
acteristics as well as the thermal characteristics of the material. Such interaction dictates the temperature rises,
heat-affected zone (HAZ), penetrative depth and process time.
The basic role of the laser in material processing is to generate heat in the workpiece. The efficiency with
which a material absorbs an incoming laser beam and converts it to heat depends on the properties of mate-
rials and operating conditions as well as on the types and characteristics of the beam, such as wavelength,
1188 P. Majumdar, H. Xia / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 1186–1200
Laser Beam
Focusing lens
Workpiece
X-Y Stage
divergence of the incoming beam, and spatial intensity profile. Various beam characteristics such as beam
diameter, divergence, focusing characteristics, etc. are accommodated in the present model to enable simula-
tion of practical situations. A laser beam can be characterized based on the following parameters: shape and
intensity distribution, beam radius, divergence and defocusing distance.
The beam shape is assumed to be Gaussian with the intensity distribution in TEM00 mode is expressed as
R2 ð0Þ ðxR22 ð0Þ
þy 2 Þ
I ¼ I0 e ; ð1Þ
R2 ðzÞ
where I0 is the beam power density at the beam center.
Beam radius, R defined as the distance from the beam center at which the beam intensity drops to (1/e2) its
value at the beam center. The beam expands as it propagates through the space but the intensity distribution
remains unaltered with the width of the beam changing.
The beam divergence describes the expansion of the beam in the space. The effective radius of a diverging
Gaussian beam is given by
" 2 #1=2
W þz
RðzÞ ¼ Rð0Þ 1 þ ; ð2Þ
pR20 =k
where R(0) is the effective radius at the focal plane; W is the defocused distance between the focal plane of the
lens and the material surface.
The beam diameter changes as defocusing distance is varied. Both beam radius and defocusing distance are
important laser beam parameters and directly affect the beam power intensity.
The physical phenomena involved in laser material processing are basically thermal in nature. When a laser
beam strikes a material surface, several effects take place: reflection and absorption of the beam, diffusion of
P. Majumdar, H. Xia / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 1186–1200 1189
∂T ∂T
k = h(T − T∞ ) k = h(T − T∞ )
∂z ∂z
z
-R) R (2L, H)
(0, H)
T = T∞ T = T∞
(0, 0) (2L, 0) x
dT/dz=0
heat in the material and loss of heat by convection and/or radiation from the material surfaces. The amount of
energy absorbed and utilized in processing the material depends on the optical and thermophysical properties
of the material. Fig. 2 shows a general arrangement of the laser heating problem and associated physical con-
ditions. A mathematical model that describes the process of heating the work piece subjected to high-energy
laser beam is presented here. The following simplifying assumptions are made in defining the model: (i) The
material is homogeneous and isotropic. (ii) Material is opaque with constant optical property. (iii) The laser
beam is perpendicular to the surface of block. (iv) CO2 laser is continuous Gaussian beam and TEM00 mode.
Based on these assumptions, the mathematical statement of the problem is as follows:
Governing equation
oh o2 h o2 h
¼ þ þ gðx; z; tÞ: ð3Þ
ot ox2 oz2
Boundary conditions:
1: hðt; 0; zÞ ¼ 0; ð4Þ
2: hðt; 2L; zÞ ¼ 0; ð5Þ
oh
3: at z ¼ 0; ¼ 0; ð6Þ
oz
4: at z ¼ H ;
Initial condition
hð0; x; zÞ ¼ h0 ¼ T 0 T 1 : ð9Þ
The variables and parameters are
The governing equation and boundary condition presented in the proceeding chapter is solved by Green’s
function method. The Green function solution equation (GFSE) is derived using the Eqs. (3)–(9) and an aux-
iliary problem for an instantaneous heat source inside the workpiece. The solution to the auxiliary problem is
the Green’s function G(x, y, tjx 0 , y 0 , s), where the instantaneous source is located at position (x 0 , y 0 ) and at time
s; and (x 0 , y 0 ) is the location at which the temperature is observed at time t. The auxiliary problem has homo-
geneous boundary conditions and a zero initial temperature as described by
0.1000%
0.0900%
0.0800%
Percent relative error E
0.0700%
0.0600%
0.0500%
0.0400%
0.0300%
0.0200%
0.0100%
0.0000%
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
60
10
60
10
60
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
10
10
11
11
12
12
Integration point, N
1200
N=1290
1000
N=100
N=100
800
N=500
Temperature θ
N=1140
N=1180
600
N=1200
N=1240
400 N=1260
N=1290
200
0
05
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95
0. 0
0. 1
0. 2
0. 3
0. 4
0. 5
0. 6
0. 7
0. 8
0. 9
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Axial distance, x
Fig. 4. Evaluation of numerical integration for temperature with varying number of integration point.
P. Majumdar, H. Xia / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 1186–1200 1191
1 1 oG
r20 G þ dð~ r ~ r0 Þdðt sÞ ¼ ðt > sÞ; ð11Þ
a a os
Gðx0 ; y 0 ; sjx; y; tÞ ¼ 0 ðt < sÞ; ð12Þ
oG
k i 0 þ hi G ¼ 0 ðt > sÞ; ð13Þ
oni
R
where d is the Direc delta function such that R dð~ r eÞd~ r ¼ 1 and dð~r eÞ ¼ 0 except at e. A general proce-
dure is applied to obtain the two-dimensional Green’s function solution equation (GFSE). Applying initial
and boundary conditions, and simplifying each term leads to the two-dimensional Green’s function solution
equation (GFSE) as
Z 2L Z H Z Z Z H
a t 2L
hðx; z; tÞ ¼ Gðx; z; tjx0 ; z0 ; sÞh0 dx0 dz0 þ Gðx; z; tjx0 ; z0 ; s0 Þgðx0 ; z0 ; sÞ
0 0
x ¼0 z ¼0 k 0 0 0
x ¼0 z ¼0
Z t Z LþR 02
0 x 2 0
þ I0 Gðx; z; tjx ; H ; sÞe R dx ds: ð14Þ
s¼0 x0 ¼LR
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
-10000000
-20000000
-30000000 N=100
N=100
Heat flux qz
N=1290 N=500
-40000000 N=1140
N=1180
-50000000
N=1200
-60000000 N=1240
N=1260
-70000000 N=1290
-80000000
-90000000
Axial distance, x
Fig. 5. Evaluation of numerical integration for heat flux with varying number of integration point.
1200
1000 0(GF)
Surface Temperature
0(FEA)
800
600
400
200
0
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001
Axial distance, x
Fig. 6. Evaluation of surface temperature by Green’s function and finite element code.
1192 P. Majumdar, H. Xia / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 1186–1200
In order to evaluate Eq. (14) for analyzing two-dimensional laser heating problems, the Green’s function G
has to be obtained. This function G can be expressed as a function of two other Green’s functions G1 and G2
due to the property of multiplication as follows:
G ¼ G1 G2 ; ð15Þ
where G1 and G2 are Green’s function along x- and z-direction, respectively. Because there are two kinds of
boundary conditions along the z-direction, the corresponding Green’s function can be written as
G2 ¼ G02 þ G002 ; ð16Þ
0
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.0045 0.005 0.0045 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001
-5000000
-10000000
Heat flux, qz
-15000000
-20000000
-25000000 qz(GF)
qz(FEM)
-30000000
-35000000
-40000000
Axial distance, x
Fig. 7. Evaluation of heat flux qz by Green’s function and finite element code.
1200
1000 R=0.0003
R=0.0004
Surface temperature
R=0.0005
800
R=0.0035
600
400
200
0
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
0. 5
95
0. 0
0. 1
0. 2
0. 3
0. 4
0. 5
0. 6
0. 7
0. 8
0. 9
01
0
8
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0.
0.005 0.005
21.491
14.594
0.002 0.002
0.001 0.001
0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
0.005 0.005
10.719
0.002 0.002
0.001 0.001
0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
1X 1
2 2 bx b x0
Gðx; tjx0 ; sÞ ¼ ebn aðtsÞ=4L sin n sin n ; ð18Þ
L n¼1 2L 2L
The Green’s function G02 is derived from the solution of a boundary value problem with adiabatic boundary
condition at Z = 0 and convective boundary condition at Z = H, and an arbitrary initial condition as
z
2 X1
2 2 b2 þ B2 z0
G02 ðz; t; z0 ; sÞ ¼ ebm ðtsÞ=H 2 m 2 2 cos bm cos bm ; ð20Þ
H m¼1 bm þ B2 þ B2 H H
0.005 0.005
950
750 850 550600 650
0.00492 650 900 0.00492
800 500
850 600 550
750 650
700 800 700
0.00484 0.00484 550
600 750 450 500
650 500
550 700 450
0.00476 0.00476
650 600
400 450
600
0.00468 550 0.00468
550
500 500 400
0.0046 0.0046
0.0046 0.0048 0.0049 0.00508 0.00524 0.0054 0.0046 0.0048 0.0049 0.00508 0.00524 0.0054
0.005
450 500
0.00492
400 400
450
0.00484
350 400 350
0.00476
350
300
0.00468
300
0.0046
0.0046 0.0048 0.0049 0.00508 0.00524 0.0054
(c) R = 0.0005 m
where
bm ¼ mp; m ¼ 1; 2; . . . ð24Þ
Substituting these Green’s functions into Eq. (17), we have following solution for temperature distribution in
the workpiece subjected to a CW laser beam:
Z H Z LR Z LþR Z 2L
0 0 0 00 0 0 0
hðx; z; tÞ ¼ h0 dz G1 G2 dx þ G1 G2 dx þ G1 G2 dx
z0 ¼0 x0 ¼0 x0 ¼LR x0 ¼LþR
Z t Z LþR Z t Z LR Z H
02
x 2 a
þ I0 ds G1 G002 e R dx0 þ G1 G02 gðx0 ; z0 ; sÞdz0 dx0 ds
s¼0 x0 ¼LR k 0 x0 ¼0 z0 ¼0
Z t Z LþR Z H Z t Z 2L Z H
a a
þ G1 G002 gðx0 ; z0 ; sÞdz0 dx0 ds þ G1 G02 gðx0 ; z0 ; sÞdz0 dx0 ds: ð25Þ
k 0 x0 ¼LR z0 ¼0 k 0 x0 ¼LþR z0 ¼0
It can be noted here that the Green’s function solution given by Eq. (25) is also applicable to cases where the
heat generation term varies with space and time. So, it can provide solution for problems with non-uniform
heat generation due to a partially transparent materials. It can also provide solutions for cases with temper-
ature dependent heat generation due to the variation of optical properties such as absorptivity and transmis-
sivity. Also, the solution can be extended to a three-dimensional analysis with use of a three-dimensional
Green’s function.
1200
w = 1 mm
w = 5 mm
1000
w = 9 mm
800
Surface temperature θ
600
400
200
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Green’s function solution equation (GFSE) for 2D laser heating problem involves a two-dimensional inte-
gration formula. These integrals are performed using Romberg’s integration algorithm. One advantage of this
algorithm is that the method can be efficiently used to obtain results of any desired accuracy. The results are
improved iteratively by combining two successive integration values with number of integration points as N
and 2N until percent relative ea is less than assigned tolerance limit es = 0.01%. Results for maximum temper-
ature h and corresponding percent relative error are calculated with increase in integration points. Fig. 3 shows
variation of percent relative error with increase in number of integration points. Results show that the percent
relative decreases exponentially and reaches a converged value of less than 1% and maximum temperature of
1096 K for N = 1290.
0.005 0.005
104.661
20.93241.864 167.458 293.051 18.86937.738 150.953 264.167
94.345
0.004 104.661 188.39 146.526 62.797 20.932 0.004 94.345 169.822 132.084 56.607 18.869
62.797 125.593 56.607 113.214
83.729 75.476
0.003 41.864 0.003 37.738
20.932 18.869
0.002 0.002
0.001 0.001
0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
(a) w = 1 mm (b) w = 5 mm
0.005
85.427
17.08534.171 136.683 239.195
0.004 85.427 153.768 119.597 51.256 17.085
51.256 102.512
68.341
0.003 34.171
17.085
0.002
0.001
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
(c) w = 9 mm
The surface temperature h and surface heat flux are evaluated with increase integration points N, and
results are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. It can be seen that distributions of surface temperature
and surface heat reaches convergence for number of integration points at around 1290.
The analytical solution given by the Green’s function method is compared with that given by the commer-
cial finite element code ANSYS 5.3. The finite element model was developed for the numerical solution of
two-dimensional laser heating problem. A mesh refinement study was conducted to establish the accuracy
and convergence of the finite element code. Mesh was refined from 100 · 25 to 200 · 100, and, results for
surface temperature and surface heat flux converge with an increase in number of elements to 200 · 50 with
percent relative error less than 0.07%.
In this section, analytical results given by Green’s function are compared with that given by the commercial
finite element code. Results for surface temperature and heat flux are presented in Figs. 6 and 7. Results show
close agreement between results estimated by Green’s function and FEA with errors less than 1%. Further
improvement can be achieved by using finer mesh size distribution in FEA.
0.005
0.005
800 850 800
750 950 750 600 750 600
900 0.00492
0.00492 800 550 650 750 650
650 850
700 700
600 700 800 550
0.00484
0.00484 750 600
500 600 650 600
550 700 650
650 0.00476 550
0.00476
600 550
600
550 500
0.00468 0.00468 500
550
500 500 450 450
0.0046 0.0046
0.0046 0.0048 0.0049 0.00508 0.00524 0.0054 0.0046 0.0048 0.0049 0.00508 0.00524 0.0054
(a) w = 1 mm (b) w = 5 mm
0.005
500
450
0.00468 450
400 400
0.0046
0.0046 0.0048 0.0049 0.00508 0.00524 0.0054
(c) w = 9 mm
A parameter study is carried out to analyze the effect of different laser beam parameters such as beam
radius and defocused distance using Carbon steel workpiece. A comparison study is also carried out using
two different materials: carbon steel and aluminum. Laser beam parameters and material properties are given
in Table 1.
The beam radius along with beam power determines the power intensity distribution. The beam spot size is
varied by using lenses of different focal lengths. In this study, three different beam sizes, 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm,
0.5 mm and 3.5 mm are considered. Results for surface temperature, h and surface heat flux qz with different
laser beam parameters were shown in Fig. 8. Results show that surface temperature distribution closely resem-
bles the Gaussian distribution of the incident laser beam. The maximum surface temperature increases from
590 C to 1079 C as the beam radius decreases from 0.5 mm to 0.3 mm. It can also be noticed that at a beam
Table 1
Properties of materials and laser beam parameters
Material Melting Density Specific Thermal Thermal diffusion h w/(m2 C)
point (C) q (kg/m3) heat C (kJ/kg C) Conductivity a (m2/s) · 105
k (w/m C)
Carbon steel 1537 7,801 0.437 43 1.172 5
Aluminum 983 2,702 0.903 237 9.71 5
1200
1000 steel
aluminum
Surface temperature θ
800
600
400
200
0
05
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95
0. 0
0. 1
0. 2
0. 3
0. 4
0. 5
0. 6
0. 7
0. 8
0. 9
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.005 0.005
0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
(a) Aluminum (b) Carbon steel
radius of 3.5 mm, the beam power intensity is not high enough to cause any noticeable temperature rise. How-
ever, with the use of a smaller beam radius, higher beam intensity can be achieved that causes in a significantly
high temperature rise in the material. A smaller beam radius not only causes high surface temperature, but
also creates a wider and deeper heated region. This is more evident from the isotherm plots given in Figs.
9a and 9b. The maximum depth and width of the heated zone increases from 0.0025 m · 0.0023 m to
0.003 m · 0.0025 m as the radius decreases from 0.5 mm to 0.3 mm.
So far, we have considered material surface to be located at the focal plane of the laser beam, i.e. with a
defocused distance of W = 0. As the defocused distance is varied, the beam power intensity is computed based
on the beam spot size given by Eqs. (1) and (2). In the present study, simulation is carried out for a defocused
distance of w = 1 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm with R(0) = .3 mm, and results are presented in Figs. 10, 11a and 11b.
As expected, an increase in defocused distance results in an increase in spot size, but with a decrease in
beam power intensity. This result in a decrease in the temperature rise and decrease in the size of the heated
region. This study shows that the heated region as well as the heat-affected region (HAZ) can be controlled in
a heat treatment process by selecting a suitable combination of the beam focusing lens and defocusing
distance.
Heated region as well as HAZ depends not only on the beam and optical properties but also on the thermo-
physical properties of the workpiece materials. In order to see these effects on the heated region or the HAZ,
simulation is carried out using two different materials: carbon steel and aluminum. Fig. 12 shows a signifi-
cantly higher temperature rise in steel than in aluminum. However, the heated region is much wider and dee-
per for aluminum due to its higher thermal diffusivity value than steel as depicted in Fig. 13.
5. Conclusions
An analytical model based on Green’s function method is developed to analyze the temperature distribu-
tions and heat effected zones in materials irradiated by a high-energy laser. A parametric study shows the
significant effect of parameters such as beam power diameter, defocused distance and material properties
on the heat shape and size of heated region or HAZ. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of the Green’s
1200 P. Majumdar, H. Xia / Applied Mathematical Modelling 31 (2007) 1186–1200
function-based analytical model as an effective tool in heat treatment process for deciding operating condi-
tions for a specific material. The solution could be extended to cases that involve melting by transforming
the temperature-based heat equation into an enthalpy-based heat equation.
References
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[2] R.E. Warren, M. Spark, Laser heating of a slab having temperature-dependent surface absorption, J. Appl. Phys. 50 (1990).
[3] H.E. Cline, T.R. Anthony, Heat treating and melting with scanning laser or electron beam, J. Appl. Phys. 48 (1977).
[4] F.W. Dabby, U.C. Peak, High-intensity laser-induces vaporization and explosion of solid, IEEE J. Quantum Electron QE-8 (1972).
[5] J.E. Rogerson, G.A. Chayt, Total melting time in the ablating slab problem, J. Appl. Phys. 42 (1971).
[6] A. Minardi, P.J. Bishop, Temperature distribution within a metal subjected irradiation by a laser of spatially varying intensity
Heat Transfer in Manufacturing and Materials Processing, HTD vol. 113, ASME, New York, 1989, pp. 39–44.
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