Clay Science 13, 93-100 (2006)

CLAY MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF SOME SOILS

IN MYANMAR

NGUYENQUANGHAIa, KAZUHIKOEGASHIRAb,
AYE AYE THANa and SAYAKAHAYASHIc

aDepartmentof Plant Resources

, GraduateSchoolof Bioresourceand BioenvironmentalSciences,KyushuUniversity,
Fukuoka812-8581,Japan
bDepartmentof Plant Resources, Facultyof Agriculture,KyushuUniversity,Fukuoka812-8581,Japan
Departmentof Bioresourceand Bioenvironment,
Schoolof Agriculture
, KyushuUniversity, c
Fukuoka812-8581, Japan

(Received
January22,2007.Accepted
February13,2007)

ABSTRACT
Fourteen surface soil samples were collected from hilly region in Shan State (Southern)
, inland valley
and meander floodplain in Mandalay Division, and deltaic plain in Bago and Yangon Divisions of

Myanmar and subjected to clay mineral analysis. The clay mineralogical composition of the soils was

found to have a good relationship with physiography as a total of the topography

, parent material and
soil type. Soils on the hilly region in Shan State (Southern) were characterized by the high kaolinite

content in the clay fraction, whereas soils on the meander floodplain of the Ayeyarwady River system

were dominated by mica. 2:1-type expansible minerals (vermiculite

, smectite, and mica/vermiculite/
smectite•`mica/smectite mixed-layer mineral) considered as the transformation products of mica were

predominant in soils on the inland valley in Mandalay Division. Soils on the deltaic plain of the
Ayeyarwady River system and on the meander floodplain of the Sittang River were characterized by

major amounts of kaolinite with considerable amounts of chlorite-vermiculite intergrade or some

amounts of mica. Inherent potentiality of the soils was assessed based on the type and amount of

clay minerals. The assessment showed a large variability in the inherent potentiality of the soils
, which is
useful to effective management of soil for crop production.

Key words: Clay mineralogical composition, Particle-size distribution

, Physiography, Inherent poten-
tiality, Myanmar

INTRODUCTION in order to intensify soil production capacity for pro-

moting crop production in Myanmar.
Union of Myanmar is situated in the western end of Clay minerals mostly comprise phyllosilicatesor layer
Southeast Asia, within 9•‹58•Œ to 28•‹31•ŒN latitude and silicates which are characterized by layer structure and
92•‹09•Œ to 101•‹10•ŒE longitude ranges. The total land area layer charge and fulfill a function through large surface
of Myanmar is around 680 thousands km2. The central area and high cation-exchange capacity. Clay minerals
and lower parts of the country are plains surrounded by
play an important role in determining physical and
hilly regions with altitudes varying from 915 to 2,134m chemical properties and inherent potentiality of a soil.
in the western, northern and eastern parts (Ministry of A good understanding on the existing clay minerals of
Agriculture and Irrigation, 2000). The whole country of a specified soil can help for scientists not only to
Myanmar belongs to the tropical to subtropical mon- diagnose the genetic processesof the soil and to classify
soon climate with three seasons: hot (middle February it but also to manage the soil effectivelyand to propose
to middle May), rainy (middle May to middle October)
, measures for improving or keeping soil productivity.
and dry-cold (middle October to middle February) . The purposes of the present study are: (1) to examine
Agricultural land in Myanmar is around 11million clay minerals in some Myanmar soils; (2) to characterize
ha, occupying 16% of the total land area, and crop the clay mineralogical composition of the soils in ref-
production is still in an improving level (Egashira and erence to physiography; and (3) to assess inherent po-
Than, 2006). Study on the fundamental properties of tentiality of the soils based on the type and amount of
soils, including clay mineralogy, is helpful or inevitable clay minerals.
94
TABLE 1. General
1)Estimated based on the book published by Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (2004).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soils
General information on soil samples used in the
study is given in Table 1, and their sampling sites
are shown on the administrative map of Myanmar in
Fig. 1. Total 14 surface soil samples were colled
from hilly region in Shan State (Southern),inland valley
and meander floodplain in Mandalay Division, and
deltaic plain in Bago and Yangon Divisions of Myan-
mar. Three samples derived from limestone (He1,
Heho-2 and Aungban) were taken from the hilly-
gion in Shan State (Southern). Samples Tatkon-1,
Tatkon-2, Meiktila-1 and Meiktila-2 in Mandalay-
vision are distributed in the inland valley surrounded
by the hilly region composed of limestone; they
estimated to originate from the limestone-derived se-
ment.
Six samples belong to the plain region of the Ayeyar-
wady (the former name is Irrawaddy) River system,
of which two samples (Madaya-1 and Madaya-2) were
taken at the meander floodplain in Mandalay Division
and four samples (Hmawbi-1through Hmawbi-4) were
Nguyen Q.H. et al.
information on soil samples
at the deltaic plain in Yangon Division. Samples
Madaya-1 and Madaya-2 were derived from alluvival
sediment. Sample Hmawbi-1 was collected from the
depression where land has been waterlogged by surface
water and subjected to cultivation of paddy rice for long
time. Samples Hmawbi-2 and Hmawbi-3 were collected
from the flat land saturated by underground water in
the rainy season. Sample Hmawbi-4 was collected from
the gently slopping land developed to orchard. Sample
Oktwin was collected from the depression in Bago
Division where land has been flooded by both runoff
water from the hilly area and overflowing water from
the Sittang River in the rainy season. As a result, this
soil was derivedfrom a mixture of the colluvial sediment
(limestone-derived sediment) and the recent river sedi-
ment (alluvium). All of these soils have been subjected
to cultivation of rice, wheat, vegetables, cash crops, and
fruit trees.
Soil samples were taken at a depth within 0-15cm
from soil surface, air-dried and gently ground to pass
through a 2-mm sieve. Clay mineral analysis was done
at the Laboratory of Soil Science, Kyushu University,
Japan.
 Clay Mineralogical Composition of Myanmar Soils 95

repeated sedimentation and siphoning, followed by sep-

aration of the 20-200 and 200-2,000ƒÊm sand fractions

by wet-sieving. After oven-drying at 105•Ž, each frac-

tion was weighed to calculate the particle-size distribu-

tion of a soil.

Clay mineral analysis

The<2ƒÊm clay fraction wholly separated from the

fine soil was used to examine the clay mineralogical

composition by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) method.

Duplicate clay sols containing 50mg clay each were

taken in 10-mL glass tubes and then washed twice with

8mL of an equal mixture of 1M NaCl and 1M

NaCH3COO (pH 5.0) by centrifugation to lower the

pH. Of the duplicate sets, one was saturated with K and

the other with Mg by washing 3 times with 8mL of 1

M KCl and 0.5M MgCl2, respectively. The excess salt

was removed by washing once with 8mL of water and

the clay in the tube was thoroughly suspended with 1

mL of water. An aliquot of 0.4mL of the clay sol was

dropped on to a glass slide (28•~48mm) covering two-

thirds of its area, air-dried and X-rayed (parallel powder

mount). The XRD analysis was made with the air-dried

and glycerol-solvated specimens for the Mg-saturated

clay and air-dried and heated (at 300•Ž and 550•Ž for 2

h) specimens for the K-saturated clay. The XRD anal-

ysis was conducted using a Rigaku diffractometer with

Ni-filtered CuKƒ¿ radiation at 40kV and 20mA and at

a scanning speed of 2•‹2ƒÆmin-1 with a scanning step of

0.02•‹ and a continuous scanning mode over a range of 3

to 30•‹2ƒÆ.

Relative mineral contents in the clay fraction were

semi-quantitatively estimated on the basis of the XRD

peak intensities. In the present estimation, the peak

height was used as the peak intensity by assuming

the relative proportions of the minerals of a sample

normalized to 100% and the same proportionality be-

tween the peak intensity and the content for each

mineral.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Particle-size distribution

The particle-size distribution and texture of soils are

FIG. 1. Soil sampling sites on the administrative map of Myanmar .
given in Table 2. The particle-size distribution varied
from soil to soil, and the variation was not well

explained by the factors such as topography, parent

Particle-size analysis material or soil type. It was different even among the
Organic matter was first decomposed by the treatment soils under the same physiology, like samples Heho-1,
with hot 7% H2O2. After dispersion by the sonic wave Heho-2 and Aungban, suggesting the influence by micro-
treatment and deflocculation by adjustment of the pH relief of the locations. Among the soils from inland
of the suspension to 10 by addition of a small amount valley in Mandalay Division, the clay content was higher
of 1M NaOH, the soil suspension was stood in a 1- for the soil distributed far from the stream (Tatkon-1)
L sedimention cylinder for a prescribed time followed than for the soil near the stream (Tatkon-2) and for the
by siphoning-out of the clay fraction. The soil sample soil situated at the depression (Meiktila-2) than for the
was then subjected to repetition of sonification- soil at the higher location (Meiktila-1). According to
sedimentation-siphoning with intermittent pH adjust- the IUSS system, soils had the light clay or coarser
ment to separate the whole<2ƒÊm clay fraction. The texture. Only sample Madaya-1 had a texture of heavy
whole 2-20ƒÊm silt fraction was then separated by clay characterized for Dark compact soils (Vertisols) .
96 Nguyen Q.H. et al.

TABLE 2. Particle-size distribution and texture of soils

Mineral identification minerals other than layer silicate minerals were iden-
The XRD patterns of the<2ƒÊm clay fraction of all tified by the peaks at 0.418, 0.484, 0.425 and 0.334, and
samples are illustrated in Fig. 2 and the approximate around 0.32nm, respectively.The contents in the clay
relative mineral contents in the<2ƒÊm clay fraction of fraction of goethite, gibbsite and feldspars were rela-
them are given in Table 3. Mica was identified by the tively low, normally lower than 5%, while that of quartz
presence of the 0.99-1.00nm peak along with its higher- was high and ranged from 7 to 28%.
order reflections at 0.499-0.500 and 0.334nm. The

presence of kaolinite was ascertained by the peaks at Clay mineralogical characterization of soils
0.716-0.719 and 0.357nm which disappeared by heating As shown in Table 3, the mineralogical composition
at 550•Ž in the K-saturated specimen. Mica and kao- in the clay fraction of soils was related to physiography
linite were detected in the clay fraction of all samples as an integration of the topography, parent material and
with greatly variable contents ranging from trace to 72% soil type. Three soils (Heho-1, Heho-2 and Aungban)
for mica and from 13 to 70% for kaolinite. Chlorite distributed in the hilly region of Shan State (Southern)
which is normally identified by the peaks at 1.42, 0.708, and classified as Red earths and yellow earths were
0.472 and 0.354nm with their persistence after heating characterized by predominance of kaolinite having the
at 550•Ž was hardly detected in all samples. contents of 57 to 70%, with some amounts of chlorite-
Vermiculite was identified by the decrease in the vermiculiteintergrade (7 to 13%)and minor amounts of
intensity of the 1.42-1.45nm peak with the correspond- mica (until 5%). The high kaolinite content of these soils
ing increase in the intensity of the 0.99-1.00nm peak by was consistent with the results reported for ferralitic
K-saturation and air-drying and contributed to 2 to 34% soils in the midland and mountainous regions of Viet-
of the total mineral content in the clay fraction of some nam by Dao (1987) and Ho et al. (2000).Myanmar and
samples. Smectite was noticed by the broad peak around Vietnam belong to the tropical to subtropical monsoon
1.80nm in the Mg-saturated and glycerol-solvated spec- climate. Under such conditions, weathering of rocks
imen with the content in the clay fraction ranging from and minerals strongly takes place with leaching-away
4 to 30% in half of the samples. The mica/vermiculite/ of some basic cations and SiO2, and kaolinite is formed
smectite•`mica/smectite mixed-layer mineral (abbreviated as a predominant layer-silicate clay mineral by allitiza-
as Mx thereafter) was noticed on the XRD pattern by tion in soils in the hilly/mountainous regions.
the poorly defined diffraction effect between 1.0 and Four soils from the inland valley in Mandalay Di-
2.0nm in the Mg-saturated and glycerol-solvated spec- vision were characterized by predominance of 2:1-type
imen and by the increase in the intensity of the 1.00nm expansible minerals such as vermiculite, smectite and
peak after K-saturation and air-drying (Egashira, 1988). Mx; the kaolinite content (13 to 27%) was low in
Mx was observed in some samples and the content in comparison with that of the soils in the hilly region
the clay fraction varied from trace to 47%. Chlorite- while the mica content (5 to 17%)was somewhat higher.
vermiculite intergrade is a mineral that does not collapse In the respective soil types, however, vermiculite was
readily when K-saturation but its 1.42nm reflection observed for samples Tatkon-1 and Tatkon-2 classified
becomes diffuse and shifts toward 1.00nm after heating as Light forest soils but not for samples Meiktila-1 and
at 300 and 550•Ž. This mineral was detected in most Meiktila-2 classified as Yellow brown dry forest and
samples with a considerable amount from 6 to 40% in indaing, whereas Mx was detected for the latter but not
the clay fraction. for the former. Both vermiculite and Mx are transfor-
Goethite, gibbsite, quartz, and feldspars which are mation products of mica, and transformation of mica
 Clay Mineralogical Composition of Myanmar Soils 97

Heho-1 Heho-2

Aungban Oktwin

Tatkon-1 Tatkon-2

Meiktila-1 Meiktila-2

FIG. 2. The XRD patterns of the<2ƒÊm clay fraction . Spacing is in nm. Treatments: a, Mg-saturation and glycerol-solvation; b
, Mg-saturation
and air-drying; c, K-saturation and air-drying; d, K-saturation and heating at 300•Ž; e
, K-saturation and heating at 550•Ž.

occurs accompanied by reduction of the layer charge the nature of the original mica, it was considered
and cation exchange of K by Ca or Mg in the sequence that the homogeneous distribution pattern of the layer
of mica•¨vermiculite or Mx•¨smectite. charge in the mica particles brought about transforma-
The reason for such transformation difference be- tion of mica into vermiculite for samples Tatkon-1 and
tween the two soil types might be ascribed to the Tatkon-2 and that the heterogeneous distribution pattern
difference in the nature of the original mica or in of the layer charge in the mica particles brought about
the transformation environment of mica. Concerning transformation of mica into Mx for samples Meiktila-1
98 Nguyen Q.H. et al.

Madaya-1 Madaya-2

Hmawbi-1 Hmawbi-2

Hmawbi-3 Hmawbi-4

FIG. 2. The XRD patterns of the<2ƒÊm clay fraction (continued).

TABLE 3. Approximate relative mineral contents (%) in the<2ƒÊm clay fraction

Abbreviations: Mc, mica; Ch, chlorite; Vt, vermiculite; St, smectite; Mx, mica/vermiculite/smectite•`mica/smectite mixed-layer mineral; Ch-Vt,

chlorite-vermiculite intergrade; Kt, kaolinite; Gt, goethite; Gb, gibbsite; Qr, quartz; Fd, feldspars.

tr., trace.
 Clay Mineralogical Composition of Myanmar Soils
and Meiktila-2. As for the transformation environt,
the homogeneous reduction of layer charge in the mica
particles would be favorable to transformation into
vermiculite, whereas the heterogeneous reduction of
layer charge be favorable to transformation into Mx.
Samples Madaya-1 and Madaya-2 representing soils
on the meander floodplain of the Ayeyarwady River
system in Mandalay Division were characterized by
predominance of mica having the contents of 51 and
72%, respectively, with some amounts of kaolinite (16
and 14%). In addition, appreciable amounts of 2:1-type
expansible minerals, mainly smectite, were identified for
sample Madaya-1. The presence of 2:1-type expansible
minerals with the low mica content compared to sample
Madaya-2 suggests that 2:1-type expansible minerals in
sample Madaya-1 have been transformed from m
and supports the vertic nature of Dark compact s.
The high mica content of samples Madaya-1d
Madaya-2 asserts that mica is a predominant clay
mineral in lowland soils derived from alluvial sediments
transported by large rivers originating from the moun-
tainous regions of central Asia composed of metamor-
phic rocks. This is the case for lowland soils in Laos
(Egashira et al., 1997), Bangladesh (Egashira et al.,
2004) and Vietnam (Nguyen and Egashira, 2005).
Sample Oktwin in Bago Division, representing soils
on the meander floodplain of the Sittang River and
classified as Meadow alluvial soils, was characterized
by domination of kaolinite (46%) over mica (18%) and
vermiculite (12%). Smectite and chlorite-vermiculite
intergrade were also detected but with small amounts
of 4 and 6%, respectively. Irrespective of the same
topography of meander floodplain, the clay mineralog-
ical composition of sample Oktwin was different from
those of samples Madaya-1 and Madaya-2, probably
due to the difference in origin of the parent material.
Four soils of samples Hmawbi-1 through Hmawbi-4,
representing soils on the deltaic plain of the Ayeyarwady
River system in Yangon Division, were characterized by
different clay mineralogical compositions depending on
the elevation, parent material and soil type. Sample
Hmawbi-1 showed the clay mineralogical composition
comparable with that of sample Oktwin, except presence
of Mx and a little larger kaolinite for sample Hmawbi-1.
Both samples Hmawbi-1 and Oktwin are classified as
Meadow alluvial soils and distributed on the depression
where land has been waterlogged by surface water and
subjected to cultivation of paddy rice for long time.
Sample Hmawbi-4, in spite of designation to the deltaic
plain of the Ayeyarwady River system, is located on the
gently slopping site and showed the clay mineralogical
composition characteristic to both Meadow alluvial
soils (fair in the mica content) and soils on the hilly
region (high in the kaolinite content). Samples Hmawbi-
2 and Hmawbi-3 were characterized by dominance of
chlorite-vermiculite intergrade (32 and 40%) and kao-
linite (34 and 30%) with small amounts of mica (4 and
2%). Chlorite-vermiculiteintergrade has been probably
formed by chloritization of vermiculite under the alter-
99
native reduced and oxidized conditions. Kaolinite is a
predominant mineral in ferralitic soils suffered from
severe weathering, as described already.
Assessment to inherent potentiality of soils
Inherent potentiality of soils could be roughly
assessed by the clay content (amount in clay minerals)
(Table 2) and the clay mineralogical composition (type
in clay minerals) (Table 3) of them. Three soils (Heho-1,
Heho-2 and Aungban) from the hilly region were
dominated by kaolinite which is inactive in terms of
retention of nutrients and water. Therefore, their inher-
ent potentiality was evaluated to be low and was
affected by the clay content in soil. Samples Tatkon-1
and Meiktila-2 from the inland valley contained major
amounts of 2:1-type expansible minerals coupled with
the moderate to high clay contents and were evaluated
to be of the intermediate to high level of inherent
potentiality. The very low clay content of samples
Tatkon-2 and Meiktila-1, irrespective of major amounts
of 2:1-type expansible minerals in the clay fraction,
suggests their low level of inherent potentiality.
Among the soils from the meander floodplain of the
Ayeyarwady River system, sample Madaya-1 was eval-
uated to be in the high level of inherent potentiality
due to the high clay content and considerable amounts
of 2:1-type expansible minerals, and sample Madaya-2
was to be in the intermediate level of inherent poten-
tiality based on the intermediate clay content and pre-
dominance of mica. Mica is a predominant clay mineral
for both samples Madaya-1 and Madaya-2 and may
serve as a source of K to crops. However, the high clay
content coupled with considerable amounts of 2:1-type
expansible minerals in sample Madaya-1 may cause
inconvenience to tillage practice. In addition, the high
inherent potentiality of a soil affects adversely growth
and yield of paddy rice under the unfavorable weather
condition (Egashira et al., 1992).
Samples Hmawbi-2 and Hmawbi-3 from the deltaic
plain of the Ayeyarwady River system were dominated
by chlorite-vermiculite intergrade and kaolinite. This
mineralogical suite along with the intermediate clay
content suggeststhe low to intermediate level of inherent
potentiality for them. Samples Hmawbi-1, Hmawbi-4
and Oktwin were classified to be of the low level of
inherent potentiality due to the low active-mineral con-
tent (Hmawbi-1) and to the low clay and active-mineral
contents (Hmawbi-4 and Oktwin).
CONCLUSIONS
Surface soils from hilly region in Shan State (South-
em), inland valley and meander floodplain in Mandaly
Division, and deltaic plain in Bago and Yangon Divi-
sions of Myanmar had a large variability in the particle-
size distribution that was not well related to the topog-
raphy, parent material and soil type. However, the clay
mineralogical composition of these soils showed a good
relationship to physiography as a total of them. Soils
100 Nguyen Q.H. et al.
on the hilly region was characterized by domination of
kaolinite over other minerals in the clay fraction, where-
as soils from the inland valley, meander floodplain and
deltaic plain were dominated by mica, its transformation
products such as vermiculite, smectite and mixed-layer
mineral, or chlorite-vermiculite intergrade as a chloriti-
zation product, depending on the physiography of them.
Inherent potentiality of the soils was assessed based
on the type and amount of clay minerals with a great
variation from the low to high levels.
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