Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pre-Spanish Times
There are two theories on the origins of the first Filipinos, the inhabitants of what will later be called the Philippine Islands
and eventually the Republic of the Philippines. See the Early Inhabitants of the Philippine Islands.
In the beginning of the 3rd century, the inhabitants of Luzon island were in contact and trading with East Asian sea-farers
and merchants including the Chinese. In the 1400's the Japanese also established a trading post at Aparri in Northern
Luzon.
In 1380, Muslim Arabs arrived at the Sulu Archipelago and established settlements which became mini-states ruled by a
Datu. They introduced Islam in the southern parts of the archipelago including some parts of Luzon and were under the
control of the Muslim sultans of Borneo. They had a significant influence over the region for a couple of hundreds years.
The Malay Muslims remained dominant in these parts until the 16th century.
In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer who was serving the Spanish crown, landed in Samar Island on his
voyage to circumvent the globe. He explored the islands and named it Archipelago of San Lazaro. Magellan was killed
during a rebellion led by a Datu named Lapu Lapu in Mactan Island (adjacent to Cebu Island). Spain continued to send
expeditions to the island for financial gain and on the fourth expedition, Commander Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, named the
islands: Philippines, after Prince Philip (later King Philip II), heir to the Spanish throne. Spain ruled the Philippines for 356
years.
In 1565, King Philip II appointed Miguel Lopez de Legazpi as the first Governor-General of the Philippines. Legazpi chose
Manila to be it's capital because of it's natural harbor. Spain's legacy was the conversion of the people to Catholicism and
the creation of the privileged landed class. Because of abuses and suppression of the Spaniards, a Propaganda
Movement emerged with the aims for equality between Filipinos and Spaniards. The arrest of propagandist Dr. Jose
Rizal and execution in 1896 gave fresh momentum to Filipino rebels to fight against Spain.
The secret society of the Katipunan, founded by Andres Bonifacio attacked the Spanish Garrison in San Juan with little
success, while Katipuneros in Cavite Province headed by Emilio Aguinaldo defeated the Guardia Civil in Cavite.
Aguinaldo's victories lead him to be elected as head of the Katipunan. The factions of Bonifacio & Aguinaldo fought and
lead to the trial and execution of Bonifacio on Aguinaldo's orders. Aguinaldo later drafted a constitution and established
the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan province. In 1897, an impasse between the Spanish government and Aguinaldo
arose. After negotiations between the two sides, Aguinaldo accepted an amnesty from the Spaniards and US$ 800,000.00
in exchange for his exile to Hong Kong with his government.
The Spanish-American war which started in Cuba, changed the history of the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, the Americans
led by U.S. Navy Admiral George Dewey, in participation of Emilio Aguinaldo, attacked the Spanish Navy in Manila Bay.
Faced with defeat, the Philippines was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898 after a payment of US$ 20 million to
Spain in accordance with the "Treaty of Paris" ending the Spanish-American War. On June 12, 1898, Filipinos led by
Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence. This declaration was opposed by the U.S. who had plans of taking over the
colony. And this led to a guerrilla war against the Americans. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and declared allegiance to
the United States. On the same year, William Howard Taft was appointed as the first U.S. governor of the Philippines. The
U.S. passed the Jones Law in 1916 establishing an elected Filipino legislature with a House of representatives & Senate.
In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act was passed by the U.S. Congress, established the Commonwealth of the Philippines
and promised Philippine independence by 1946. The law also provided for the position of President of the Commonwealth
of the Philippines. On the May 14, 1935 elections, Manuel L. Quezon won the position of President of the Philippine
Commonwealth.
In accordance with the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, The Philippines was given independence on July 4, 1946 and the
Republic of the Philippines was born.
On December 8, 1941, the Japanese invades the Philippines hours after bombing Pear Harbor in Hawaii. While the forces
of Gen. Douglas MacArthur retreated to Bataan, the Commonwealth government of President Quezon moved to
Corregidor Island. Manila was declared an open city to prevent further destruction. After the fall of Bataan on April 9, 1942
and Corregidor, In March 1942, MacArthur & Quezon fled the country and by invitation of President Roosevelt, the
Commonwealth government went into exile to Washington D.C. American and Filipino forces surrendered in May 6, 1942.
Soon a guerrilla war against the Japanese was fought by the Philippine & American Armies while Filipinos were enduring
the cruelty of the Japanese military against civilians.
Prior to Quezon's exile, he advised Dr. Jose P. Laurel to head and cooperate with the Japanese civilian government in the
hope that the collaboration will lead to a less brutality of the Japanese towards the Filipinos. Rightly or wrongly, President
Laurel and his war time government was largely detested by the Filipinos.
In October 1944, Gen. MacArthur with President Sergio Osmeña (who assumed the presidency after Quezon died on
August 1, 1944 in exile in Saranac Lake, New York) returned and liberated the Philippines from the Japanese.
On July 4, 1946, Manuel Roxas of the Nationalista Party was inaugurated as the first President of the Republic of
the Philippines. Roxas died in April 1948. He was succeeded by Elpidio Quirino. Both Roxas & Quirino had to deal with
the Hukbalahap, a large anti-Japanese guerrilla organization which became a militant group that discredited the ruling
elite. The group was eventually put down by Pres. Quirino's Secretary of Defense, Ramon Magsaysay.
Magsaysay defeated Quirino in the 1953 elections. He was a popular president and largely loved by the people.
Magsaysay died in an airplane crash on March 17, 1957 and was succeeded by Carlos Garcia.
Diosdado Macapagal won the 1961 presidential elections and soon after he changed history by declaring June 12 as
independence day - the day Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence in Cavite from Spain in 1898. Aguinaldo was the
guest of honour during the first Independence Day celebrations in 1962.
Ferdinand E. Marcos won the presidency in 1965 and was the first president to be re-elected for a second term in
office. Marcos He embarked on an ambitious public works program and maintained his popularity through his first term.
His popularity started to decline after his re-election due to perceived dishonesty in the 1969 campaign, the decline in
economic growth, government corruption and the worsening peace & order. He declared Martial Law in 1972 near the end
of his second & final term in office. Staunch oppositionist, Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino (later went on self exile to the
U.S.) & Senator Jose Diokno were one of the first to be arrested. During the Martial Law years, Marcos held an iron grip
on the nation with the support of the military. Opposition leaders we imprisoned and the legislature was abolished. Marcos
ruled by presidential decrees.
The 21-year dictatorial rule of Marcos with wife Imelda ended in 1986 following a popular uprising that forced
them to exile to Hawaii. Corazon "Cory" Aquino, the wife of exiled and murdered opposition leader Benigno Aquino who
was perceived to have won a just concluded snap election was installed as president. Aquino restored civil liberties,
initiated the formation of a new constitution and the restoration of Congress.
On September 16, 1991, despite the lobbying of Aquino, the Senate rejected a new treaty that would allow a 10-
year extension of the US military bases in the country.
In the1992 elections, Pres. Aquino endorsed Secretary of Defense Fidel Ramos as her successor, which Ramos
won with a slight margin over his rival, Miriam Defensor-Santiago. During the Ramos presidency, he advocated "National
Reconciliation" and laid the ground work for the resolution of the secessionist Muslim rebels in the southern Philippine
Island of Mindanao. The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) led by Nur Misuari, signed a peace agreement with the
government. However a splinter group, The Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) led by Hashim Salamat continued to
fight for an Islamic state. Ramos worked for the economic stability of the country and the improvement of the infrastructure
facilities like telecommunications, energy and transportation.
Joseph Ejercito Estrada, a popular actor, succeeded Ramos in 1998 with Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (daughter of
former President Diosdado Macapagal) as his Vice-President. Estrada's lack of economic & management skills plunged
the economy deeper as unemployment increased and the budget deficit ballooned. In October 2000, Estrada's close
friend Luis "Chavit" Singson accused Estrada of receiving millions of pesos from "Jueteng", an illegal numbers game.
Soon after, Congress impeached Estrada on grounds of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust and culpable
violation of the constitution. His impeachment trial at the Senate was however blocked by his political allies in the Senate.
Shortly after the evidence against Estrada was blocked at the Senate, thousands of people rallied up at the EDSA Shrine,
site of the People Power Revolution which ousted Marcos in 1986.
In January 2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph Estrada unable to rule in view of mass resignations from
his government and declared Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as his constitutional successor. To this date,
Estrada remains detained facing graft charges before the Sandigan Bayan, the Anti-graft court.
Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, completed the remaining term of Estrada and run for re-election against Fernando Poe,
Jr., another popular actor and a friend of Estrada in May 2004. Arroyo with her running mate Noli de Castro was
eventually proclaimed the winners of the Presidential & Vice-Presidential elections. She has been advocating a change
from a Presidential form of government to a Parliamentary form of government.
Arroyo's husband & son has been rumored to be receiving money from gambling lords and this has tainted her
reputation. A tape recording of Arroyo talking with a commissioner on elections surfaced establishing impropriety by
Arroyo and suggesting that she might have influenced the outcome of the last elections. Demonstrations followed in June
2005 calling for Arroyo to resign.
On the eve of the anniversary of the "People Power Revolution" on February 24, 2006, the government took pre-
emptive measures to quash alleged plots to unseat Arroyo through massive rallies and a coup. Arroyo declared a "State
of Emergency" the next day mobilizing the police and the military averting any destabilization moves. Note: Arroyo is has
been under hospital arrest since 2011 for charges of electoral sabotage and misuse of public funds. She is detained at the
Veterans Memorial Hospital in Quezon City, Metro Manila.
May 14, 2007 - National Elections for Senators, Congressmen, Governors, Mayors and local officials. Although
there are instances of violence and allegations of cheating specially in Mindanao, this elections is considered by many as
one of the most peaceful elections conducted in Philippines.
September 12, 2007 - Former President Joseph Ejercito Estrada is convicted of plunder by the Sandiganbayan,
the anti-graft court and is sentenced to 40 years imprisonment. He is the first former president ever convicted of any crime
in Philippine history. Six weeks later, on October 26, Estrada was pardoned by President Arroyo. Because of the pardon,
Estrada was able to run for Mayor of Manila and won. He is presently the city mayor of Manila.
Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III, affectionately called "Noynoy" and "Pnoy", a former senator is the son of
former President Corazon C. Aquino and the late Senator Benigno Aquino. He won the May 10, 2010 presidential
elections and was proclaimed president on June 30, 2010 at Rizal Park in Manila. Former President Gloria Arroyo, was
elected congresswoman for the second district of Pampanga. This was the first computerized national elections in
Philippine history. Aquino is generally perceived as honest with high public satisfaction ratings. Under his presidency, the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Renato Corona was impeached in 2011 for non-declaration of assets and prominent
politicians like Senators and Congressmen is being charged of corruption. Aquino continues his anti-corruption crusade.
Under the present constitution, Aquino cannot run for a second term. Presidential elections were held in May 9, 2016.
Strong candidates were Mary Grace Sonora Poe-Llamanzares, Rodrigo Roa Duterte, Manuel "Mar" Araneta Roxas II and
Jejomar Cabauatan Binay.
On June 30, 2016, Rodrigo "Rody" Roa Duterte (a.k.a. Digong), the former mayor of Davao City in Mindanao who
is known for his strong stance against illegal drugs and crime, assumed the presidency succeeding Benigno Aquino III
after receiving an overwhelming win in the May 9 elections. On the same day but separately, former congresswoman
Maria Leonor "Leni" Santo Tomas Gerona-Robredo (Leni Robredo for short) who belongs to a different party, takes oath
as vice-president succeeding Jejomar Binay. Both Duterte & Robredo serves a single term limit of six-years (till 2022).
Duterte is advocating a change of government from presidential to a federal form of government. Unlike previous
presidents, the tough-talking Duterte is antagonistic towards the United States, which has been a long time ally of the
Philippines. Remarkably, he is more friendly with China, a country which the previous administration filed a case against
at The Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague for occupying several islands within the Philippine 200 mile exclusive
economic zone. The court decided overwhelmingly in favor of the Philippines in July 2016, China refuses to accept the
verdict. Duterte has been criticized by human rights groups and some in the international community for his hard handed
tactics against illegal drugs which has lead to the killings of thousands (including innocent bystanders) allegedly involved
in the drug trade.
The Philippines is an archipelago that comprises over 7,000 islands[7] with a total land area of 300,000 square
kilometers (115,831 sq mi).[1][2] The 11 largest islands contain 95% of the total land area. The largest of these islands
is Luzon at about 105,000 square kilometers (40,541 sq mi). The next largest island is Mindanao at about 95,000 square
kilometers (36,680 sq mi). The archipelago is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) from the Asian mainland and is located
between Taiwan and Borneo.
The Philippine archipelago is divided into three island groups: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Luzon islands include
Luzon itself, Palawan, Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate, Romblon, Catanduanes, Batanes and Polilio. The Visayas is the
group of islands in the central Philippines, the largest of which
are: Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Siquijor, Biliran and Guimaras. The Mindanao islands include Mindanao
itself, Dinagat, Siargao, Camiguin, Samal, plus the Sulu Archipelago, composed primarily of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi.
Physical geography
Topography
Climate
The Philippines has a tropical climate dominated by a rainy season and a dry season, although certain locations have no
dry season (meaning, all months have an average rainfall of above 60 mm) and certain higher-altitude areas can have
a subtropical climate. The summer monsoon brings heavy rains to most of the archipelago from May to October, whereas
the winter monsoon brings relatively cooler and drier air from December to February. Manila and most of the lowland
areas are hot and dusty from March to May. Even at this time, however, temperatures rarely rise above 37 °C (98.6 °F).
Mean annual sea-level temperatures rarely fall below 27 °C (80.6 °F). Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000
millimeters (196.9 in) in the mountainous east coast section of the country, but less than 1,000 millimeters (39.4 in) in
some of the sheltered valleys.
Monsoon rains, although hard and drenching, are not normally associated with high winds and waves. But the Philippines
sit astride the typhoon belt, and it suffers an annual onslaught of dangerous storms from July through October. These are
especially hazardous for northern and eastern Luzon and the Bicol and Eastern Visayas regions, but Manila gets
devastated periodically as well.
In the last decade, the Philippines has been hit severely by natural disasters. In 2005 alone, Central Luzon was hit by both
a drought, which sharply curtailed hydroelectric power, and by a typhoon that flooded practically all of low-lying Manila's
streets. Still more damaging was the 1990 earthquake that devastated a wide area in Luzon, including Baguio and other
northern areas. The city of Cebu and nearby areas were struck by a typhoon that killed more than a hundred people, sank
vessels, destroyed part of the sugar crop, and cut off water and electricity for several days. The Philippines is prone to
about 6-9 storms which make landfall each year, on average. The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption also damaged much of
Central Luzon, the lahar burying towns and farmland, and the ashes affecting global temperatures.
Building construction is undertaken with natural disasters in mind. Most rural housing has consisted of nipa huts that are
easily damaged but are inexpensive and easy to replace. Most urban buildings are steel and concrete structures designed
(not always successfully) to resist both typhoons and earthquakes. Damage is still significant, however, and many people
are displaced each year by typhoons, earthquakes, and other natural disasters. In 1987 alone the Department of Social
Welfare and Development helped 2.4 million victims of natural disasters.
Tourist spots
Where to Stay in Manila
Tubbataha Reef
The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea is a marine sanctuary protected as the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park. The
reef is made up of two atolls, North Atoll and South Atoll, separated by a deep channel of approximately 5 miles (8 km)
wide. It has become one of the most popular dive sites in the Philippines because of its coral walls where the shallow
coral reef abruptly ends giving way to great depths. The marine park is open to live-aboard diving excursions between the
months of April to June when the waves are most calm.
Mayon Volcano
Rising more than 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) above sea level, Mayon Volcano is significant for its perfectly symmetrical
cone shape. Visitors can enjoy a number of activities here such as camping, climbing, hiking, bird watching and
photography. A picturesque spot in which to admire Mayon Volcano is from the nearby Cagsawa ruins. Mayon is the most
active volcano in the Philippines, having erupted over 49 times in the past 400 years. The most destructive eruption of
Mayon occurred on February 1, 1814 bombarding the nearby towns with volcanic rocks. The belfry and what is left of the
baroque church that was destroyed by the 1814 eruption can still be seen.
Malapascua Island
A small island made up of quiet fishing villages, Malapascua Island is popular for its ideal diving spots and for being the
only place in the world to see thresher sharks on a regular basis as well as manta rays and hammerheads. The other
hidden gems here are the beautiful, sandy white beaches, crystal clear waters bordered by coconut trees and colorful
coral gardens.
Puerto Galera
Just south of Manila is the charming coastal town of Puerto Galera, well-favored for its gorgeous beaches, excellent diving
spots and wide diversity of marine species. The most popular beaches are White Beach and Sabang Beach, which also
offer nearby shopping, dining, nightlife and hotel accommodation. Another popular attraction is the natural harbor of
Muelle Bay with its rows of shops, restaurants and bars. Visitors can also go snorkeling to see some of Asia’s best coral
reefs or dive among old shipwrecks and hundreds of fish species.
Donsol
Located in the province of Sorsogon, a place of pristine beaches, stunning waterfalls and unexplored caves, the sleepy
fishing village of Donsol is the place in the Philippines to see whale sharks. The ocean’s gentle giants can be seen
between November and June, with the numbers peaking between February and May. Tourists can also take a boat cruise
along the Donsol River through mangrove and palm trees, and watch the night light up with millions of sparkling fireflies. If
that’s not enough, a traditional shrimp-catching expedition with bamboos and nets, followed by a tasty dinner of the
cooked catch is also available.
Chocolate Hills
One of the top tourist attractions in the Philippines, The Chocolate Hills are unusual geological formations that consists of
at least 1,268 individual mounds scattered throughout the interior of the island of Bohol. The almost symmetrical and
same-sized formations range from 98 to 164 feet (30 to 50 meters) high and are covered in green grass. During the dry
season the grass turns brow, hence the name. There is no consensus on how these giant mole hills were formed. One
theory holds that the Chocolate Hills are the weathered rock formations of a kind of marine limestone on top of an
impermeable layer of clay.
Boracay
Boracay may be a small island, but it packs great features such as award-winning beaches, beautiful resorts and great
adventures like cliff diving, parasailing, motorbiking, horse riding, snorkeling, kite surfing and scuba diving. If that is not
enough, boat tours allow visitors to watch stunning sunsets, explore volcanic caves and remote coves of turquoise
lagoons. When the sun sets, Boracay night-life pulsates with many bars and restaurants serving food, drinks and fun until
dawn.
No trip to the Philippines could be complete without seeing the spectacular Banaue Rice Terraces. Carved from the
mountain ranges about 2,000 years ago without modern tools by the Ifugao tribes, these magnificent farm terraces
resemble giant steps reaching up to the sky. Locals to this day still plant rice and vegetables on the terraces, although
more and more younger Ifugaos do not find farming appealing and emigrate to the cities.
Studying Philippine history allows us to understand our past, which in turn allows to understand our present. If we
want to know how and why our world is the way it is today, we have to look to history for answers. People often say that
“history repeats itself,” but if we study the successes and failures of the past, we may, ideally, be able to learn from our
mistakes and avoid repeating them in the future. Studying history can provide us with insight into our cultures of origin as
well as cultures with which we might be less familiar, thereby increasing cross-cultural awareness and understanding.
History is a study of the various facts of human life and is closely linked with other social sciences which make a specific
study of different facts of human life.
“History without political science has no fruit and political science without history has no root.”
A historian is not merely concerned with the tracing of the history of the political process by a narration of the episodes.
But he has to learn the nature of fundamental political principles and basic forms of political institution. In the view of this
closeness between two subjects, the development of political institutions, rules, regulations, right and duties, law and
mode of justice, executive, legislative and administrative functions, economic and financial implications, nature of
bureaucracy, fundamental principles of state policy are all defined under the constitution history.
Diplomatic history is a specialized branch of political history which deals with the principles of international relations.
Ambassadors are the links between nations and they were custodians and practitioners of diplomacy.
The issue like—balance of power, cold war, international peace, disarmament have assumed great importance in recent
times. The military history is an important chapter in political history where in wars, battles, campaigns and conquests
figures very prominently. It deals with the causes of a war, strategy and war tactics, war weapons etc.
History is very helpful to politics because the political aspects is a part of the whole range of activity recorded by historian
and knowledge of history would enable the politicians to know the politics better and play their role effectively. Prof. Acton
has correctly pointed out, “the science of politics is the one science that is deposited by the stream of history like grains of
gold in the sand of a river.”
There has been a new orientation in our historical outlook from the days of the materialistic interpretation of history by
Marx and such class struggle, man’s skill in earning, arts and crafts, trade, business and commerce, land revenue, taxes
and a host of all other economic activities of the past figure very prominently in history.
No doubt, it is true that during the last few years economics has become very complex and difficult subject, mostly
dependent on mathematics, and a modern historian cannot acquire basic working knowledge of economic theory without
devoting a lot of time and leaving little time for the study and writing of history.
Therefore, a new set of economic history by the use of economic historians have emerged who try to study the economic
history by the use of the economic tools. At present, history is so closely interlinked with the study of economic problems
that it would not be possible to reconstruct history without knowledge of the relevant economic problems.
Though the conclusion drawn on the basis of the data may be known to the historians on the basis of the impressionistic
evidence, which does reduce the value because it provides a concrete evidence for a previously held thesis.
On the same line the use of the historical demography ‘viz-information regarding the movement of people, births and
deaths, fertility rates, immigrations, etc., cannot be possible without the means to process and correlate the vast and
complex data made available by various official records.
This type of detailed investigation enables the historians to understand the different facts of the past life. A new branch
called “Cliometrics” has come into vague, according to which the use of mathematics has come into greater play in the
writing of history and interpretation of the numerous sources.
“A” stands for the net result that flow from the historian’s mind and pen. “a” is the statistical “d” data and facts which he
finds in the records or source “b” is the interpretative and explanatory skill of historian which are essential to make history
meaningful. The proper of “Cliometrics” has resulted in what called “Quantified History”.
In the recent years it was realized that a fruitful interaction between the two disciplines was possible and Emile Durkheim,
Max Weber acknowledge the initial dependence of sociology upon history. Although, history too benefits from the
synthesis produced by the sociologists.
Sociologists exercised profound influence on the study of history by developing the certain narrow areas of human
activity. They adopted the sampling techniques and develop their tools with a view to minimize the subjective element. In
brief, sociology is helping history to study ‘social dynamics’ which is a study not of society at rest but constantly in social
change and development social processes and social causation are giving a new perspective to history. India too our
historians are now giving increasing attention to social history.
In the recent times an attempt has been made to evolve an ethical theory on the basis of biology, psychology and
sociology by the scholars like Stephen, Duprat, Dewey etc. A science of conduct has been evolved. A historian must
understand and master this science of ethics to have a wider perspective of the issue.
History and Psychology:
History and Psychology are also closely linked. A historian must have to show some psychological insights while making
an analysis of the motive and actions of men and societies. Historian work would be mere fiction unless he uses the
discoveries of modern psychology. The personal life and the environment of a historian has a direct bearing in his
decision and often import a bias to his account and renders the much desired objectivity impossible.
The impact of psychology on history is evident from the fact that in the past historian inquired primarily into the origins of
war and ignored the result of war. As a result of the influence of psychology historians have under taken the study of the
results and impacts of war. An understanding of the group psychology can enable a historian to determine the role of
masses in the various revolutions such as Jingoistic patriotism has been described as the cause of certain wars but
historian can discuss this cause with the help of the social psychology.
Prof. Michelet was of the opinion that history was in essence found upon geography. He says “Without a geographical
basis the people, the makers of history, seek to be walking.” German philosopher Kant said, “Geography lies at the basis
of history.” Herder said that “history is geography set in motion.”
There are others like American geographer, Ells Worth Huntington, and Allen Semple who emphasise the importance of
climate as having crucial influence on the course of history as well as on race temperament.
It is a fact that many geographical factors such as climate, social, rivers, mountains, sea, coastline and mineral resources
aided the development of river in valley. Cultures as in early Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. Herodotus, the early
Greek historian describes that “Egypt is the gift of the Nile”.
Even Aristotle and Montesquieu have emphasized the influence of climate on man. The physical formation of the country
such as Britain, Japan and Greece with broken coastlines had a very powerful impact on its history. This facilitated their
naval strength and empire building activities.
Similarly, the Himalayas and the jungles of Assam have acted as barriers against invasions from the North and East of
India. The Himalayas and the Gobi and Mangolian deserts were responsible for the isolation of China. The geographical
discoveries of America and a new route to India determined the character of World History since the Renaissance.
Geography also plays an important role in the national character formation and influence the human behaviour. As we
know that climate of a country greatly affected the civilisation of a country. Hence the knowledge of geographical is very
essential for historians. It would be wise to accept the limited interpretation of geographical influence on man’s conduct or
on his history.