The Role of Geology in Reservoir
Simulation Studies
D. G. Harris, SPE-AIME, Exxon Production Research Co.
Introduction
This paper describes the geological activities required for
constructing realistic mathematical reservoir models. The
methods used by a geologist are pointed out and' the
typical data provided by these methods are presented.
Also, the geological controls on reservoir properties and
the significance of these controls in reservoir performance
are summarized. The information presented should be
helpful to both the engineer and the geologist involved
with reserves estimation and performance prediction.
Reservoir simulation models are used increasingly to
evaluate both new and mature fields,2,4 and to determine
the most efficient management scheme. Part of the infor-
mation contained in the model is provided by the
geologist, based on his studies of the physical framework
of the reservoir. To be useful, such studies mustdevelop
quantitative data. The geologist must also understand the
type of engineering data needed and how the engineer can
aid the quantification of the framework data.
In the following discussion, reservoir simulation mod-
els are described briefly. This provides a base for discus-
sion of the geologist's activities in simulation work and
the assistance that he requires from the engineer. This
discussion is restricted to the reservoir-description phase
of simulation studies.
The main topic is demonstration of the geological ac-
tivities used in a study of a pilot-test site. The illustrations
indicate the information that is often required for simula-
tion modeling and demonstrate how geologic data can be
synthesized to provide quantified information. The gen-
eral application of the methodology is also described. The
technology required for future studies is discussed.
Reservoir simulation models are becoming increasingly sophisticated, resulting in partfrom the
development ofboth geological and engineering reservoir-description methods. The geologist's'
research usually follows a four-step procedure that is applicable to most exploration and
production operations.
MAY, 1975
Reservoir Simulation Models
Over the past few years, improved technology4,S has made
it possible to develop detailed and complex computer
programs for simulating fluid flow in new and in de-
veloped reservoirs. These dynamic models are based on
the Darcy equation for fluid flow and on material-balance
calculations. The simulation may be in one, two, or three
dimensions and may involve one, two, or three fluid
phases. Engineering literature contains further informa-
tion on the variety and historical development of simula-
tion models. 4,5,11
A common simulation model is the two-dimensional,
multicell cross-section shown in Fig. 1. Such a model is
capable of handling vertical variations in porosity, per-
meability, and capillary properties for a limited (or typi-
cal) area. The variation is represented by assigning values
to the essential parameters (Table 1) characterizing each
cell or element. These and other data are entered into a
computer program, and changes in fluid volumes, fluid
state, etc., are calculated for each cell on a predetermined
production (or injection) schedule.
The distributions of the reservoir- and nonreservoir-
rock types and of the reservoir fluids determine the
geometry of the model and influence the type of model to
be used. For example, the number and scale of the shale
(or dense carbonate) breaks in the physical framework
determine the continuity of the reservoir facies and influ-
ence the vertical and horizontal dimensions of each cell.
Real variations in reservoir parameters may require sev-
eral cross-sections or a three-dimensional model. Other
influences on cell dimension include computing cost, well
625
 TABLE 1-TYPICAl PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR EACH CELL OF A spacing, fluid-phase distribution, and the purpose of the
TWO..DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION MODEL study.
Midpoint elevation Length, each side Geologists have long recognized that the rock
Thickness Permeabil ity, each side framework of most reservoirs is heterogeneous. 3 With the
Porosity Initial gas, oil, and water saturation
development of complex simulation technology, and as a
result of detailed surface and subsurface studies of reser-
voirs in many areas, these heterogeneities can be recog-
nized early in the life of a field. The scale and character of
the heterogeneity often can be expressed quantitatively.
Thus, the physical model can be incorporated into a de-
tailed mathematical model.
Geologic Activities in Reservoir Description
Both engineering and geological judgment must guide
the development and use of the simulation model. The
geologist usually concentrates on the rock attributes in
Oil - WATER CONTACT
four stages: (1) rock studies establish lithology and deter-
AT TIME itT"
mine depositional environment, and reservoir rock is dis-
tinguished from nonreservoir rock; (2) framework studies
Fig. 1--Example of a multicell, two~dimensional cross-section establish the structural style and determine the three-
model. 10 (See Table 1 for cell parameters.)
dimensional continuity character and gross-thickness
trends of the reservoir rock; (3) reservoir-quality studies
TYPE OF EXAMPLES OF
determine the framework variability of the reservoir rock
GEOLOGIC ACTIVITY INTERPLAY OF EFFORT in terms of porosity, permeability, and capillary proper-
ties (the aquifer surrounding the field is similarly studied);
ROCK STUDIES
and (4) integration studies develop the hydrocarbon
• LITHOLOGY
• DEPOSITIONAL ORIGIN
pore volume and fluid transmissibility patterns in three
• RESERVOIR ROCK TYPES dimensions.
CORE Throughout his work, the geologist requires assistance
ANALYSIS and guidance from the engineer. Examples of this "inter-
FRAMEWORK STUDIES play of effort" are indicated in Fig. 2. Core-analysis mea-
• STRUCTURE surements of samples selected by the geologist provide
• CONTINUITY data for the preliminary identification of reservoir rock
• GROSS THICKNESS TRENDS types. Well-test studies aid in recognizing flow barriers,
WELL fractures, and variations in permeability. Various simula-
TESTING
tion studies can be used to test the physical model against
pressure-production performance; adjustments are made
• QUALITY PROFILES to the model until a match is achieved.
• RESERVOIR ZONAnON
• NET THICKNESS TRENDS PRESSURE Case Study \
PRODUCTION To illustrate some geological methods 3 that might be used
INTEGRATION STUDIES HISTORY MATCH in a simulation study, the work done for a pilot study is
• PORE VOLUME reviewed. The details of the engineering work are con-
• TRANSMISSIBILITY tained in a previously published paper. 7 The purpose of
the test was to evaluate the suitability of a surfactant-
Fig. 2-General geological activities in reservoir description and flooding process as a tertiary recovery method. Prepara-
input from engineering studies. tory to the test, a detailed reservoir-description study was
undertaken.
The pilot site, located in the Loudon field in central
INJECTION
WEll Illinois (Fig. 3), contains five wells drilled on a 0.625-
4 acre, unconfined five-spot pattern and an observation well
\\ t midway between the producer and the northernmost injec-
\ N tor. The compass orientation of the pattern. was rotated to
\ I 6
o lessen the influence of the N7 DOE fracture pattern found in
\ \ I OBSERVATION
I \'v l WEll parts of the field (but not detected in the pilot). The field is
INW 12~ T8N~ R3E 5- located on an anticline with a northeast-southwest axial
PRODUCING
• .1
I WEll trend, a 165-ft closure (Cypress datum), and 1° to 2° flank
dips. Faulting is generally scarce and appears to be absent
1 in the pilot.
o 50
I=EET Rock Studies
2 Cores and well logs provided rock information on all six
Fig. 3-Location and plan of the pilot~test site in the Loudon field, wells in the pilot and on other wells in key locations
Illinois. throughout the field. Typical well logs and core descrip-
626 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
tion data for the pilot are shown in Fig. 4. The interval
represented is a portion of the Cypress formation of the
Upper Mississippian (Chester) age. The sandstone inter-
val is the Weiler sandstone, the major reservoir unit at
Loudon.
The core-description graph records (left to right) de-
positional environment and key rock units, oil staining,
texture (graphic illustration of Wentworth grain-size
classes), lithology (lithologic type and mixtures of
types), sedimentary structures (bedding types), and cal-
cite cement of geologic origin. Also determined, but
not included in Fig. 4, were tabulations of fossils iden-
tified in the core material.
The logs and core-description data show that the cored
interval consists of six lithologic units, including shale,
siltstone, and sandstone. Representative photos of these
intervals are shown in Fig. 5. The Weiler interval consists
of both fine-grained, clean sandstone, and very fine-
grained, shaly to silty sandstone.
Recognition of the environment of deposition is a key
step in any geologic study because the quality and three-
dimensional distribution of the reservoir rock is usually
greatly influenced by depositional conditions. The deposi-
tional conditions are recognized by examining slabbed
cores and recording the information shown in Fig. 4,
along with the fossil data. Based on the vertical sequence
of total data, the depositional origin is established. This
information forms the basis for framework studies.
In the pilot area and throughout most of the Loudon
field, the Weiler sandstone formed in a shallow-water
deltaic environment that was influenced by weak tidal
activity. The subdivisions of the depositional framework
in the pilot are indicated in Fig. 4. The three-dimensional
relationships of the subdivisions illustrated in Fig. 6 indi-
cate relationships documented from studies of modern
deltas.
As shown in Fig. 6, the pilot is situated within a larger
rock mass, with the vertical sequence of deposits, in depo-
sitional order, consisting of prodelta, shale (Lithologic
Unit 1), delta- front shale, siltstone and sandstone
(Lithologic Units 2 through 5), and delta-plain marsh
(Lithologic Unit 6). This vertical sequence demonstrates
the seaward building nature of deltas.
Reservoir-rock types can be identified in various ways
at this stage. The nature of the oil staining (heavy or light,
even or broken, absent or present) is a valid indicator of
reservoir-rock character. By comparison with the lithol-
ogy column, broken stain (diagonal bars) is associated
with intervals of mixed sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
Ripple-bedded intervals commonly exhibit broken stain.
Even, heavy stain is associated with "clean" sandstone
intervals characterized by very thin shale breaks (lamina).
Unstained intervals are calcite-cemented sandstones,
dirty sandstones, or siltstones .
More definitive methods of reservoir-rock identifica-
tion use core analysis data and well logs. The geologist
should obtain core analysis data on representative
lithologies and should prepare graphs of porosity vs per-
meability, as shown in Fig. 7. The rock type for each plug
value is indicated to aid identification and to assist in
selecting samples for additional measurement. In the pilot
area, the fine- grained sandstones are better reservoir rock.
Framework Studies
Regional subsurface and surface studies demonstrated
that the Loudon field is located on the flank of a large,
ancient river system feeding a coastal deltaic complex
(Fig. 8). This and other drainage systems developed an

DEPOSITIONAL S.P.
--.... LL-8
ENVIRONMENTS DEPTH (FT) ~
AND UNITS
z
!!to CORE LOG CAL. ~
_r= TEX.
Z.
LITH. SED. CEM.
<
.... ::I: ..0
STRUC (%)
CL. '" !::z
«
~
40
o
«
....
0 100
.... ~ :::>
LLI
Q

'"
Z a.n
« ....
....
~
z:::>
>< ~ f - -
.....
LLI
~
CL. «
~ I:Q

0 :I:
U ....
:::> !::
~

60~
.... 0 Z
Z
0 ~ :::>
~ a::J.
~

« ....~
........ c.n
1===
f-- I---

~118070 ~
W
Q vi
Z M
<t ....
....
~ z:::>
..i
- N I----

<t ....
.... «
w
* ~ 80~
-
I-
w ::I:
.... \CLAY
Q *DELTA FRONT COARSE
0 '" Z
~ c :::>
SILTSTONE AND
CL.
0..: CLAYSTONE
Fig. 4-Example core-description graph showing results of rock studies.

MAY, 1975 627

 UNIT 6 UNIT 4 UNIT 2

LOWER TRANSITION

Fig. 5-Typical photographs of the six I.ithologic units (the photo for Unit 3 is about 1 ft long),

APPROXIMATE
PILOT LOCATION
UNITS· 3-5 DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL

CARBONACEOUS SHALE
O SILTY SHALE

F3 LAMINATED. CARBONACEOUS
Ed SANDSTONE

it.
.:..c"1~ INTERBEDDED SANDSTONE
~~.=.~:. AND SILTY CLAYSTONE

r=-----] DARK GRA Y

:=--::::=:-- BLACK SHALE
Fil. 6-Block diagram showingthe vertical and areal distribution of units in a typical modern delta. 6

628 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

extensive sandstone body because individual deltas mak- 100Qr--·-,.---...,----.------,---r-----,...----.
ing up the total deposit built successively southward as
one delta lobe after another was formed and abandoned.
Such is the history of modern deltas, like that formed by
the Mississippi River. The present-day areal extent of the 100
Cypress (Weiler) sandstone is in excess of 30,000 sq
miles.
The riverine deposits of the Cypress formation appear
as linear "thicks" or "belts," and the delta front and

.-
10
related deposits form thinner, discontinuous sheet de-

-
·posits. The discontinuous nature of the delta-front de-
posits is best seen at the 10-acre spacing of the field.
Because the Loudon field is largely north of a sand 1.0
o
thick, only the extreme southern end of the field received
much aquifer support. Most of the field, situated in the • •
SILTSTONE AND SI TSTONE WISH

SANDSTONE, V. F. GRAINED

thinner, discontinuous delta front, produced initially by o SANDSTONE, FINE GRAINED

0.1 ........rr---~1-H--¥+-+-....L.----l..---
solution gas drive. Later, waterflooding operations were o 20
_--1.-_---J-_---J

30
begun to increase oil recovery .
POROSITY - % BULK VOLUME
The Upper Mississippian strata in the Illinois basin Fig. 7-Porosity vs permeabil ity cross-plot for various rock types
consist of several deltaic cycles, each similar to the aids identification of reservoir rocks.
Cypress. Shallow- water carbonate deposits are inter-
spersed with the deltaic clastics. The wide areal extent
of these carbonates render them excellent units for cor-
relation at both the regional and the pilot scale. Three
deltaic cycles (Weiler, Paint Creek, and Bethel) have
been productive at Loudon.
To ascertain the three-dimensional reservoir continuity
in a sedimentary basin, field, or pilot, well logs (and
seismic sections, where appropriate) are systematically
analyzed, using a depositional model as a guide. The
objective of correlation studies is to determine the vertical
and areal limits of fundamental reservoir bodies and the
degree of contact (stacking) of the bodies in time and
space. When cores are lacking, the depositional units
often can be estimated by comparing well-log cUrves in
cored and uncored sections or wells.
o 18
The method used in the case study is shown in Fig. 9. I MILE'S'
For easier representation, the environmental data (shown
in Fig. 4) have been removed. Wells in the pilot and in the • 200-250 FT. @ 50-100 FT.
160-acre area surrounding the pilot were correlated over
the interval extending from the limestone datum to the
e 150-200 FT. 00-50 FT.

limestone marker below the Cypress formation. The sys- o 100-150 FT. ~NO SAND

tem used recognized points of geometric similarity or • OUTCROP LOCALITY

depositional association in various well locations that Fig. a-Regional thickness map of the Chester (Weiler) sandstone
formed a series of "loops" on a map of a 40-acre area. reflects depositional controls on sand distribution.
Key curve points were numbered and, on cross-sections, WELL NO.2
S.P.
lines were drawn to connect these points. L1'RAlOG 8

The pattern of lines in the interval above and below the WELL NO.1
Weiler, together with the depositional units (see Fig. 4), 13~ 13S0
aided in determining the vertical and lateral limits of
S.P.
reservoir units in various wells. The general parallelism of DATUM:

the correlation lines suggested a near-horizontal, tabular TOP OF

CYPRESS FORMA TlON

geometry of reservoir beds; this is further supported by the CORRELATION NUMBER

depositional interpretation.
Shale breaks of two scales were identified in the pilot:
(1) those with radii of at least 200 ft but less than 1,000 ft -~
(see Marker 8, Fig. 9) and (2) those with radii less than.50 ~~:::;<=================~===:;::-~-=:-
~

_ _ === __ ~4~50'0'
ft (see Unit 4, Fig. 4). Tight streaks of carbonate cement
(see Well 2, Fig. 9) occurred in five wells, but were not
correlative between wells. 'WEILER BASE
T.D. 1481 ( LOGGER ) VERTI~:E\ SCALE [~O
On the 160-acre scale, sand developments similar to
NO HORIZONTAL SCALE
Unit 4 in the pilot were found to owe their general con-
T.D. 1498 ( LOGGER)
tinuity to the stacking and overlapping of individual sand Fig. 9-Example of well-log correlation in the pilot indicating detail
"blobs. " This suggested that several distributaries were required for sand continuity studies.

MAY, 1975 629


t
N
o 50
FEET
CONTOUR INTERVAL: 2 FEET
Fig. 10-Thickness map of the reservoir and nonreservoir rocks in
Unit 4.
active in different areas at different times, and that the
so.. called "sheet sand" 6 ofthis Chester delta.. front deposit
had numerous "holes" in it. Pressure.. pulse (interference)
testing was very helpful in determining the true continuity
character because the apparent continuity, as developed
by correlation work (and shown on cross..sections), can
not be quantitative or completely accurate. Indeed, the
well.. log correlation approach becomes risky in the pilot
area (in this depositional model) at a well spacing greater
than about 10 acres because a measurable response in one
of two well pairs at that spacing was not obtained.
A pilot.. area map (Fig. 10) of the depositional thickness
of Unit 4, the principal reservoir unit, shows a pronounced
northeast-southwest trend. This is an optimistic map be-
cause it includes beds that are shown by core description
and core analysis to be of questionable pay. This "gross"
map is useful for establishing the grain of thickness pat-
terns, but the effective thickness, or net sand, must be
mapped. Net thickness maps and other reservoir maps are
best developed in conjunction with studies of reservoir
quality.
Although no structure map is included in this paper, a
careful interpretation of structural features is mandatory.
Included in this phase are bed attitude (dip and strike),
faults, and fractures. Also, an understanding of the re-
gional tectonic history and structural style is fundamen-
tally important to the interpretation of the field and pilot.
In summary, framework studies are aimed at determin-
ing the number and the· distribution of reservoir zones.
This is accomplished with core-description graphs, well-
log·correlations, and structure and gross-thickness maps.
When more than one deposition has occurred, the reser-
voir units in each must be evaluated and areas of reservoir
overlap must be noted. Interference (well) testing and
pressure-production history studies are important to these
objectives.
Reservoir Quality Studies
For each reservoir zone established during the framework
studies, it is often necessary to establish the vertical and
lateral distribution of "pay counts" and of porosity and
permeability values. Laboratory analysis suggested that
10 md was the practical lower limit for effective surfactant
flooding. Thus, 10 md was used as a cutoff value for
determining net sand.

DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS KEROSENE tn DEPTH (FT) BRINE
AND UNITS POROSITY - % B. V.~O CORE LOG CAL. PERMEABILITY - MD
z 20 10~;= TEX. LITH. SED. CEM. 100 10 1.0
<C :E: ..0 1
21 .1' 14'1.7 101'.4 i ---40 STRUC (%0) i II I i
-oJ
Q,. '~
" I- 94.1......-AV. UNIT 4
et: « Z /' ~/ 0 0100 I
I-
-oJ
:E :;:) AV. AV. AV. - I
LLI
Q UNIT 4 UNIT 3 UNIT 5 \ ~_~ PERMEABILlTY I
1\ --~ CUT-OFF~

...- ·1·: - -. --
-
I_T
-;+ --,
II. t
~
- -
:\.
!.\ 60~ I -
:1,
I. •

t
,T
l
_-l -
--
.-
--~-
I -
_: __I .
et:
to-
~~- .-
• -I .. -T-.. -
1. .- - •
.-- .•
Q ~ M
« !::
ar: Z
.... ;:) CORE
/ ·5 · -I
~
~ ---
c(
....i

*~
u.I
ANALYSIS DATA ·1
~
---
80 - -
~ .-
....
-oJ
-oJ
«
w
c :r.: I- *DELTA FRONT
0 '" Z SILTSTONE AN D
ar: ci :l
Q,.
~
CLA YSTONE
Fig. ll-Example reservoir-quality profile showing porosity and permeability relationships to lithology.

630 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 Net sand counts and preliminary evaluation of varia-
tions in porosity and permeability were developed using
graphs such as are shown in Fig. 11. In practice, these
data are plotted on the core-description graphs described
earlier; for clarity, the core-analysis data have replaced
the well-log curves in Fig. 4, but would normally oc-
cur as an overlay to the curves. Also shown in Fig. 11
is the permeability cutoff, a first step in counting pay.
The profiles can be constructed manually or with sim-
ple computer programs. The vertical porosity and per-
meability variation can be quantified using statistical zo-
nation techniques. 7
When core plugs are widely spaced, the relationship
shown in Fig. 7 can be used. Each dot in Fig. 11 represents
a plug value. The rock interval between plugs can be
estimated by spreading the plug values to include intervals
with a similar lithology. Conventional log-analysis data,
such as porosity or water saturation, can be used, or can be
substituted for core-analysis data. The results from either
of these methods can be compared with well-test data. In
the pilot, porosity was fairly constant, but permeability
showed some variability. 7
The profiles permit evaluation of the areal variability in
net thickness, porosity, and permeability before begin-
ning statistical studies or constructing maps. In the pilot
area, porosity was fairly constant between wells, but
thickness and average permeability showed areal variabil-'
ity and required additional study.
To establish the areal distribution of net sand (Fig. 12),
net-sand values obtained from the profiles were plotted on
a transparent base map. This base was overlaid on a
combined gross-thickness map of Units 4 and 5. The
net-sand values were contoured, using the combined gross
(depositional) map as a guide (" guiding" method). In this
way, shaliness was dropped out while the contour pattern
representing depositional processes was still honored.
Calcite cement in Well 2 was sufficient to require addi-
tional contour adjustment in this southwest quadrant ofthe
pilot.
/ ¢1~.8l
18/
6 Whether dealing with a field in the early exploration or
°17.0'
I Technology
N
50
, Future activities in reservoir description must be based on
FEET
CONTOUR INTERV AL: 2 FEET
Fig. 12-Thickness mapof net reservoir sandstone in Units 4and 5.
MAY, 1975
Commonly, porosity and permeability maps are also
constructed when significant areal variability is present.
Often, porosity and permeability can be related to depo-
sitional processes, so maps of these parameters can be
constructed by "guiding." Possible underlay maps for
guiding porosity and permeability contours include net-
sand thickness, percent of coarse sand, and other textur-
ally based maps. Cross plots aid in determining the type of
underlay map needed.
Integration Studies
At this stage of the geologic activities, reservoir maps of
pore volume (and hydrocarbon pore volume) and permea-
bility capacity (permeability-thickness) may be developed
if needed. Such maps are important because they repre-
sent the three-dimensional attributes of certain parame-
ters defining the physical model. Thus, these maps point
up critical areas that may require careful evaluation during
the construction of a simulation model.
Pore volume and other maps can be constructed by
cross-contouring a net-sand map with a porosity map (or a
map of another parameter). This long-standing technique
is well known to production geologists. Consequently, an
illustration of this technique is not included here.
A final step in the integration studies is checking the
geologic model against pressure-production history. This
can be done by achieving a match between known perfor-
mance and simulated performance, with the geologic data
having been incorporated into the mathematical model. In
the case of the pilot, a good match of tracer response was
achieved when the simulated pore volume was 16,500
bbl. The core-analysis data and net-sand map had indi-
cated a pore volume of 16,250 bbl. Unless a realistic
over-all match is achieved, it may be necessary to adjust
the geologic maps, re-examine the reservoir data, or ob-
tain additional data.
General Applicability of Methodology
Even though the pilot site used as the example is a special
type of reservoir-description study, the general methods
described can be applied to most reservoir-description
investigations. Aside from the close well spacing of most
pilots, cores are often more plentiful in pilot studies than
they are in field-scale projects. Thus, the geologist must
shift his rock studies to cuttings, and the quality and type
of well logs will be even more important to reservoir
description.
the late development stage, the four steps (rock studies,
framework studies, reservoir quality studies, and integra-
tion studies) can be followed, with certain differences in
the scope of the geologist's role. Geologic input is usually
more necessary in the early exploration stage, when well
control is sparse. In this stage, the geologist needs to use
experience and judgment to guide the work through each
step. When well control is dense, high-speed computers
can be used.
Future Developments in Geologic
the continued development of new technology and on the
developnlent of experience from past achievements. In-
dustry must continue to publish results of hydrocarbon-
631
recovery studies , and both the reservoir description and
the performance data must be made available. In particu-
lar, the geologic data must be reported in greater detail
than in the past.
The use of high-speed computers in geology has been
increasing, but the geologist in production operations can
make even greater use of this technology. Particularly in
mature areas, the geologist will find computer mapping a
great aid in keeping up with daily work and in locating
areas where infill drilling is needed to recover by-passed
oil.
Recent advances in recognizing and predicting.deposi-
tional environments need to be matched by advances in
predicting heterogeneities resulting from compaction and
cementation. More information about the influence of
depositional and diagenetic processes on recovery effi-
ciency must be developed.
In both the development of experience files and of new
technology, the essential factor will be the willingness of
the geologist and the engineer .to support each other in
finding and recovering hydrocarbons. High costs of ex-
ploration and production activities require constant appli-
cation of the. combined technology and judgment of both
professions.
References
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632
of Upper Mississippian Age, Illinois Basin," Exxon Co., U.S.A.
unpublished report (1962).
2. Ghauri, W. K., Osborne, A. F., and Magnuson, W. L.: "Changing
Concepts in Carbonate Waterflooding - West Texas Denver Unit
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(Nov. 1969) 1383-1388.
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State Geological Survey Circular 340 (1962).
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- An Engineering Overview," J. Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1971)
1428-1436. JPT
Original manuscript received in. Society of Petroleum Engineers office July 22,1974.
Revised manuscript received Feb. 10, 1975. Paper (SPE 5022) was first presented at the
SPE-AIME 49th Annual Fall Meeting, held in Houston, Oct. 6-9, 1974. © Copyright 1975
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY