Article

Games and Culture

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Sciences: Applying DOI: 10.1177/1555412016667342
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Roger Caillois’s Concepts

of Symmetry and
Dissymmetry to Journey

Enrico Gandolfi1

Abstract
The article aims to problematize the perspective of Roger Caillois beyond the
relative more influential Les Jeux et les Hommes for Game Studies and then put the
use of his theories to the test. By harnessing the alternative concepts of ‘‘symmetry’’
and ‘‘dissymmetry,’’ which are at the core of his approach, a textual analysis is
applied to the high acclaimed video game Journey. Further suggestions from philo-
sophy (‘‘deconstruction’’ by Derrida), cultural studies (‘‘the circuit of culture’’), and
game design support the study. Thus, symmetric and dissymmetric features (e.g.,
mechanics, aesthetics) are framed enlightening in-game processes further; con-
versely, the limits of these notions in game analysis are deepened along with some
tendencies in misreading Caillois in the field.

Keywords
Roger Caillois, dissymmetry, Journey, symmetry, textual analysis

1
College of Education, Health and Human Services, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA

Corresponding Author:
Enrico Gandolfi, College of Education, Health and Human Services, Kent State University, 323 Moulton
Hall, PO Box 5190, Kent, OH 44242, USA.
Email: egandol1@kent.edu

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2 Games and Culture

It is well known that Roger Caillois is one of the most influential authors in Game
Studies. His segmentation of play in agon, alea, mimicry, and ilinx forms (Caillois,
1958) was recalled by several scholars in uncovering ludic phenomena and provid-
ing a first systematization of the related dynamics (e.g., Henricks, 2011, pp. 157–
158; Salen & Zimmerman, 2003, pp. 307–309). The distinction between ludus (i.e.,
the ludic activity enabled through formal procedures) and paidia (i.e., the unstruc-
tured playfulness), and between play (i.e., the act of play) and game (i.e., the formal
rules that structure the play) are further significant contributions to the discipline
despite their theoretical limitations (see Grimes & Feenberg, 2009, pp. 109–100;
Jull, 2005, pp. 12–13).
The aim of this article is to contribute to scholarship by considering Caillois’s
thinking beyond Les Jeux et les Hommes (Caillois, 1958). Indeed, games were only
one of the topics explored by this celebrated French writer, who addressed a multi-
tude of issues in his articulated production, from imagination and surrealism to
aesthetics and politics (for an overview, see Frank, 2003; Hollier, 1988). However,
the relation between symmetry and dissymmetry is a guiding thread in such a rich
academic path. The former concept was suggested in early works (e.g., Caillois,
1934, 1933–1935/1981, 1935/1984), while the latter glaringly emerged in his last
years of activity (Caillois, 1973, 1976); nevertheless, the tension between the two
was already present before in the relations between manism and shamanism (Cail-
lois, 1938), and mimicry and vertigo (Caillois, 1958). Their linkage offers a window
into the whole way of thinking of the author; its relevance indeed concerns Caillois’
approach rather than a momentary interest (Caillois, 1976, p. 199).
It can be argued that dissymmetry is a fundamental concept in Caillois’s diagonal
perspective on reality and intellectual commitment. According to his words (1976,
pp. 246–247), the reference is to a disruptive tendency to problematize standards and
push beyond their structure through an unexpected recombination. Conversely,
symmetry is the counterbalance of such a generative entropy. The iteration of forms,
rules, and proportions characterizes human and natural worlds toward a primordial
harmony with a depersonalizing fascination (Caillois, 1935/1984). Dissymmetry and
symmetry are deeply intertwined; their recursive dialectic is a basic principle of
being: innovation versus tradition, individualization versus identification, stasis
versus movement. They can be interpreted as two sides of the same coin and forces
that trigger visceral impulses in every animal, mineral, and vegetal entity (Caillois,
1976, p. 220).
In this article, both the concepts are adopted to guide a textual analysis of the
highly acclaimed video game Journey (Thatgamecompany, 2012). The related
assumption is that they can support a critical and self-reflexive overview of gaming
traits and dynamics. The rationale behind this investigation is to challenge Caillois’s
contribution to Game Studies further and, at the same time, problematize the current
interpretation (from criticism to application) of his theories in the discipline. Con-
sequently, the exploration depicted in the following pages can be read as both an
alternative exploitation of the French writer and a self-assessment in referring to his

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Gandolfi 3

works. Two strata of analysis are advanced and reciprocally tied; Journey becomes a
research object per se and a testing ground, a laboratory experiment, for Caillois’s
core suggestions. Indeed, in Game Studies the mentions of Les Jeux et les Hommes
often do not take into account the historical context and Caillois’s other (and even
more central) works (Mesch, 2011; Parikka, 2011) with the risk to stage a partial
misunderstanding. Coherently, in this article, a wide attention is given to his
schemes, which can be considered a further focus of examination and not only an
instrument of inquiry.
In order to pursue this line and connect such a double scope, a multidisciplinary
refinement was conducted by taking advantage of the concepts of ‘‘deconstruc-
tion’’ (Derrida, 1967/1997) and ‘‘circuit of culture’’ (du Gay, Hall, Janes, Mackay,
& Negus, 1997). Accordingly, a textual analysis (Floch, 1995) with a cultural
emphasis (McGuigan, 2009) was applied to Journey by exploring its features
(e.g., aesthetics, mechanics) with the support of design principles proposed by
practitioners and game scholars (e.g., Adams & Dormans, 2012; Mäyrä, 2008).
This video game was selected because of the disorienting mechanics, which appar-
ently overturned several standards of the sector, and the symmetrical aesthetics
(e.g., colors, shapes, and lines).
This article proceeds as follows: in the first section, Journey is introduced and
symmetry and dissymmetry are described within Caillois’s perspective and refined
with the references mentioned above, which set the stage for a related analysis; in the
second, the research method is outlined by enlightening the leading questions and
the traits investigated; the third depicts the textual functioning of the game; finally,
the fourth concerns discussion and conclusions, which position the effectiveness
of the study itself.

Enriching a Diagonal Gaze

Journey
Journey is an adventure game published in 2012 (for PlayStation [PS] 3) and 2015
(for PS4) by Sony Computer Entertainment and developed by the software houses
Thatgamecompany, which was responsible for the previous Flow (2006) and Flower
(2009), and Tricky Pixels (involved in the PS4 porting). It won several Game of the
Year awards and achieved unanimous critical acclaim (metascore of 93% for PS3
version and 95% for PS4 version on www.gamerankings.com); it immediately
became the fastest selling product on PS network according to Sony. Journey was
the third game planned in an agreement between Thatgamecompany and the Japa-
nese major; although the former was a small team that could be considered inde-
pendent in terms of size, the latter provided significant resources (see Mallory, 2013)
with the aim to support innovative productions.
The game asks the user to undertake a path through a desert playing as a myster-
ious hooded character; the destination is a mountain always visible in the distance.

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4 Games and Culture

By approaching the final goal, the protagonist will discover old ruins, deal with
strange organisms, and face different and even hostile weather conditions. The
gameplay is based on environmental puzzles that must be solved in order to continue
the exploration for an average game length of 2 hr. Furthermore, a cooperative mode
is present and allows players to join forces and go forward together. The in-game
camera mainly focuses on the avatar’s shoulders with few exceptions (brief cuts-
cenes). According to specialized press (e.g., Arendt, 2012; Douglas, 2012; MacDo-
nald, 2012), artistic features (design, music, and graphic) and overall atmosphere
were highlighted because of their originality and fascination, whereas a short dura-
tion and an unbalanced pace were the most frequent critiques.
Journey seemed an ideal laboratory test to attempt an analysis based on sym-
metry and dissymmetry: Its layout is supported by symmetries of lines, colors, and
shapes; contrariwise, certain features (e.g., the absence of combat, the frugality of
the interface) astonish the player. However, both the concepts require an in-depth
examination to stage a proper exploration of Journey and address their potential
novelty and limitations in game analysis.

Symmetry and Dissymmetry

La Ne´cessite´ d’esprit (1933–1935/1981; original edition: 1933–1935), La mante
religieuse. De la biologie à la psychanalyse (1934) and Mimicry and legendary
psychasthenia (1935/1984; original edition: 1935) represent a turning point in Cail-
lois’s path. Particularly in the latter essay, he began to develop a concept that would
characterize his future works, that is, symmetry. The symmetric behavior par excel-
lence is the mimicry—that is, ‘‘an incantation fixed at its culminating point’’ (p. 27).
With this term, the reference is to the replication of a contextual element acted by a
subject toward its own environment; examples are the actor who becomes someone
else on the stage or the animal that reproduces traits of its surrounding when hiding
from predators. According to Caillois (1935), human and natural beings are both
characterized by this desire to simulate the space around them. Specifically, he
focuses on different species of insects that have mimetic attitudes as an indicative
proof. This type of strategy is not motivated by a survival advantage nor chance (p.
22); conversely, it is the consequence of a temptation triggered by the space per se
(p. 28), which mesmerizes the subject with a promise of a reconciling harmony. Such
a fascination is disruptive and depersonalizing: by merging with the outside, the
insect loses its distinction and peculiarities. Identity loses its boundaries and a
unifying tendency progressively prevails; ‘‘the living creature ( . . . ) is dispossessed
of its privilege and literally no longer knows where to place itself’’ (p. 28). There-
fore, according to Caillois, the consequent psychasthenia becomes a disturbance
between subjectivity and spatial coordinates. To summarize, a catharsis seems to
occur but without the final and recursive awareness that is usually engendered; on
the contrary, ‘‘life takes a step backwards’’ (p. 30), the boundaries of the self
dissolve, and the subject does not know what to do with itself. Caillois finds

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Gandolfi 5

references to this ‘‘instinct of renunciation’’ (p. 32) in natural sciences (often

oriented toward a holistic space) as well as in arts and literature (from Gustave
Flaubert to Salvador Dali). Deepening his later works (e.g., Caillois, 1976, p.
210), mimicry can be interpreted as a movement toward symmetry, which follows
the ideals of measure, proportion, and synergy between parts and wholes by aiming
to an ideal match that discards anomalies.
After almost 40 years, in La dissymetrie (1973) and Cohérences aventureuses
(1976), Caillois clearly advances a principle able to counterbalance such a universal
standardization, that is, dissymmetry. Beyond the mere asymmetry, which is a
movement toward a return of a standard—that is, a restoring step toward a new
order—dissymmetry depicts the situation just after the break of a symmetry (i.e., a
‘‘rupture’’ that triggers a subversive process able to revolutionize routines; p. 206).
Although symmetry promotes a condition of equilibrium, dissymmetry fosters rich-
ness, flexibility, and variety (p. 220). Such an overturning leap constitutes a funda-
mental force for the French thinker because it provides the essential antidote to the
static condition of symmetry, which is associated with the second principle of the
thermodynamics (pp. 267–268). Without the inverse impulse of dissymmetry, every-
thing would be ruled by a widespread un-distinction. According to Caillois, dissym-
metry becomes the explanation of Darwin’s law of evolution; whereas symmetry
promotes inertia, dissymmetry triggers a spark of newness and room for improvement
and growth (pp. 246–247). Coherently, Caillois argues that the most evolved forms of
life are losing symmetric structures and embracing asymmetrical ones; for instance,
humankind’s adaptive success can be explained with its peculiar preference to one
specific side (usually the right; pp. 226–230). Quoting the scientist Louis Pasteur,
Caillois claims that dissymmetry begins with life and represents the secret of the
passage from inanimate to animate (pp. 242–243); it is not just a vague innovation,
but rather a universal principle that affects every single entity (pp. 250–251).
In between these extremes, the alternation of redundancy and irregularity is
persistent in Caillois’s production. In Man and the Sacred (1938/1959; original
edition: 1939), he describes human taboos as instruments for preventing an anon-
ymizing and annulling force and, at the same time, setting a reactionary order (pp.
38–41, 50–63). In turn, the sacred appears as an alternative environment, which is
able to create a resistant space against the normalizing rules of the profane. In
addition, the power is a further factor of destabilization (pp. 87–89) even when
social hierarchies seem well established (pp. 106–107). Similarly, war and festivals
‘‘are periods of intense emotion: intermittent feverish crises disrupting the dull and
peaceful monotony of everyday life ( . . . ) [they] stand alike as the sole remedies for
inevitable decay’’ (Caillois, 2003a, pp. 289–290). According to Caillois, in these
dissymmetrical frames, ‘‘nature and mankind both emerge renewed’’ (p. 290).
Finally, games (Caillois, 1958) evoke a disjunctive order that is a defense against
the standardization of nonludic settings. Among the different types of play, it can be
argued that ‘‘ilinx’’—that is, the vertigo fostered by activities like spinning and
doing acrobatics—is particularly affected by this dynamic of irregularity. Caillois

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6 Games and Culture

described it as a falling movement associated with disorder and absence of control,

which means a breech in the subject’s expectations. Conversely, ‘‘mimicry’’ con-
cerns a play in which a character is imitated by applying a symmetric operation to its
traits (e.g., theater, role-playing). Comparable suggestions can be found in other
works such as Le Mythe et l’Homme (Caillois, 1938; i.e., the difference between
shamanism, which is a conflictual attitude, and manism, which relies on a deperso-
nalization) and L’E´criture des Pierres (Caillois, 1970), in which stones are depicted
as a fusion of order and vertigo.
To conclude, the cycle symmetry–dissymmetry–asymmetry–new symmetry trig-
gers an ongoing and increasing entropy toward richer and more articulated standards
and restores dispersed energies in new integrated ways (Caillois, 1976, p. 268).
Caillois extends this consideration to both human and natural worlds according to
his diagonal perspective, which is at the core of his vision (Caillois, 2003b) and is
motivated by the fact that:

Each science explores a specific segment, that is, examines a set of phenomena, data,
individuals, or reactions displaying similar of parallel properties. But ( . . . ) the limits
that determine these often are still deceptive ( . . . ) the time has come to invoke
‘‘motives’’ that are just as pressing on a universal scale. (pp. 344–346)

The relation among symmetry, dissymmetry, and asymmetry is one of these trans-
versal rules (p. 347). Therefore, diagonal sciences and the ongoing alternation
between dissymmetry and symmetry are incompatible with static and/or uncritical
interpretations. Since the beginning of his intellectual career, Caillois attempted to
build an analytic perspective that was antianthropocentric and antipositivist indeed
(Frank, 2003, p. 5). Despite his empirical orientation, the French writer refused to
embrace a center or a final frame of reference (Caillois, 1935); on the contrary, he
was constantly moved by further insights and stimuli (Caillois, 1938/1959, p. 137).
Hence, the task set by dissymmetry versus standards challenges researchers with
never-ending and critical research; it cannot (or should not) be predicted nor statis-
tically handled.
The article aims to advance these concepts in the analysis of digital entertain-
ment. Such a leap from the natural world to the human one is legitimated by the
diagonal approach depicted above; in the majority of his works (e.g., Caillois, 1976,
1935/1984), Caillois addressed culture and art (e.g., drawing, music) as subjects of
analysis. Following the abovementioned diagonal gaze, digital entertainment would
be moved by references that are constantly reformulated. Although this position
sounds provoking, the consequent perspective might achieve unforeseen outcomes
(Frank, 2003, p. 49), with a new attention to the fascination of standardization and
unpredictability. For example, ludic symmetries (e.g., gaming aesthetics and rules
that replicate themselves) can trigger a depersonalizing immersion and then enrich
previous categorizations of engagement (e.g., Ermi & Mäyrä, 2011; Yee, 2006),
while dissymmetry may explain vertigo effects in gaming practices further. As

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Gandolfi 7

anticipated, Journey may especially support this interpretation, which needs a multi-
disciplinary integration to be explored from a comprehensive perspective. Indeed,
games are not published in a vacuum but rather in a market characterized by stan-
dards and audiences’ expectations (Consalvo, 2007, p. 176). Hence, the Derridean
concept of deconstruction and the circuit of culture suggested by the British Centre
for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) are adopted as analytic and heuristic
tools because of their coherence with Caillois’s thinking: The former embraces a
dismantling attitude toward cultural meanings following an antipositivist orienta-
tion, while the latter operationalizes this perspective with an inclusive (and then
diagonal) lens.

Deconstructing and Framing the Context

As illustrated above, symmetry and dissymmetry are relational terms. Both mirror-
ing features and revolutionary anomalies rely on a reference—that is, the standard
that is confirmed or broken. Therefore, a fundamental parameter for applying these
concepts becomes the comparative one, which is summarized by the logic ‘‘identity
through opposition’’ (Appadurai, 1996; Hall, 1997); accordingly, a cultural object is
defined through its opposite. The concept of ‘‘diffe´rance’’ suggested by the French
philosopher Jacques Derrida is an exemplar concerning this point: It depicts a
‘‘particular constitutive relation of negativity in which a subordinate term ( . . . ) is
a necessary and internal force of destabilization existing within the identity of the
dominant term’’ (in Hall, 1996, p. 90). A related notion is ‘‘trace’’—that is, in a term,
the reference to what is different, absent, and even opposite (e.g., the black that
reminds the white; Derrida, 1967, 1967/1997); a cultural meaning is never a closed
entity but rather a crossroad of dynamic references that always remind of some-
thing else. Such a recursive play of mentions is a solution to the logocentrism that
Derrida criticizes in the occidental thinking (e.g., philosophy, science), which is
moved by the need of well-defined parameters whose objectivity is actually illu-
sory. Therefore, a deconstruction is called into action to shed light on artificial
connections for the explicit purpose to dismantle and reconstruct them by follow-
ing a critical attitude rather than a methodical protocol of inquiry (Derrida, 1967,
pp. 65–75). Consequentially, a deconstructive analysis requires a gaze that is
constantly in movement, which operates within the targeted object by undermining
stereotypes and assumptions. By strengthening the subjective dimension of an
investigation, it reveals the hidden biases of the most legitimated interpretations
(Derrida, 1967/1997; Wolfreys, 1998).
Cultural studies were significantly influenced by such a critical perspective (Hall,
1996, p. 2), as proved by the circuit of culture developed by members of the CCCS,
which can be interpreted as a heuristic framework aimed to assist cultural analyses
(du Gay, 1997, p. 10). Consequentially, their proposal outlines five moments/pro-
cesses through which the meaning of a cultural object is generated, shared, and
debated: representation—that is, common images about the cultural object;

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8 Games and Culture

identity—that is, how the cultural object influences the self-perception of the audi-
ences involved; consumption—that is, the manner in which the cultural object is
consumed and interpreted; production—that is, actors, institutions, and working
routines that generate the cultural object; and regulation—that is, conditions and
standards that rule the cultural object. According to the lesson of Derrida, their
mutual relations are bi-directional and recursive rather than fixed and causal.
Although social attributions seem stable, they are culturally constructed and main-
tained through hegemony and control. Therefore, contrast and contingency become
important analytic focuses (du Gay et al., 1997, p. 12; Slack & Wise, 2007, p. 146)
because they are core criteria of dynamism and meaning. Pursuing this line, the
game industry is full of precarious bonds; as claimed by Adams and Dormans
(2012), ‘‘the relationship between the original system [what a game tries to replicate]
and the simulation’s mechanics [the game processes] is not causal but arbitrary and
based on convention’’ (p. 290; see also Consalvo, 2007).
In this article, this combined perspective is applied to Journey with an emphasis
on the nodes of consumption and representation and a secondary reference to pro-
duction. The reasons of this integration are mainly two: staging an assessment of the
inquiry itself to avoid ontological and self-satisfying outcomes and improving the
analysis of gaming symmetry and dissymmetry by considering them complex, rela-
tive, and contextual features. Both the motivations are compatible with Caillois’s
approach: the French writer refused cause–effect explanations and called positivist
visions into question for his diagonal and antianthropocentric purposes.

Playing With Symmetry and Dissymmetry

According to the theoretical premises, a textual analysis was conducted toward
Journey in order to answer the following intertwined research questions:

Research Question 1: Are Caillois’s core concepts of symmetry and dissym-

metry useful in uncovering game dynamics in Journey?
Research Question 2: Aside from the result, is such a textual analysis (and
then similar ones that adopt Caillois’s concepts) compatible with his own
thinking?

The term ‘‘textual analysis’’ refers here to a semiotic inquiry that addresses
cultural objects as complex systems of meaning; coherently, their embedded rules
and dynamics are investigated in order to understand how ‘‘texts’’ (e.g., a novel, a
movie, a digital game) generate meaning and communicate to their readers (Floch,
1995). Moreover, the cultural focus followed in this study aims to strengthen such an
approach by making ‘‘sense of the ontological complexity of cultural phenomena—
that is, the many-sidedness of their existence. It is concerned with the circulation of
culture and the interaction of production and consumption, including the materiality
and significatory qualities of cultural forms’’ (McGuigan, 2009, p. 1).

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Gandolfi 9

Consequentially, the scope applied in this essay will be widened by deepening

both representation and gameplay as sources of meaning within ludic experiences
(Mäyrä, 2008): While the former refers to the system of symbolic features displayed
by the game, the latter concerns the set of rules and activities that constructs the play
(p. 17). Coherently with Derridean and culturalist perspectives, the fracture between
text (Peverini, 2012)—that is, the sequence of different layers (plot, aesthetics,
mechanics, values) that contribute to generate the meaning of a cultural object—
and ‘‘context’’—that is, the sociocultural surrounding of the product analyzed (e.g.,
Consalvo, 2007; Kowert & Quandt, 2015) disappears and a broad investigation is
staged. For the research purposes, Journey was finished several times on PS3.

A Journey Across Anomalies and Mirrors

The hypothesis advanced in this article is that symmetry and dissymmetry are
embedded in Journey’s design and then can shed light on its peculiar functioning.
Therefore, the next pages will concern the game representation and gameplay with
the secondary support of developers’ statements.

Representing the Agency

Journey starts without information or indications about the protagonist and its mis-
sion; this opening can be considered singular in the current game industry, especially
for an adventure game. Although previous examples can be found—for example,
Half Life (Valve, 1998), Myst (Cyan Inc., 1993)—the game emphasizes such a lack
of references by avoiding tutorials, introductions, and further explanations; the
avatar is a ‘‘stranger’’ whose goal is to reach a mountain, and no other documenta-
tion is given. In addition, the robed outfit masks the whole character and makes it an
empty dress for the player; although this condition is quite diffused (e.g., Master
Chief in Halo and Link in Zelda), in Journey the coverture is total and does not
reproduce classic gaming topoi (e.g., the hero, the warrior, the marine). Such an
initial feeling of disorientation is maintained until the ending sequence. In the void
of parameters and guidelines, the path starts and almost immediately three main
plastic ‘‘isotopies’’—that is, redundancies in terms of colors, forms, and lines
(Floch, 1995)—between virtual surroundings and avatar are introduced, triggering
a mirroring effect.
First, colors are the most important factor of symmetry ranging from yellow to
amber and orange tones during the former part (the exploration of the desert) and
then from white to gray in the latter (the ascension of the mountain). Sand, snow, and
sunlight dominate the game environment, respectively, as totalizing motives that
affect the protagonist too, whose shade varies from orange to white. Indeed, the
stranger is literally embodied in such a univocal flow to the extent that it becomes
something connected to the surrounding and often seems to lose itself. Such a
chromatic bond is especially strengthened while climbing the mountain, during

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10 Games and Culture

which the snow drowns out the avatar and the player must keep proceeding
against a rising uniformity that consumes details and shapes. In addition, some-
times this delocation becomes a source of power: in the ‘‘temple’’ sequence (in
the middle of the game), the avatar is covered by a fog that increases its
jumping ability; the bright light that characterizes the final part has the same
effect. The appeal of a totalizing color as a devouring space follows: ‘‘it touches
the individual directly, envelops him, penetrates him, and even passes through
him’’ (Caillois, 1935/1984, p. 30).
Second, in-game lines follow a vertical and curve trajectory. The boundaries that
frame avatar, virtual entities (e.g., the creatures that helps the player in reaching
higher points), and even ruins (e.g., the monumental pillars in the desert) replicate
the ascension movement suggested by the mountain and other virtual environments
(e.g., clefts, temple naves). The windy scarf that characterizes the protagonist
emphasizes this trend with its centrality on the screen; in the last part, the dominance
of the snow steals it from the avatar and finalizes a chromatic indistinctness.
Third and consequentially, forms tend to replicate themselves: The reaching
toward the sky triangle sketched by the final destination is reiterated in the avatar’s
main shape, environments (e.g., dunes, canyons’ crevices) and other game ele-
ments (e.g., forsaken buildings, stones) spread across the game landing, enhancing
the vertical tension: protagonist, destination, and nonplayer characters appear as
the same entity or, at least, different sizes of a unique original source. Therefore, a
‘‘reciprocal topography’’ (Caillois, 1935/1984, p. 18) of figures, lines, and chro-
matic features occurs and the ‘‘dangerous luxury’’ caused by the psychasthenia (p.
25) involves the player with a redundant game of mirrors; as a result, a ‘‘deperso-
nalization by assimilation to space’’ (p. 30) is triggered and a symmetrical mimicry
is staged.
Paradoxically, such a mesmerizing engagement is supported by two
dissymmetry-oriented features, which trigger an initial vertigo by removing stan-
dardized parameters of reference in terms of direction and interpretation. Addressing
the former, the transparency of the interface avoids intrusive elements that could ruin
the symmetric tie between player and game environment (e.g., a total score that
reminds him or her of being a user) by harnessing the protagonist’s scarf length as a
unique life/power indicator. Even the main hub of the game—that is, a building from
which it is possible to reach the sections already finished and see the ascent glyphs
(collectable items hidden in the game scenario) found—does not have clear indica-
tors nor guidelines despite its functionality. Indeed, intermediation factors could
destroy the depersonalization effect because they add further frames of references
and break the immersion.
Regarding the latter, it could be argued that the scarcity of figurative elements—
that is, aesthetic elements that can be associated with well-established roles or
figures (Floch, 1995)—reinforces this confusion; the setting is so unique, frugal and
desolate that finding external references is challenging. In light of that, plastic
isotopies become in charge and cultural layers (that figurative features can trigger

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Gandolfi 11

according to stereotypes and shared schemata) are marginal. At most, the collectable
glyphs (similar to the cuneiform writing) and the remnants in Journey’s landscape
evoke the idea of an ancient civilization in its last days: a past grandiosity is
devoured and swallowed by sand, snow, and nature. Although the background is
not defined enough to advance further interpretations, this movement toward a
natural harmony through destruction ideally fits into Caillois’s thinking. According
to Salen and Zimmerman (2003), ‘‘any game that establishes a strong presence in
culture immediately engages with innumerable cultural structures’’ (p. 509); as
argued by designers like Koster (2010) and Adams and Dormans (2012), video
games replicate their core culture for staging a better intelligibility by exploiting
conventions and standards. Conversely, the plastic elegance of Journey overturns
this consuetude. Delocation and depersonalization are empowered through the defi-
ciency of references and insights from other products or media, which could poten-
tially set an alternative center and weaken the mimicry by reminding the player of
being an active part within the interaction. Journey tries to go beyond these filters by
proposing something more visceral than an immersion based on challenge, fantasy,
or senses (e.g., Ermi & Mäyrä, 2011): the appeal of a symmetric loop in being
intertwined with (virtual) surroundings. The sole theme of the soundtrack enhances
this merging by playing a ‘‘big cello concerto where ( . . . ) [the player is] the soloist
and all the rest of the instruments represent the world’’ (the game composer Austin
Wintory in Alex, 2012); coherently, Caillois considered music a possible criterion of
symmetry and dissymmetry (1976, p. 279).
At the beginning, the player is lost: she or he does not find the most common
guidelines in the medium, and her or his cultural background struggles with the lack
of clues and stereotypes. Consequentially, in this disorienting vertigo, a mimicry
with the game setting is introduced and increasingly strengthened; the dissymmetry
fostered by the figurative and intermediation absences is functional to the finaliza-
tion of a mirroring immersion.

Activating the Representation

The immediacy outlined above is enhanced by the gameplay, which is structured by
only two main actions: to soar/levitate (according to how long the scarf is) and to
yell to other entities in game. Collecting ribbons will increase the scope of jumps
while woven creatures will help in following the right path. In turn, strip enemies
will hunt the player and try to reduce the scarf and then his or her agency. However,
she or he is not allowed to fight back and can only hide or escape from these
menaces. In other words, the avatar is not able to impose itself nor emerge as a
willing character in agential terms; conversely, it is forced to merge with the game
landscape and surrender to environmental features. Consequently, jumping becomes
the fundamental mechanic that characterizes the game experience; even the cloth
tissues are gathered with a simple touch without implying further efforts when they
are fitted in the gaming environment (e.g., as in the ‘‘bridge’’ section, in which the

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12 Games and Culture

player has to find them to repair a broken bridge). In light of the absence of a score,
the effectiveness of leaps is the measure of the ludic performance per se: the higher
the protagonist gets, the better the player is doing. Jumping has this main function,
which supports an exploration that is increasingly depersonalizing without breaking
sessions; even the secondary tasks (e.g., the search of hidden glyphs) are intuitive
and not particularly challenging.
Hence, the ascension theme described in the previous section also characterizes
the gameplay, which is based on a limited range of action and intuitive mechanics
that can be labeled as ‘‘continuous.’’ With this category, Adams and Dormans (2012)
refer to rules that ‘‘tend to simulate physics (including timing and rhythm) with
precise mechanics that create a smooth, continuous flow of play’’ (p. 9). The counter
category is the ‘‘discrete mechanic’’, which is ‘‘represented with integer (whole-
number) values’’ and then concerns ‘‘a finite set that does not allow any gradual
transitions’’ (pp. 9–11). The former type is entailed by curvy lines (as the ones in
Journey) and enhances fluidity and immediacy, whereas the second supports stra-
tegic thinking and deframes the game scenario. Intuitively, Journey relies on a
constant fluency without interruptions; it presents itself as a coherent setting that
players have to explore rather than rule: the avatar is involved within the environ-
ment, as opposed to dominating the environment. The attraction exercised by the
space takes the priority as the main theme of the game. This orientation is kept even
in the multiplayer mode, in which players can cooperate online to succeed. Another
human presence might damage the gaming symmetry with unexpected and from
outside inputs; in order to prevent the risk, the game makes this relation silent
without changing mechanics. Although it is possible to arrive to the final sequence
with a peer (and this result is rewarded by a specific game trophy), the players can
interact with each other only within the symmetrical structure and simple gameplay
that characterize Journey and a music peal that evokes the main theme.
Such a limited interactivity is disorienting at first glance. According to several
designers (Koster, 2010; Sylvester, 2013), primordial pulses such as accumulation,
training to fight, and the law of the strongest are still fundamental in ludic experi-
ences. Actually, the relation between digital entertainment and war is a long-term
one (Crogan, 2011): early video games were structured as simulations for testing
strategies and enemies’ moves, and the action-adventure genre usually involves
conflict and performance (e.g., Tomb Raider, Darksiders, Uncharted sagas). Jour-
ney operates in a different way; its assertive and passive approach tips over common
prospects toward the (apparent) game typology to which it belongs. The protagonist
has neither weapons nor concrete scores, and only the scarf indicates a progression.
The virtual environment becomes part of the avatar instead of being a menace, while
the related involvement follows a virtual and desubjectifying mimicry that struggles
with the most common expectations. Indeed, undertaking the Journey’s path means
being involved with a progressive sequence of agential vertigos. As anticipated, the
player is not in charge of the interaction. The absence of control/assessing features
(e.g., indicators, statistics about the enemies defeated, rankings) sabotages every

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Gandolfi 13

effort to rationalize the game. Often the simple act of going forward is the only thing
to do, and the assuring gaming clichés lose their validity. Coherently, when the
stranger encounters its first opponents (a sort of stone creatures), it is not able to
fight back and can only avoid them; the jump remains the core activity allowed, and
there is not an upgrade in order to face the new menace. The impossibility to react is
a disconcerting one; even in stealth games it is possible to stage a feedback—that is,
a manifestation of willing by the player per se. Moreover, the absence of an empow-
erment of the character (e.g., a power-up, new abilities) is disturbing as well. This
dissymmetric vertigo, which relies on destabilizing the agential scripts of the
medium, is taken to the extreme when even the scarf, which is the only criterion
of agency and intermediation, flies away in the end. The stranger can only advance
overwhelmed by the symmetries of the gaming environment, and finally reach the
light of the summit. The agency is dismantled in favor of the depersonalizing
mirroring effect. As argued by Journey’s Director Jenova Chen, the main goal was
to build an experience ‘‘where people felt they are connected with each other ( . . . ).
So in order to [do that] ( . . . ), we have to remove their power, and remove their
tasks’’ (in Smith, 2012).

Framing Symmetry and Dissymmetry in Games

Potential in Game Analysis
According to game traits and even some developers’ statements, the concepts of
symmetry and dissymmetry seem to fit into the experience triggered by Journey: A
symmetric and depersonalizing flow is engendered with dissymmetric elements that
reject the assuring standards of the medium. A hypnotic rapture characterizes the
game and creates a perfect match of all its parts by removing some of the most
fundamental gaming features that comfort the player; as such, it challenges the
common expectations about video games with the paradoxical result that a dissym-
metry supports a symmetrical mimicry. Indeed, the game’s core theme—that is,
what the game is about (Schell, 2008, pp. 49–53)—disowns the current traits of
digital game, which still strongly depend on control, achievement, and challenge
(e.g., Koster, 2010; Sylvester, 2013). In other words, Journey becomes a deconstruc-
tive tool that shows how the patterns of the sector are relative and dynamic. It could
be argued that the product of Thatgamecompany addresses the whole medium as its
own trace: by discarding the most common standards of intermediation (e.g., sup-
porting interface, focused tutorials) and gameplay (e.g., conflict, score, a multiplayer
in which players communicate), it makes the boundaries of video game per se
collapse. However, its intent is not just a deconstructive one; its symmetrical appeal
makes it engaging and proves that other gameplays are possible: both gameplay and
aesthetics cowork in eliminating every distraction and intermediation by staging
coherent and depersonalizing symmetry. Coherently, the game was acclaimed by
both critics and gamers; the awards won and the enthusiastic reviews highlighted its

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14 Games and Culture

disorienting uniqueness in the current digital entertainment. Therefore, a dissym-

metric stimulus—a refreshing ‘‘entropie inverse’’ (Caillois, 1976, p. 268) that over-
turns previsions and standards—seemed to take place toward the sector and its
fragmented and quantified gameplays (e.g., achievements, season passes, constant
updates, live streaming). From a production perspective, a correlation can be
sketched with Journey’s unconventional development: independent prerogatives,
which often try to turn over clichés (see Bogost, 2011), were strengthened with the
capabilities guaranteed by a major company.
This perspective can be easily adopted and expanded in game analysis: Journey
concerns only a specific concretization of symmetry and dissymmetry, which can be
widely associated with several ludic trends. Regarding the former, the hypnotic
layouts of games such as Rez (Q Entertainment, 2001) and Hotline Miami (Dennaton
Games, 2012) significantly rely on specular aesthetical elements; mobile and social
games often provide repetitive gameplays triggering an interactive loop; and the
reiteration of mechanics and representations (e.g., covering system, evil versus good
characters) in the sector is a matter of fact as proven by the frequent clones, sequels,
and remakes (e.g., Final Fantasy, Doom, and X-Com series). However, these clichés
may be overturned by dissymmetrical instances that disorient players’ certainties.
For example, the first Half Life revolutionized the First Person Shooter genre with its
environmental narration; the moral dilemmas (see Sicart, 2013) offered by products
like Shadow of the Colossus (Team Ico, 2005) and This War of Mine (11 Bit Studios,
2014) continue to clash with industry standards. In addition, user generated content
(e.g., mods and total conversions) may disclose emergent gameplays (Juul, 2005)
and opportunities (e.g., the map DotA that gave rise to the Multiplayer Online Battle
Arena genre). These phenomena are not just a mere difference from expectations;
rather, they disown widespread habits with their alternative patterns, thereby foster-
ing an unusual appeal. By focusing on symmetry and dissymmetry in game features
and contexts, such processes might be understood further even with other disciplin-
ary and methodological integrations (e.g., Ability Studies, empirical inquiries) and
lenses (e.g., random generated content, players’ familiarities versus cutting-edge
innovations).

Narrowing the Analytic Scope

To summarize and addressing the first research question, the textual analysis pre-
sented seems to justify the use of the two concepts as a deconstructive instrument to
shed light on dynamics and patterns in Journey; related mimicry (a deindividualizing
representation) and vertigo (a disarming interaction) recursively work for involving
and astonishing the player.
Nevertheless, two vulnerabilities characterize the study. The first is that, despite
the quotes reported above, it is not possible to claim that the game was intentionally
developed with the principles of symmetry and dissymmetry in mind. Jenova Chen
stated that Thatgamecompany’s approach is to create ‘‘games like a Japanese

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Gandolfi 15

garden, where the design is perfect when you cannot remove anything else’’ (in
Smith, 2012). In addition, the budget was not comparable with mainstream produc-
tions and the development was troubled and longer than expected (North, 2013).
Thus, the frugality of the experience was both planned and sustainable for the
available resources. Second and more important, this understanding of Journey
under the Caillois’s light remains an interpretation. The game can be read as a path
from life to death, from conflict to peace, from complexity to harmony; in the final
sequence, the avatar disappears and merges with the environment. Although this
statement sounds pertinent, it is a possible reading, and leads to the second research
question and the self-critical orientation of the study.
Indeed, the adoption of concepts such as symmetry and dissymmetry relies on
taking a stand, which is based on the antipositivist thinking of the French writer. As
reported above, Derrida takes a step forward and highlights the subjective dimension
of every intellectual investigation stressing the need for an ongoing deconstruction.
Therefore, Journey is an ideal example of how a textual analysis based on Caillois can
be effective but, at the same time, has to relativize its own cornerstones, which are
indicative rather than a limit. In other words, the study described in this essay tries to
apply some of his (most important) suggestions to a video game, and apparently
succeeds. However, such an artificial association is not as neutral as it appears at first
glance, but depends on the researcher’s point of view, which is always subjective.
This is especially proven by the passage from symmetry and dissymmetry, which
were usually described with natural, social, and art examples by Caillois, to the
targeted medium. Although such a leap provides an alternative lens on Journey and
the author himself, its relativity should not be overlooked. Indeed, the French writer
was against every systematic framework that crystalized the analysis and the reason-
ing, above all his own: Caillois’s production was indeed heterogeneous and even
contradictory at times (e.g., his ambivalent position about Darwin’s law of evolu-
tion). His intent was to constantly move forward (Frank, 2003) and dispose of
knowledge hierarchies and centers by keeping a dynamic notion of ‘‘secret’’, which
is a truth that researchers cannot reach although they constantly strive for it (see also
Caillois, 1970, pp. 81–85).
Such a self-critique is supported by several counter-examples that relativize the
interpretation outlined in these pages. For example, the basic act of jumping in
Journey can be interpreted as a reference to the fundamentals of the platform genre,
which is a familiar one for its long tradition in the game industry (a nostalgic pattern
rather than a movement toward an ideal mimicry). Moreover, a nonintrusive inter-
face is a design choice suggested by several practitioners in order to improve the
immersion (e.g., Schell, 2008; Sylvester, 2013). In addition, the criteria of symme-
try/dissymmetry applied are often based on a comparison with the gaming trends; it
is a matter of absence/presence that belongs to a similar versus different play (e.g.,
combat versus no combat). However, according to Caillois, dissymmetry should be
something that is impossible to predict, a new qualitative standard instead of a mere
quantitative difference. Finally, the distinctions between plastic and figurative and

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16 Games and Culture

between representation and agency are actually an interpretation, although they are
widely adopted in Semiotics (the former) and Game Studies (the latter). For
instance, as observed by Jin (2015) the desolate settings of Journey can acquire a
connoted meaning by evoking associations with Buddhist values; otherwise, genre
boundaries are further contextual combinations of representative and agential fea-
tures that may be reformulated (see Apperley, 2006).
Several studies that refer to Caillois fall into this trap: by adopting his concepts as
object parameters, they misrepresent his lens; the analysis of Journey described in
these pages partially makes the same mistake but in the end works as a counter-
example. It is not a coincidence that Derrida (1967/1997) never completely defined
terms such as trace and deconstruction in order to prevent uncritical readings of his
work. Similarly but with a less systematic attitude, Caillois moved from one inter-
pretation to another; his lesson is more a matter of critical approach than about the
use of specific concepts (Frank, 2003; Hollier, 1988). Such a constant dynamism is
suggested by his diagonal perspective but also by symmetry and dissymmetry them-
selves, which are constantly in-progress processes. Indeed, the engaging deperso-
nalization of Journey hit the market 4 years ago, and its peculiarity has inspired
several asymmetrical creations—that is, products that aim to restore a new symme-
try by reelaborating dissymmetrical inputs—like Ori and the Blind Forest (Nordic
Games, 2015) and Firewatch (Campo Santo, 2016).
Regardless, the main issue about the exploitation of the French writer is that only
some of his works are addressed without considering the main picture, especially the
related diagonal and decentered scope. This distorted lens engenders two main
misuses of Caillois. Particularly in Game Studies, his suggestions are applied without
a pertinent critical assessment (Frasca, 2003; Giuliano, 1997), which is also required
because of Caillois’s subjective and nonupdated focuses (see Henricks, 2011). It can
be argued that this article fits into such category, which relies on an over-interpretation
in which a selected concept (in this case, symmetry and dissymmetry) is projected on a
targeted case study (Journey; for an alike observation, see Eskelinen, 2001).
In turn, several criticisms are inaccurate because they miss the core guidelines
that structure Caillois’s thinking. Among them, especially his pessimism about the
role of human instincts (Mukherjee, 2010; Rodriguez, 2006) and the lack of attention
to subjectivity in ludic practices (Conway & Innocent, 2016) are contestable; dis-
symmetry (often associated with instinct) may represent a proactive energy, and the
human activity is always seen as a personal and imperfect effort (Caillois, 2003c, p.
357). Such a situation is similar to what happened in the adoption of Jacques Lacan’s
theories in psychology: They were completely accepted or, conversely, totally
rejected without significant reformulations (Billig, 2006).

Reexpanding the Scope

Nevertheless, the suggestion about a crisis of the sociocultural frames of video game
entailed by Journey might go beyond such an impasse. Regarding this point, a

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Gandolfi 17

sparkle of newness seems to take place and inspires unexpected directions. The
game struggles with digital entertainment’s standards, whose absence is a glaring
trace, to the extent that it seems a broken game or not a game at all; Journey loses
part of the medium’s qualifying features and aims to be something else. However, it
was considered the best game of 2012 by several journalists and practitioners.
Therefore, do the boundaries (e.g., of digital games per se and related genres)
followed by the sector still make sense? In essence, what is a video game?
According to Caillois’s lesson, the answers to these questions are relative; coher-
ently, the dissymmetric deficiencies of Journey seem to make it an antigame. The
vacuum of references disorients the player by rejecting the intermediation; a media
vertigo, which is based on an absence of (well established) controlling and inter-
mediating elements, is triggered, and suggests a dissymmetry for the whole sector.
While virtual reality usually intends to enable a new center—that is, the user being in
charge—Journey erodes this centrality suggesting that several gaming standards are
not written in stone. The consequent struggle with the normal criteria of assessment
is evident in the specialized reviews quoted above (e.g., Arendt, 2012; Douglas,
2012), which show an emotional style rather than an analytic one. Paradoxically,
such a movement harnesses symmetric patterns for supporting and making engaging
its thesis.
In conclusion, the inquiry becomes a double-edged sword: although the use of
symmetry and dissymmetry can succeed in the analysis of Journey, it is always
possible to (or, actually, the researcher should) criticize the consequent outcome
because of the subjective orientation of the theoretical premises (from Caillois to
Derrida). Therefore, this study intends to be both a good example and a lacking one.
The spring gaze adopted has moved toward an exploration of symmetry and dis-
symmetry in a gaming environment and outlined insights for further analyses. Then,
it turned back to avoid easy and limiting results, which are not consistent with
Caillois’s vision. Coherently, the desired outcome is to have provided stimuli to
researchers and scholars instead of static findings that may undermine the analytic
awareness (Caillois, 2003c, p. 357). Indeed, the best exploitation of the French
writer’s work is to apply his suggestions until they become too satisfying, and then
change references and look for new challenges. Perhaps this operation might mean a
narrowing of Caillois’s influence in the short term, but it will likely strengthen the
coherence with his core perspective on the long one.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

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18 Games and Culture

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Author Biography
Enrico Gandolfi, PhD in Social Theory and Research, is post-doctoral research fellow with
Kent State University Research Center for Educational Technology. Previously, he worked as
an associate researcher at Luiss ‘‘Guido Carli’’ University of Rome. He is the author of several
essays and book chapters concerning game cultures, hegemonic processes in digital entertain-
ment and qualitative/quantitative methodologies and of the monographs Piloti di Console
(Edizioni Paoline, 2011), Nerd Generation (Mimesis, 2014), and Independent Videogames
(Unicopli, 2015).

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