Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Residual strength of concrete containing recycled materials after

exposure to fire: A review
D. Cree a,⇑, M. Green a, A. Noumowé b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
b
Laboratoire de Mécanique et Matériaux du Génie Civil, University of Cergy Pontoise, 5 Mail Gay Lussac, Neuville sur Oise, 95031 Cergy-Pontoise, France

h i g h l i g h t s

 Recycled concrete materials at elevated temperature was reviewed.

 Supplementary cementing materials at high temperature was reviewed.
 Sustainable concrete submitted to elevated temperature was analyzed.
 Much work is needed in this area to understand their performance in fire.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This review summarizes research conducted on concrete containing recycled materials after exposure to
Received 22 December 2012 fire. Discarded products consist of brick and concrete demolition from the construction and building
Received in revised form 27 March 2013 industries, in addition to supplementary cementing materials from industrial waste such as fly ash, blast
Accepted 3 April 2013
furnace slag, silica fume and biomass/volcanic ashes. To understand the effects with and without aggre-
Available online 4 May 2013
gates, researchers have conducted a variety of tests on cement pastes, cement mortars, and concrete.
Three heating and loading conditions have been used by researchers in this area: preloaded and tested
Keywords:
hot, unloaded and tested hot, and unloaded and tested at room temperature. Of the many possible mate-
Recycled materials
Brick
rial property measurements, the most common was the compression strength and is reported here. The
Concrete literature suggests a great deal of work is needed in this area to understand the performance in fire of
Limestone structures constructed with sustainable concretes.
SCM Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fire resistance
High temperature
Sustainable concrete

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2. Testing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3. Conventional concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.1. Conventional cement paste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.2. Conventional natural aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4. Recycled materials in conventional concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.1. Brick aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.2. Glass aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.3. Concrete aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.4. Fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.5. Silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.6. Blast furnace slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.7. Limestone Portland cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 533 2731; fax: +1 613 533 2128.
E-mail addresses: creed@queensu.ca (D. Cree), greenm@civil.queensu.ca
(M. Green), albert.noumowe@u-cergy.fr (A. Noumowé).

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.04.005
 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223 209

4.8. Biomass/volcanic ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

4.9. Ternary blends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.1. Recycled aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.2. Supplementary cementing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.2.1. Fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.2.2. Silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.2.3. Blast furnace slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.2.4. Ternary cement blends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6. Research needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.1. Recycled aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.2. Supplementary cementing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.3. Ternary blends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.4. Biomass/volcanic ashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

1. Introduction biomass/volcanic ashes added to concrete to study their properties

Recently, sustainability issues have arisen as a result of in-
creased depletion of non-renewable resources and climate change.
Internationally, the construction and building industries generate a
substantial waste stream including materials from brick and con-
crete demolition. For instance, in 2003, the US produced an
estimated 170 million tons of building related construction
and demolition material [1]. In Canada, construction, renovation
and demolition waste generated 15.5 million tonnes in 2004
[2] and 17.3 million tonnes in 2008 [3], showing a continued in-
crease in waste production. By-products from industrial waste such
as fly ash (FA), blast furnace slag (BFS), silica fume (SF) and other
biomass/volcanic ashes are also a concern. Governments worldwide
are encouraging research efforts to use these materials in a greater
quantity as secondary building materials. Supplementary cementing
materials (SCMs) as cement substitutes have become widely ac-
cepted with civil engineers, architects and contractors. Although
these industrial materials are used in significant quantities, greater
amounts are currently sent to landfills for disposal. In terms of
aggregates, depending on the location of gravel, employing recycled
materials from on-site waste can also save on the costs of transpor-
tation. Furthermore, recycled aggregates are a sustainable practice
for extending the life of current gravel pits. In general, maximizing
the amounts of recycled materials in concrete will provide a more
sustainable material. Given this potential for widespread imple-
mentation of recycled materials in concrete, more information on
the performance of these sustainable concretes in fire conditions
is needed. To summarize the state-of-the-art in this vital area
and to identify research needs, this paper presents a comprehen-
sive literature review in the area of concrete containing recycled
materials exposed to elevated temperature.
Concrete containing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) has been
investigated thoroughly in the past for its elevated temperature
properties [4–6]. However, the properties of recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA) in new concrete at room temperature has not been
studied in depth [7,8], while FA, BFS and SF have been incorporated
into concrete and are currently being used in the industry [9,10].
Very few investigations have evaluated the residual strength of
concrete containing recycled materials at elevated temperatures.
Furthermore, the literature suggests a lack of standards and/or
guidance for these materials mixed with concrete and exposed to
fire conditions. For the first time, this paper combines studies on
the performance after exposure to elevated temperature of con-
crete containing recycled fine and coarse aggregates produced
from recycled mortar, tiles, bricks and concrete. The paper also
provides a review of recycled SCMs such as FA, BFS, SF, ternary
cement blends, Portland limestone cement (PLC) and
at elevated temperature.
To move forward in the field of recycled materials incorporated
into concrete, a need arose to review past studies for their high
temperature and residual properties. The present review estab-
lished that only a limited number of researchers have investigated
the fire resistance behaviour of recycled materials in concrete.
Thus, the literature assessment indicates much work remains to
be done. This paper outlines the majority of studies conducted
since the 1920’s to present in the area of RCAs, SCMs and PLCs in
new concrete. The important research gaps and research recom-
mendations in terms of fire performance for these substitute mate-
rials are outlined.
2. Testing procedures
No standard test procedures exist for high temperature testing of concrete. As a
result, several different procedures have been employed by researchers. Most pro-
cedures can be classified as either (i) testing at high temperature or (ii) residual
testing after exposure to high temperature. The first procedure is appropriate for
determining the properties of concrete during a fire event for calculating structural
fire endurance while the second can only be used to determine the strength and
repairability of a concrete structure after a fire. Unfortunately, the terminology is
not always clearly presented in the literature and residual testing is sometimes con-
fused with testing at high temperature. In this paper, the term residual strength will
be employed to classify all tests conducted using procedure (ii). Tests at high tem-
perature (i.e., according to procedure (i)) are rare [11–15] but testing the compres-
sion strength at elevated temperature is vital to evaluate the performance of
concrete throughout the duration of a fire.
Other testing parameters that are often varied include the soak time (or amount
of time at the elevated temperature), loading before or during the soak time, the
heating rate, the rate and method of cooling, and the loading rate.
3. Conventional concrete
When conventional concrete is exposed to elevated tempera-
tures, its physical and mechanical properties are adversely af-
fected. Concrete containing recycled materials may experience
similar phenomena since the new concrete contains the same
ingredients but different amounts. In general, the initial degrada-
tion for the compressive strength of conventional concrete is expe-
rienced between 200 and 250 °C, while at 300 °C strength
reduction is in the range of 15–40%. [16]. Concrete heated below
300 °C does not lose significant strength and the strength loss
can be recovered through re-hydration; however, above 300 °C,
the concrete loses considerable strength and is considered unre-
coverable for structural purposes.
3.1. Conventional cement paste
Elevated temperature properties of cement paste and natural
aggregates constituting conventional concrete are well established.
210 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

Table 1 focused on the residual strength rather than the performance at

Changes of pure OPC hydrated paste as temperature increases. high temperature. To recognize the effects of concrete with and
Temperature Changes associated to OPC paste without coarse aggregates, studies have been carried out on partial
70–90 °C [17,18] Ettringite dehydrates and decomposes replacements of OPC with SCMs in the form of pastes, mortars and
90–491° C [19] The OPC paste expands up to 93 °C and contracts up to concretes. In general, additions of FA, SF, BFS and ternary blends in
491 °C literature were reported as an OPC replacement by weight (%) un-
100–110 °C [20] Removal of evaporable water, increased porosity and less otherwise stated.
micro-cracking
120 °C [21] Evaporable water in the cement paste and CSH gel is
completely removed from concrete 4.1. Brick aggregates
110–170 °C [21] Gypsum decomposes
100–300 °C [22] Removal of non-evaporable water The following investigations consider the residual compressive
Internal autoclaving hydrates non-hydrated cement
strength for specimens heated and cooled to ambient temperature.
particles.
CSH gel is not affected up to 300 °C Recycled brick aggregate research was initiated by Lea and Stra-
200–700 °C CSH gel completely dehydrates and decomposes dling [19] who studied concrete containing crushed fine and coarse
[18,23] RBA. The results demonstrated no loss in residual strength for RBA
350–550 °C CH decomposes into lime and water concrete exposed to up to 650 °C, while a decrease in strength after
[23,24]
exposure to 400 °C was observed for conventional concrete. At
Cooling to 20 °C Volume expansion and deterioration of concrete due to
[25,26] micro and macro cracks higher temperatures, RBA concrete lost 55% of its strength after
exposure to 1030 °C in contrast to 91% after exposure to 830 °C
for conventional concrete. For the first time, the addition of RBA
demonstrated an advantage over conventional concretes after
Table 2
Changes in natural aggregates as temperature increases. exposure to elevated temperatures in standard size specimens.
Two decades after the initial RBA investigation, Newman [30] pro-
Temperature Changes associated with aggregate
posed adding crushed bricks to conventional concrete to enhance
<100 °C [20] Free water evaporates in aggregates fire resistance. Clean bricks, free of concrete and mortar were se-
300–500 °C [5,28] Common aggregates remain stable
lected. After exposure to 400 °C the RBA concrete lost 6% of its
570 °C [5,23] Quartz expands by approximately 5.7% in volume
600–800 °C [29] Carbonate aggregate undergo a de-carbonation reaction compressive strength as compared to 34% for conventional flint
800–1200 °C [29] Carbonate aggregate complete disintegration aggregate concrete. Similarly, after exposure to 600 °C, the
600–900 °C [23] Limestone decomposes strength loss was 22% and 77%, respectively. Additional tests in fire
1100–1200 °C [23] Concrete melts
conditions were conducted on full-scale columns and floor slabs.
Again, RBA concrete behaviour showed an improvement from con-
ventional concrete. The column and floor slab with RBA had a fire
Based on a number of articles reviewed, the minimum and maxi- resistance of 4 h. 6 min. and 2 h., respectively, compared to 3 h.
mum temperatures at which formations or deteriorations of 39 min. and 31 min., respectively for conventional concrete. The
important compounds in pure hydrated OPC paste are provided use of RBA improved the fire endurance of conventional concrete
in Table 1. New concrete containing RCA may perform differently both in standard size specimens and full-scale elements.
at elevated temperatures depending on the level of OPC paste To study the effects of cement paste and offset the behaviour of
and mortar contents. fine and coarse aggregates, Heikal [31] partially replaced OPC with
very finely crushed Homra clay bricks. After submitting to 300 °C
and 600 °C, the paste containing 10% and 20% of fine RBA had im-
3.2. Conventional natural aggregates
proved compression strengths over the conventional paste.
Increasing the amount of fine RBA to 20% and 30% enhanced the
Natural aggregates make up the highest volume of concrete,
residual strength which was thought to be due to the pozzolanic
approximately 60–75% of the total volume [27], therefore the
properties of the RBA. The addition of fine RBA stabilized the resid-
aggregate type (mineralogy and porosity) physical property (ther-
ual strength up to 400 °C and increased the residual strengths at
mal expansion) and chemical property (chemical transformation)
600 °C. In a recent study Ho and Tsai [32] evaluated a concrete
are important factors to consider at elevated temperature. The high
mix containing fine RBA obtained from a construction waste recy-
temperature degradation of various commonly used siliceous and
cling facility. The specimens were exposed to temperatures of up to
calcareous natural aggregates is depicted in Table 2. A number of
800 °C. At 300 °C the residual compression strength for samples re-
factors influence the behaviour of OPC paste and natural aggre-
placed with RBA in the amounts of 0%, 30%, 50%, 70% and 100% in-
gates such as temperature intensity, heating rate, aggregate type,
creased by 4.1 MPa (8.7%), 4.6 MPa (9.9%), 4.5 MPa (10.1%), 6.7 MPa
porosity of aggregate and moisture content of concrete. For these
(15.8%) and 6.3 MPa (15.3%), respectively. The increased strength
reasons, RCA concrete may experience different changes than con-
in the specimens was thought to be due to the contribution from
ventional concrete depending on the amounts of RCA paste and
the hydration of CH and silica as well as the formation of CSH gel
aggregate content.
from the aluminium oxide contained in the bricks. After 440 °C,
the residual compressive strengths of both concretes with and
4. Recycled materials in conventional concrete without RBA dropped sharply as compared to the strength of the
non-heated specimens which can be attributed to the decomposi-
The final concrete strength depends to some extent on the tion of the hydrated products. The residual strength results indi-
strength of both amounts of recycled cement and recycled aggre- cated, below 300 °C, the RBA out-performed conventional
gates. Coarse aggregates make up the highest volume in concrete; concrete; while above 300 °C, the conventional concrete was
therefore the type of aggregate will influence the coarse aggregate superior.
stability and overall mechanical strength of the concrete. The re- Limited studies on the compression strength of RBA concrete
sults of adding recycled crushed fine/coarse brick and concrete have been performed at elevated temperature (e.g. tested hot).
aggregates as well as FA, BFS, SF and ternary blends of SCMs are Khalaf and DeVenny [11] evaluated RBA concrete in an unstressed,
discussed in the following sections. The majority of publications hot condition. The coarse RBA were clean common solid and
 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
10-hole perforated bricks. The RBA concrete showed an improve-
ment in elevated temperature behaviour. At 200 °C, the RBA con-
crete lost 7–9% of its strength, while conventional concrete with
granite aggregate lost 25% its strength. At 400 °C, the RBA concrete
recovered to its non-heated properties, while concrete without
RBA recovered 90%. Upon further heating to 800 °C, the RBA con-
crete and conventional concrete preserved 35–37% and 33%,
respectively of their original strength. Two parameters were deter-
mined to influence the concrete strength; adhesion of the RBA with
cement paste and strength of the original bricks.
To determine the stability of aggregates in concrete under cyclic
heating as occurring in nuclear reactor vessels, Campbell and Desai
[33] investigated heating cycles on three separate high strength
concretes. Specimens were temperature cycled using a heating rate
of 1 °C/min. to 300 °C and held for 10 h for each of the 20 cycles.
The deterioration in residual strength for all aggregates decreased
within the first five cycles. The concrete with the fireclay brick
showed the best strength properties while the limestone (LS)
aggregate concrete deteriorated the most. After 20 cycles, the ex-
panded shale–clay concrete, LS concrete and fire–clay brick con-
crete retained compression strengths of approximately 60%, 50%
and 75%, respectively of the original unheated concretes. Based
on their results, the authors suggest using caution for concretes
containing LS aggregate under heated conditions.
4.2. Glass aggregates
Recycled glass has been used as a replacement of fine and
coarse aggregates in concrete. In the past, glass and cement were
known to be incompatible. The alkali in the OPC and the silica in
the glass collectively reacted in the presence of moisture to pro-
duce an alkali–silica reaction (ASR). However, recently Terro [34]
referenced a number of studies conducted at room temperature
indicating replacement of natural aggregates with certain amounts
of recycled glass can be used in concrete to reduce the effects of
ASR. In this respect, desert sand and gabbro (equivalent to basalt)
aggregates were replaced with fine waste glass (FWG), coarse
waste glass (CWG) and both fine and coarse waste glass (FCWG)
in the amounts of 10%, 25%, 50% and 100%. In general, the concretes
containing 10% replacement of FWG, CWG and FCWG possess
higher residual compressive strength than conventional concrete
exposed temperatures of 150–300 °C. This occurred because more
water was absorbed in the natural aggregates during mixing. Given
that glass material does not absorb water, fewer pores develop in
concrete containing glass, consequently a denser and stronger con-
crete is produced. Adding 50% or more of glass content the concrete
showed reduced strengths at all temperatures. The author suggests
this was due to the large differences in the coefficients of thermal
expansion (CTE) of the glass and cement mortar which can cause
cracks at the interface between the glass aggregates and cement
matrix.
4.3. Concrete aggregates
Studies conducted on RCA were to evaluate the residual fire
temperature properties of conventional concrete incorporating
RCA. RCA consists of natural aggregate, cement mortar and both
cement mortar bonded to the natural aggregates. Zega and Di Maio
[28] considered replacing granite with 75% by volume of waste
concrete also containing granite aggregates. The specimens were
heated to 500 °C, soaked for 1 and 4 h followed by cooling to ambi-
ent temperature. Subsequent to a 1 h hold period, the residual
strength of conventional concrete and RCA concrete reduced by
16% and 10%, respectively, whereas after 4 h the strengths of both
concretes decreased by about the same magnitude of 26%. The
authors consider the majority of the interface of new cement mor-
211
tar and the old RCA mortar to be composed of identical materials
(e.g. mortar–mortar). Therefore, the CTE of the old/new mortar
interface was perceived to be comparable and its compatibility re-
duced micro/macro cracking of the cement mortars. In a later
study, Zega and Di Maio [35] examined three types of RCA; recy-
cled granite (RGC), recycled siliceous (RSC) and recycled quartz
(RQC) each in replacements of 75% by volume of natural aggregates
and compared each to their respective natural aggregate type; gra-
nitic crushed stone (GC), siliceous gravel (SC) and quartzitic
crushed stone (QC). Test specimens were heated to 500 °C for 1 h
followed by cooling to ambient temperature. Samples produced
from QC and RQC were observed to have superior residual
strengths. The results are attributed to the coarse quartz aggre-
gates and fine siliceous sand mortar having comparable CTEs thus
reduced the stresses and micro-cracks in the mortar. Overall, RCA
concretes with low water–cement (w/c) ratio showed an improved
fire resistance compared to conventional concretes.
Xiao and Zang [36] reviewed previous works conducted at ele-
vated temperature on normal strength concrete, high strength con-
crete, high performance concrete and light weight concrete (LWC).
The publications established that different types of concretes had
diverse performances at elevated temperatures. Based on this con-
clusion, a study was conducted on RCA concrete obtained from
demolished concrete derived from an abandoned airport runway
in replacement ratios of 0–100% by weight. Spalling was not ob-
served on the RCA concrete up to the maximum test temperature
of 800 °C which may have inferred good spalling resistance, though
spalling was not reported for the control samples. The residual
compressive strength for concrete containing 50% or more RCA
was superior to that of conventional concrete and specimens with
30% RCA after exposure to temperatures between 400 and 700 °C.
However no further explanations were provided to clarify this
trend. Vieira et al. [37] compared the residual strengths of RCA
limestone in replacement ratios of 0–100% by weight to the resid-
ual strengths of conventional concrete containing natural coarse
limestone. After exposure to 400, 600 and 800 °C, both concretes
decreased in strength by the same magnitudes of 20%, 25% and
40%, respectively. The results did not show a correlation of residual
mechanical properties with replacement ratios of coarse RCA.
Eguchi et al. [38] investigated the spalling behaviour of RCA
concrete from concrete blocks in replacement ratios of 0–100%
by volume. The specimens were heated according to the Japanese
standard JIS A 1304 ‘‘Method of Fire Resistance Test for Structural
Parts of Building’’. Spalling was not observed on either the RCA or
the control samples. The authors considered the elevated temper-
ature behaviour of RCA concrete was comparable to conventional
concrete. However, the residual compressive strength of the RCA
concrete was not reported.
4.4. Fly ash
FA is a derivative from coal powdered electrical generating sta-
tions. FA particles are spherical in shape with a larger size than OPC
particles. They can be used as-received or can be ground to a fine
powder. In general, FA is used to improve workability, compression
strength, sulphate resistance and to reduce heat of hydration;
however it also aids to increase the rate of strength development.
A review summary of past research conducted in this area is
summarized in Table 3. The majority of studies evaluated the un-
stressed-residual strengths with the exception of one hot strength
test.
Dias et al. [39] submitted cement pastes containing FA to 600 °C
for 4 months. During cooling, the OPC paste deteriorated at 400 °C,
while the FA paste did not weaken up to 600 °C. Additions of 10%,
25% and 40% FA showed retained strengths of 27%, 36% and 40%
after exposure to 600 °C. Furthermore, surface cracks were
212 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
eliminated by adding 10% FA. The FA reduced the amount of CH,
thus less expansion material during re-hydration. In another study,
Sullivan and Sarshar [12] evaluated OPC paste containing 30% FA.
The results showed FA paste retained their residual strengths be-
tween 200 and 500 °C, but decreased by 30% at 600 °C. In a similar
investigation, Sarshar and Khoury [13] assessed OPC paste contain-
ing 30% FA under no load and under load. Unloaded samples had a
loss in residual strengths after 300 °C, but compared to the loaded
specimens had an 18% residual strength increase after exposure to
this temperature. At 600 °C, the residual strengths of the unloaded
FA and OPC paste specimens had losses of 30% and 52%, respec-
tively, which indicated an improved performance for OPC pastes
containing FA.
Aydin and Baradan [40] investigated an OPC mortar containing
pumice aggregates with varying FA ratios of 20–60%. The speci-
mens were heated up to 900 °C and cooled in air or water. Speci-
mens with and without FA, cooled in air from 300 °C both had a
residual strength increase of 24% compared to their control sample.
At 600 °C, the pumice mortar decreased by 4 %, while additions of
FA increased the residual strengths in the range of 2–14%. The
residual strengths of FA mortars began to decrease at 900 °C in
the amounts of 19–46%, based on the FA content. Mortars quickly
cooled in water had greater strength loss than mortars slowly
cooled in air.
Papayianni and Valiasis [41] conducted a study on normal
strength concrete (NSC) containing LS aggregates with 30–40%
FA. At 400 °C, the OPC concrete lost 50% of its strength while the
FA concrete lost 65 % of its strength. The result showed FA addi-
tions to LS concrete were more sensitive to elevated temperatures
than conventional concrete. In contrast, Savva et al. [42] reported
the results of NSC containing either limestone or siliceous aggre-
gates with 10% and 30% FA. At 300 °C, the OPC limestone concrete
decreased in strength by 7–8% and OPC siliceous concrete in-
creased by 5–6%. However, the LS concrete increased by 6–14%,
while the siliceous aggregate improved in the order of 16–39%
for concretes containing FA. At 600 °C, the limestone and siliceous
concretes with FA decreased in strength by 47–66% and 51–68%,
respectively. The authors suggested a critical temperature of
300 °C for FA concrete.
Analogous to the above studies, Xu et al. [43] evaluated NSC
containing granite aggregates with 25% and 55% FA. The post-
heated concrete containing FA demonstrated an improved fire
resistance as compared to the OPC concrete. For example, an in-
crease in compressive strength occurred in the order of 10–15%
for FA concrete and 8–9% for OPC concrete after exposure to
250 °C. The residual compressive strengths at 450 °C for the 25–
55% FA concretes reduced by 4–15% while the concrete without
FA reduced by about 20% of their initial strengths. The investigators
suggest a working temperature of 450 °C for FA concrete in
compression.
In a related investigation, Jia et al. [44] studied the residual
strength properties of NSC concrete containing aggregates (type
not reported) with 30%, 40% and 50% FA. At 20 °C, for 30%, 40%
and 50% FA replacement content, the compressive strength de-
creased by approximately 3%, 8% and 8%, respectively. At 250 and
450 °C, the OPC compression strength decreased by 23% and 31%,
respectively while the 40% FA concrete decreased by 3% and 5%,
respectively. In general the presence of FA was effective in increas-
ing the residual elevated temperature of the concrete as compared
to conventional concrete. The best results were obtained for a 40%
FA replacement at 250 and 450 °C.
Tanyıldızı and Cosßkun [45] evaluated the effect of high temper-
ature on the compressive strength of LWC made with scoria or
pumice aggregates containing 10%, 20% and 30% FA. For all mix-
tures, the residual compressive strength dropped after 200 °C. At
400 °C, the OPC, 10%, 20% and 30% FA decreased by 7%, 13%, 15%,
and 20%, respectively. From these results, there is no advantage
for addition of FA to concrete at these temperatures since the
strengths decreased. However at 800 °C, FA was found to be of ben-
efit since the residual compressive strength decreased by 64% for
OPC and 57% for specimens with 20–30% FA. The authors found
the addition of FA was of benefit at higher temperatures as a result
of its pozzolanic effect.
Although elevated temperature residual strengths are impor-
tant for concrete structures, cracking of the concrete can affect
its mechanical properties and durability. To study the influence
of cracking on post-heated OPC NSC, Xu et al. [46] prepared spec-
imens consisting of granite aggregates with 25% and 55% FA. In
both samples exposed to 250 °C small cracks on the concrete sur-
face were produced. At temperatures above 450 °C the presence
of FA reduced the extent of thermal cracks in contrast to severe
cracking of the OPC concrete. Fine networks of cracks were ob-
served with 25% FA while the crack widths and lengths reduced
in size with 55% FA. The authors reported that cracking was due
to the CH rehydrating; therefore the addition of FA consumes the
excess CH resulting in less cracking. Above 250 °C, the residual
strengths began to decrease for both FA concretes. At 450 °C, the
concrete containing 25% FA lost 14–17% strength; while concrete
with 55% FA the concrete decreased in strength by 2–3% of its room
temperature properties.
Ravindrarajah et al. [47] reviewed high strength concrete (HSC)
containing basalt aggregates and 20% FA. The samples were heated
up to 1000 °C, held for 7 h followed by quenching in water. At
200 °C, the specimens’ loss 20% of their non-heated strength as
compared to a 16% loss for HSC concrete without FA. At 600 °C a
strength decrease of 52% was observed for FA concrete, while
HSC has a loss of 26%. At all elevated temperatures, the HSC con-
taining FA was observed to perform worse than HSC without FA.
Poon et al. [48] investigated one mix of NSC and a second mix of
HSC both containing granite aggregates with 20–40% FA. At
400 °C the NSC and NSC containing FA decreased in strength by
26% and 14–16%, respectively. At 600 °C a loss of 55–63% for FA
concrete compared to a 70% loss for NSC. Similarly, for HSC at
400 °C, the FA concrete increased in strength by 4% compared to
an 11% loss for HSC concrete. At 600 °C, HSC and HSC with FA
had a loss of 42% and 33–43%, respectively. In both NSC and HSC,
the residual strengths for specimens containing FA additions per-
formed better than concretes without FA. Tang and Lo [49] re-
ported the results of NSC and HSC containing granite aggregates
and 25% FA. After exposing specimens to 400 °C and slowly cooled,
the NSC and HSC containing FA decreased in compressive strength
by 16% and 29%, respectively in contrast to concrete without FA
which decreased by 20% and 43%, respectively. At 400 °C after fast
cooling, the NSC and HSC with FA decreased by 29% and 24% while
without FA decreased by 30% and 38%, respectively. Both NSC and
HSC containing FA had better elevated temperature residual
strengths as compared to the control specimens. Overall the resid-
ual strengths of FA concrete were less affected by fast cooling.
The majority of elevated temperature studies on concretes con-
taining recycled SCMs were relatively short-term exposures in the
range of 2–5 h. However long-term heat exposure of concrete con-
taining FA is important to investigate as some concrete structures
are submitted to high temperatures for long periods of time. In this
regard, Carette et al. [50] conducted a long-term investigation on
concrete containing dolomitic LS and 25% FA. The specimens were
exposed up to 600 °C for a period of 1, 4 and 8 months followed by
cooling to room temperature. Addition of FA to concrete did not
improve the long-term residual compression properties. For exam-
ple, concrete after 1, 4 and 8 months of exposure at 300 °C, the
strengths decreased by 37–44% and 35–40%, respectively. Another
long-term study was carried out by Nasser and Marzouk [51] to
indentify the effect of temperature on NSC. Concrete containing
Table 3
A review summary of test results from past research containing FA concrete.

Author OPC/aggregate Type of Compression Furnace Sample Heating Soak w/c Curing FA Cooling Strength begins to Spalling or cracking
[reference] test strength temp. sized (mm) rate (°C/ time ratio time cement medium decrease (°C) at furnace
(RRTSa or (MPa)c range min) (hours) (days) (wt%) and (% change)e temperature (°C)
b
HTS ) (°C)
Material type: cement paste
Sullivan and OPC RRTS 71.8 50–600 63  63 1 9–22 0.34 144 30 Furnace 450 ( 12) Not reported
Sharshar [12] 600 ( 30)
Sarshar and OPC RRTS & 71.8 50–600 62.5  62.5 1 2–24 0.34 144 30 Natural Unstressed 450 ( 12) Not reported
Khoury [13] HTS Unstressed 600 ( 30)
Unstressed 300 ( 12)
Loaded hot 300 ( 28)
Dias et al. [39] OPC RRTS & 76.0 20–600 187.5  62.5 1 120 0.3 98 10, 25, Furnace 400 ( 8) No surface cracks at 600 °C
HTS 40 600( 54)
Material type: cement mortar

D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

Aydin and OPC, fine pumice RRTS 22.2–39.4 20–900 Prisms from 10 3 0.74– 28 20, 40, Air, Air, 900 ( 19 to 46) Spalling or surface cracks not reported
Baradan [40] flexure test 0.78 60 Water Water, 300 ( 20 to 32)
Material type: concrete
Papayianni and OPC, fine/ coarse RRTS 20–30 20–800 150  300 Step-by- 3 0.65 28 30, 40 Furnace 200 °C furnace or (145 °C Surface cracks at 400 °C. Spalling
Valiasis [41] limestone step core), ( 38 to 50) during cooling
Savva et al. [42] OPC, fine/coarse RRTS 40–55 20–750 150 (cubes) 2.5 2 0.60 1095 10, 30 Furnace LS 300 ( 8 to +14) Surface cracking above 300 °C, no
limestone or siliceous Siliceous 300 (5 to 39) spalling
For all 600 ( 7 to 25)
Xu et al. [43] OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 40–115 20–800 100 (cubes) 1 1 0.30– 90 25, 55 Natural 450 ( 4 to 15) Micro-cracks above 250 °C
coarse granite 0.50
Jia et al. [44] OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 38 20–650 Chinese Std. 10 2 0.49 28 30, 40, Natural 250 ( 3 to 19) Spalling above 450 °C Cracking not
coarse aggregate 50 450 ( 5 to 30) reported
Tanyıldızı and OPC, Scoria (pumice) RRTS 38–49 20–800 100 (cubes) Not 1 0.77 28 10, 20, Natural 200 ( 2 to 9) Surface cracks at 400 °C. No. of cracks
Cosßkun [45] reported 30 400 ( 13 to 20) decrease with FA increase
Xu et al. [46] OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 38–110 20–800 100 (cubes) 1 1 0.50 90 25, 55 Natural 450 ( 2 to 17) Surface cracks above 250 °C
coarse granite
Ravindrarajah OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 67.2 200– 100  200 3.3 7 0.30 28 20 Water 200 ( 20) Not reported
et al. [47] coarse basalt 1000 600 ( 52)
Poon et al. [48] OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 36.9–82.7 200–800 100 (cubes) 2.5 1 0.3 60 20, 30, Natural NSC 400 ( 14 to 16) Surface cracks above 300 °C Spalling
coarse granite 40 NSC 600 ( 55 to 63) not observed
HSC 400 (+4 to 4)
HSC 600 ( 33 to 43)
Tang and Lo [49] OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 56–89 20–600 British Std. 5 1 0.29– 56 25 Air, Air, 400 ( 16 to 29) Improved resistance to micro-
coarse granite 0.45 Water Water, 400 ( 24 to 29) cracking for FA concrete
Carette et al. OPC, fine natural sand, RRTS 28-day strength 75–600 102  203 Not 30 days 0.45– 28 140 25 Furnace 300 ( 37 to 39) No surface cracks were reported
[50] coarse limestone not reported reported 120 days 0.60 300 ( 35 to 37)
160 days 300 ( 40 to 44)
Nasser and OPC, fine/coarse RRTS 25.75 25.91 21.4–232 76  235 Not 28 days 0.60 28 25 Furnace 177 ( 19) Not reported
Marzouk [51] dolomoite 30.23 30.23 reported 56 days 177 ( 26)
91 days 177 ( 36)
180 days 177 ( 47)

a
Residual room temperature strength (RRTS).
b
High temperature strength (HTS).
c
Design compression strength at room temperature.
d
Cylinder, diameter x height.
e
A negative sign indicates a percent change (+gain, -loss).

213
 214
Table 4
A review summary of test results from past research with SF concrete.

Author OPC/aggregate Type of Compression Furnace Sample Heating Soak w/c ratio Curing SF Cooling Strength begins to Explosive spalling at
[reference] test strength temp sized (mm) rate (°C/ time time cement medium decrease (°C) furnace temperature
(RRTSa (Mpa)c range (°C) min) (hours) (days) (wt.%) and (% change)e (°C)
orHTSb)
Material type: cement paste
Sullivan and OPC RRTS & 66.3 50–600 63  63 1 9–22 0.43 144 10 Furnace 450 ( 30) Not reported

D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

Sharshar [12] HTS 600 ( 60)
Morsy et al. [54] OPC, metakaolin RRTS 47–50 20–800 25.4 (cubes) Not 2 0.27–0.28 28 5 to 15 Furnace 600 ( 33) Not reported
reported
Morsy and Shebl OPC, metakaolin RRTS 40–58 20–800 20 (cubes) Not 2 0.28–0.35 28 5 to 20 Furnace 800 ( 15) Not reported
[55] reported
Material type: cement mortar
Yuzer et al. [56] OPC, fine siliceous sand 34.3 20–1200 25  50 6 to 10 Not 0.5 28 10 Air, Water cooled at 300 °C Not reported
reported Water Air cooled at 600 °C
Rahel et al. [58] OPC, fine sand RRTS 60–70 20–600 Prisms from 7 24 0.40 90 5 to 10 Natural SF mortars increase in strength at Not observed
flexure test 300 °C and 600 °C
Material type: concrete
Phan and Carino OPC, fine natural sand, RRTS & 75–98 20–600 100  200 5.0 5.0 0.22, 0.33 28–400 10 Natural Preloaded hot 450 ( 23) Preloaded hot at 600 °C
[14] coarse limestone HTS Unloaded hot 450 ( 30) Unloaded hot at 450 °C
Unloaded cold 450 ( 50) Unloaded cold at
450 °C
(core temps of 200–
325 °C)
Felicetti and OPC, fine, coarse RRTS 72–95 20–500 100  300 0.2 12 0.3, 0.43 90 6.7, 9.4 Furnace 250 ( 20 to 30) Not reported
Gambarova [59] siliceous flint
Poon et al. [60] OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 82.8 20, 600, 800 100  200 2.5 1 0.29 56 10 Natural 600 ( 54) Not reported
coarse granite 800( 75)
Sancak et al. [61] OPC, pumice (LWC), RRTS LWC (16–19) 20–1000 50  100 5 Not 0.42, 0.47, 90 5 to 10 Furnace LWC 400 ( 3 to 61) Not reported
Agg. not reported for NSC (30–43) reported 0.58 NSC 400 ( 27 to 34)
NSC
Demirel and OPC, fine pumice, RRTS 39–47 20–800 100 (cubes) 2.5 1 0.50–0.71 28 10 Furnace 600 ( 19 to 26) Not reported
Kelestemur [20] coarse river aggregate
Chan et al. [62] OPC, fine sand, coarse – 60,70, 110, 20–1200 100 (cubes) ISO 834 8 0.21–0.50 28 10.7 Furnace Not reported 480–500 °C
granite 120
Hertz [63] OPC, fine quartz sand, RRTS 150–160 20–650 100  200 1 2 0.13 80 16.7 Furnace 350 ( 21) 350, 450, 650 °C
coarse diabase
Phan et al. [64] OPC, fine natural sand, RRTS 51–93 100–450 (core 102  204 5.0 5.5 0.22, 0.33 28–400 10 Natural 300 ( 13 to 33) Furnace temperature of
coarse limestone temp.) 300 °C (or core
temperature of 240–
280 °C)
Behnood and Ziari OPC, fine river sand, RRTS 73.9–84.2 20–600 102  204 3 3 0.30, 0.35, 28 6 to 10 Furnace 200 ( 12 to 15) Not reported
[65] coarse limestone 0.40 300 ( 23 to 31)
Noumowé [66] OPC, fine/coarse silico- RRTS 52.5 20–200 160  320 1 7 0.3 30–40 10 Furnace 200 ( 18 to 38) Not observed
calcareous, expanded
clay
 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223 215

25% FA was heated for a period of 6 months and showed an in-

crease in residual compression strength of 52% when exposed to
temperatures between 121 and 149 °C. However, when exposed
Spalled beyond 500 °C

spalling in NSC beam

Spalling on 200 mm

to 177 and 232 °C, the strengths were reduced to 47% and 73%,
concrete temp No
furnace or 128 °C
flange at 715 °C

respectively. The authors suggested the decrease in strength was

Not reported

caused by the breakdown of tobermorite (produced at high tem-

perature and high pressure) which has 2–3 times stronger bonding
properties than tobermorite gel (produced at room temperature
and low pressures).
Furnace Strength tests not conducted

4.5. Silica fume

SF is a by-product from the production of silicon metal. Due to

Furnace 400 (not reported)

its fine particle size, SF tends to increase the reaction rate and early
strength of concrete, but also increases the ambient compressive
strength, durability and lowers the permeability of concrete. It is
Furnace 400 ( 9)

typically employed to produce HSC and has a tendency for explo-

sive spalling due to its denser cement paste. A summary of past re-
search conducted on concrete containing SF with OPC replacement
and its high temperature behaviour is summarized in Table 4.
In the past, two literature reviews were conducted to assess the
elevated temperature behaviours of concrete containing SF. The
10, 20,

summary from Jahren [52] showed no evidence to substantiate

10

30
8

SF as a cause for problems when concrete is exposed to fire tem-

perature conditions. However, a few years later Hertz [53] con-
105

cluded ordinary concrete containing SF could exhibit explosive

28

28

spalling when heated at rates as low as 1 °C/min. The following

parameters were found to increase the risk of spalling; increased
0.25

0.21

0.40

moisture content, reduced permeability, decreased tensile strength

and increased heating rate. The author proposed that a 10% SF
replacement is an ideal amount to avoid spalling for concrete with
ASTM E- 2.3

gravel aggregate.
ISO 834 3

In two related studies, cement paste specimens containing 10%

reported

SF did not improve in residual compressive strength and had sim-

119

Not

ilar behaviours as pure OPC paste. The samples without load began
Flange: 150 and

to lose residual strength after 300 °C. Overall, specimens under no

Not reported

load had better residual strengths as compared to specimens

100 (cubes)

Web: 450

heated under load [12,13]. Metakaolin (MK) is known to have poz-

W:1200
L:2500

zolanic properties; consequently Morsy et al. [54] evaluated its

200

high temperature effects when incorporated into cement paste.

The cement paste mix contained 15–30% MK and 5–15% SF OPC
replacements. The best performance was cement paste containing
20–1100
20–900

20–600

10% and 15% SF which increased in strength up to 400 °C by 39%

and 48%, while at 600 °C decreased by 33% and 43%, respectively.
The increase in strength up to 400 °C was believed to be due to
the combined effect of the pozzolan reactions of MK and SF. The
27, 105

highest residual compressive strength at all elevated temperatures

47–53

A negative sign indicates a percent change (+gain, loss).

was obtained for cement paste mixtures containing 15% MK and

109

15% SF. However in an earlier study Morsy and Shebl [55] deduced
Design compression strength at room temperature.

similar results in that an amount of 15% MK and 5% SF demon-

RRTS

OPC, agg. not reported RRTS

strated improved fire resistance. It appears that the MK had a more

–

Residual room temperature strength (RRTS).

pronounced effect on the residual compressive strength of the

OPC, fine sand, coarse

OPC, fine/coarse not

concrete.
Siliceous sand mortars containing 10% SF were heated at a rate
High temperature strength (HTS).

of 6–10 °C/min followed by slow cooling in air or fast cooling in

calcareous

water. During heating no explosive spalling was reported. At

Cylinder, diameter x height.
reported

300 °C, both OPC and SF specimens increased in residual strengths

by 10–20%. The SF mortars cooled in water began to decrease after
300 °C, while those cooled in air decreased at 600 °C. Cooling in
Xiao and Falkner

water was more critical than cooling in air for both mortars
Saad et al. [69]
Stocks [68]
Sanjayan and

[56,57]. In a recent work carried out by Rahel et al. [58] cement

mortars containing 5–10% SF were submitted to a heating rate of
[67]

7 °C/min. During heating no spalling was observed on any samples.

At 300 °C and 600 °C, specimens with 5% SF had an increase in
a

e
c
b

strength of 9% and 18% respectively. Overall, mortars containing

216 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
5% SF showed a higher residual compressive strength then mortars
with 10% SF at 300 °C.
In order to have a better understanding on the high tempera-
ture behaviour of concrete containing SF, the following studies
were grouped according to the type of coarse aggregates. The first
group of studies were based on siliceous aggregates, the second
group calcareous aggregates while the third group were concretes
with aggregate types not reported.
Felicetti and Gambarova [59] investigated the effects of NSC and
HSC containing siliceous aggregates with 6.7–9.4% SF. The speci-
mens were heated at a rate of 0.2 °C/min. while no effects of spall-
ing were disclosed. For HSC specimens with SF exposed to 250 °C,
the residual strength reduced by 20–30%, while after 500 °C the
specimen strength loss was 65–75%. In general, NSC had better
residual compression strength than the HSC containing SF.
Tanyıldızı and Cosßkun [45] carried out research on HSC contain-
ing granite aggregate with 5–10% SF. During heating at 2.5 °C/min.
severe spalling and cracking was observed between 400 and
600 °C. At 400 °C HSC with and without SF decreased in strength
by 7–13% and 11%, respectively. At a higher temperature of
600 °C a loss of 42% for HSC and 48–56% for SF concrete. It was con-
cluded that SF concrete performed worse than the NSC at elevated
temperatures. For this reason, the authors suggest to use no more
than 5% SF to prevent spalling.
Poon et al. [60] assessed HSC containing granite aggregates and
10% SF. Specimens were heated at a rate of 2.5 °C/min., soaked for
1 h, followed by cooling to room temperature. During heating
above 200 °C, both OPC and SF concretes decreased in residual
strengths. At 600 °C, the OPC and SF concrete decreased by 52%
and 54% from their non-heated strengths, respectively. The data
showed concrete prepared with SF results in a quicker loss of resid-
ual compressive strength when exposed to elevated temperature.
However, SF increases the compressive strength of the unheated
concrete at lower temperatures.
Sancak et al. [61] conducted tests on two separate concrete
mixes; one with pumice aggregates for LWC and another with
coarse aggregates (type not reported) for NSC. Samples containing
5–10% SF were heated at a rate of 5 °C/min and cooled to room
temperature. For all concrete mixes an increase in SF produced
concretes with decreased residual compressive strengths. For in-
stance at 400 °C, LWC with OPC, 5% and 10% SF reduced their room
temperature strengths by 21%, 3% and 61%, respectively, while the
NSC with OPC, 5% and 10% SF, reduced by 20%, 27% and 34% respec-
tively. Overall, with additions of 5% SF the LWC produced the best
residual strengths while greater amounts tended to have a nega-
tive effect on the residual strength.
Demirel and Kelestemur [20] analyzed concrete containing river
aggregates with 5–20% finely ground pumice (FGP) and 10% SF. The
specimens were heated and cooled to room temperature. At 400 °C
all mixtures containing FGP and SF increased in strength with re-
spect to the room temperature values in the range of 3–20%. At
600 °C, the samples with 10% SF and 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% FGP de-
creased by 26%, 19%, 20% and 25%, while concrete containing FGP
without SF decreased by 11%, 5%, 5% and 6%, respectively. The out-
come showed concrete containing SF has an increased loss in resid-
ual compressive strength after exposure to elevated temperature.
The authors concluded the maximum temperature for concrete
containing FGP or FGP and SF is 600 °C.
Chan et al. [62] evaluated the spalling behaviour of high perfor-
mance concrete (HPC) containing granite aggregates with 10.7% SF.
For concrete with strengths lower than 60 MPa and moisture con-
tents of 60% no explosive spalling occurred. For concrete strengths
greater than 60 MPa and higher moisture contents between 63%
and 88% the probability of spalling increased. Spalling was shown
to be dependent on compressive strength and moisture content.
The spalling phenomenon occurred within the furnace tempera-
ture range of 480–500 °C.
An early study on calcareous aggregates was conducted by
Hertz [63] who investigated HSC containing basalt aggregates with
16.7% SF. Out of three samples heated for each temperature, one
specimen spalled at a furnace temperature of 350 °C while two
specimens spalled at 450 °C and at 650 °C, respectively. On un-
spalled specimens, the residual strength increased by 21% at
350 °C, but decreased by 17% and 55% at 450 °C and 650 °C,
respectively.
In another study, Phan et al. [64] evaluated HPC containing LS
with 10% SF. Concrete with a w/c ratio of 0.22, moisture content
of 5.0% and 10% SF spalled at a furnace temperature of 300 °C (or
a core temperature was 240 °C). Similarly, concrete with a w/c ra-
tio of 0.33, moisture content of 6.1% and 10% SF spalled at a furnace
temperature of 300 °C (or a core temperature of 275 °C). At 300 °C,
the residual strength of specimens with 10% SF and w/c ratios of
0.22 and 0.33 decreased by 13% and 33%, respectively, while the
samples without SF and a w/c of 0.33, decreased in residual
strengths by 26%. These results indicated SF had an adverse effect
on residual properties. However, concrete containing SF was able
to retain a larger residual strength compared to those without SF.
Phan and Carino [14] produced HPC containing LS aggregates
with 10% SF and w/c ratios of 0.22 and 0.33. The specimens were
heated at 5 °C/min. Three loading conditions were evaluated; (i)
stressed and tested ‘hot’, (ii) unstressed and tested ‘hot’ and (iii)
unstressed and cooled to room temperature. For (i) and (ii) spalling
occurred at a furnace temperature of 600 °C for specimens with
and without SF and w/c ratios of 0.33. In addition, specimens with
SF and w/c ratios of 0.22 spalled at 450 °C, while samples without
SF did not spall. In (iii), samples containing SF and w/c ratios of 0.22
spalled at of 450 °C. This work showed the tendency to spall was
seen to amplify with a decrease in w/c ratio rather than the addi-
tion of SF.
In contrast, Behnood and Ziari [65] evaluated HSC containing LS
aggregates and 6–10% SF. Samples with w/c ratios of 0.3, 0.35 and
0.4 were heated at a rate of 3 °C/min. In general, the results showed
a decrease in residual strength when SF is added as a cement
replacement at all elevated temperatures. For example, at 200 °C
concrete containing OPC and SF decreased in strength by 10–11%
and 12–15%, while at 300 °C, they decreased in strength by 24–
27% and 23–31%, respectively. In terms of residual strength loss,
the amounts of SF replacements had a larger negative effect than
the w/c ratios.
Noumowé [66] studied HSC containing silico-calcareous aggre-
gates and LWC containing expanded clay aggregates. Both mixes
contained 10% SF with a w/c ratio of 0.3. The samples were heated
to 200 °C using a heating rate of 1 °C/min and held for 7 h followed
by furnace cooling to room temperature. Explosive spalling was
not observed during the heating or cooling cycles. For both types
of concrete, the residual compressive strengths decreased by 18–
38% as compared to the non-heated specimens.
Ravindrarajah et al. [47] combined basalt aggregates and 6.6%
SF to produce HSC. Specimens were heated at a rate of 3.3 °C/
min up to 1000 °C, held for 7 h and further cooled in a water tank.
At 200 °C, the SF specimens lost 27% of their non-heated strength
as compared to a 16% loss for HSC without SF. At 600 °C a strength
decrease of 58% was observed for SF specimens, while HSC had a
loss of 26%. At all elevated temperatures, the HSC containing SF
performed worse than the HSC without SF.
Xiao and Falkner [67] employed calcareous aggregates with 10%
SF to generate HPC. The specimens with a w/c ratio of 0.25 were
heated according to the standard fire curve ISO-834 and cooled
to room temperature. For identical specimens, a strength decrease
of 9% occurred at 400 °C, while at 600 °C the residual strength
Table 5
A review summary of test results from past research with BFS concrete.

Author OPC/ Type of Compression Furnace Sample Heating Soak w/c Curing BFS Cooling Strength begins to Spalling or cracking at furnace
[reference] aggregate test (RRTSa strength temp., sized (mm) rate (°C/ time ratio time cement medium decrease (°C) and temperature (°C)
or HTSb) (Mpa)c range (°C) min) (hours) (days) (wt.%) (% change)e
Material type: cement paste
Sullivan and OPC RRTS & 68.7 50–600 63  63 1 9–22 0.34 144 65 Furnace 300 (0) Not reported
Sharshar HTS 600 (0)
[12]
Sarshar and OPC RRTS & 68.7 50–600 62.5  62.5 1 2–24 0.34 144 65 Natural Unstressed 300 (0) Not reported
Khoury HTS Unstressed 600 (0)
[13] Preloaded hot 300
( 28)
Mendes et al. OPC RRTS 30–47 20–800 50  100 6.25 1 0.5 14 35, 50, Furnace 300 ( 11 to 17) Spalling not reported, very few to no
[70] 65 400 ( 23 to 34) cracks at 400 °C
600 ( 43 to 54)
Wang [71] OPC RRTS 2.6–61.8 25–1050 20  40 0.67 2 to 6 0.23, 28 5,10, Natural 440 (+31 to 50) Spalling not reported. Surface cracks
0.47, 20, 50, 580 (+9 to 77) begin at 580 °C but reduced with BFS

D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

0.71 80, 100 content
Material type: cement mortar
Shoaib et al. OPC, fine sand RRTS 19–40 20–600 75  150 10 to 20 2 0.40, 210 75 Air, Air-cooled slag at Spalling not reported. Air/furnace cooling
[72] 0.50, Water, 600 ( 60) produced surface cracks Water cooling
0.60 Furnace Water-cooled slag did not produce cracks
600 ( 75)
Aydın [73] OPC, fine RRTS 20.5–41.1 20–900 Prisms 10 3 0.70– 27 20, 40, Air, Air: 300 (+34 Spalling not reported. Microscracks in
pumic sand from 0.72 60, 80 Water to + 43) cement paste at 900 °C on air cooled
flexure test Air: 600 (+11 sample
to + 37)
Air: 900 ( 23 to
72)
Water: 300 (+13
to + 28)
Water: 600 ( 23 to
36)
Water: 900 ( 28 to
75)
Netinger et al. OPC, fine river RRTS 26.2–43.3 20–1000 Prisms Not 1.5 0.5 28 100 Natural 200 ( 4) Spalling and thermal crack behaviour was
[74] aggregate from reported 400 ( 24 to 27) not reported
flexure test
Material type:concrete
Carette et al. OPC, fine sand, RRTS 18.03 75–600 102  203 Not 30 days, 0.45– 28 140 35 Furnace 300 ( 24 to 40) No surface cracks were reported
[50] coarse reported 120 days 0.60 300 ( 36 to 39)
limestone
Ravindrarajah OPC, fine river RRTS 40.3 200–1000 100  200 3.3 7 0.30 28 65 Water 200 ( 24) Not reported
etal. [47] sand, coarse 600 ( 33)
basalt
Janotka and OPC,fine/ RRTS 52.3 20–800 150 Not 48 0.35 140 6 to 35 Natural 400 ( 6) Not reported
Bagel [75] coarse natural (cubes) reported 600 ( 59)
gravel
Xiao and OPC, fine sand, RRTS 67–84 20–900 100 ISO 834 3 0.30– 28 40–50 Natural 400 ( 7 to 15) Spalling occurred above 400 °C Cracking
Falkner coarse (cubes) 0.34 600 (-40 to 52) not reported
[67] siliceous
Poon et al. OPC, fine sand, RRTS 39.8–83.9 200–800 100 2.5 1 0.30 60 30–40 Natural NSC 400 ( 15 to Surface cracks above 300 °C Spalling not
[48] coarse granite (cubes) 19) observed
NSC 600 ( 46 to
49)
HSC 400 (0 to 3)

217
(continued on next page)
218 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

decreased by 41%. The results showed concrete containing 10% SF

Spalling/thermal crack behaviour was not

could maintain its residual strength without spalling above 400 °C.
Sanjayan and Stocks [68] produced concrete containing SF, but

Spalling not observed Surface cracks

aggregate types were not reported. The authors manufactured two
identical full-scale T-beams containing NSC without SF and HSC
Spalling or cracking at furnace

containing 8% SF, cured for 3.5 months and heated according to

the standard fire ASTM E-119 followed by cooling to room temper-
appear above 400 °C
ature. Prior to testing the moisture content for the NSC and HSC
were 4.0% and 4.6%, respectively. Explosive spalling was observed
temperature (°C)

early (18 min) into the test on the HSC in the area where the con-
Not reported

crete temperature averaged 128 °C (the furnace temperature was

reported

715 °C) however no spalling occurred in the NSC. The results indi-
cated HSC had a higher tendency for explosive spalling than NSC
such that the HSC had higher moisture content than NSC. Since
Unstressed residual

Unstressed hot 600

both beams were poured at the same time, the authors suggested
Strength begins to
decrease (°C) and

HSC 600 ( 39 to

the NSC dried quicker than the HSC due to the lower porosity of the
100 ( 11.8)

HSC.
(% change)e

400 (+15.6)
200 ( 13)
400 ( 39)
600 ( 20)

200 (+8)

Similarly Saad et al. [69] conducted tests on concrete containing

( 15)
47)

10%, 20% and 30% SF without reporting the coarse aggregates type.
The samples were heated (heating rate not reported) from 20 to
600 °C, held for 3 h and cooled to room temperature. At 300 and
medium

Furnace
Cooling

Natural

Natural

400 °C, the specimens with 10% SF increased in strength by 3.6%

and 13% respectively. Typically the concretes with 10% SF pos-
sessed higher strengths at all temperatures.
cement

20, 40,
(wt.%)
BFS

4.6. Blast furnace slag

65

50

60
Curing

(days)

BFS is a by-product from the steel manufacturing industry. BFS

time

144

150

is typically ground as a fine powder, much finer than OPC particles

28

to produce cement replacements. BFS is added to concrete to re-

ratio

duce permeability and improve its durability at ambient tempera-

0.34

0.45
0.60
w/c

ture. A summary of past research conducted on concrete

containing BFS with OPC replacement and it high temperature
(hours)

9 to 22

2 to 3

behaviour is summarized in Table 5. All tests conducted were to

Soak
time

evaluate the unstressed-residual strengths.

1

Mendes et al. [70] produced OPC paste containing 35%, 50% and
rate (°C/
Heating

65% fine ground BFS. Samples were heated at a rate of 6.25 °C/min.
1–1.5
min)

At 300 °C, the OPC paste decreased in residual compression

25

strength by 10%, while the BFS pastes decreased by 11–17%

sized (mm)

depending on the replacement ratio. All OPC samples heated above

150  300
63  63
Sample

(cubes)

400 °C displayed severe cracking, whereas the BFS specimens

showed few surface cracks and improved residual strength. Above
100

400 °C, the OPC paste crumbled to the extent the specimens had no
range (°C)

strength. In contrast, the BFS paste decreased in strength by 23–

Furnace

20–350
50–600

20–800

34% and 43–54% at 400 and 600 °C, respectively. The results
temp.,

showed OPC containing slag is of benefit for cement paste heated

above 400 °C.
Compression

In another study, Wang [71] conducted an experiment using ce-

A negative sign indicates a percent change (+gain, loss).

ment pastes containing 10%, 20%, 50%, 80% and 100% fine BFS and
strength
(Mpa)c

heated at a rate of 0.67 °C/min. The pastes containing 50–80% BFS

28.9

Design compression strength at room temperature.

64
50

offered the best fire resistance between 440 and 580 °C. From this
investigation it is possible to improve the fire resistance of OPC by
test (RRTSa

Residual room temperature strength (RRTS).

partial cement replacement with BFS. Similarly, in a related study

or HTSb)
Type of

cement pastes containing 65% fine BFS were heated at 1 °C/min.

RRTS

RRTS

RRTS

and did not show any reduction in residual compressive strength

High temperature strength (HTS).

up to 600 °C [12]. In an analogous study BFS cement paste speci-

OPC, fine sand,

crushed stone
OPC, Agg. not

mens heated in the unstressed state had better residual strengths

Cylinder, diameter  height.
aggregate

than specimens heated under load [13].

OPC,fine/

reported
firebrick
crushed
coarse

coarse

BFS sand replacements were studied by Shoaib et al. [72] who

OPC/

reported results of 75% fine aggregate replacements for three sep-

arate types of mortars containing; natural sand, air-cooled slag
Table 5 (continued)

Xiao et al. [76]

Siddique and

(ACS) and water-quenched slag (WQS). The specimens were heated

Kaur [77]
Sullivan and
Sharshar
[reference]

at a rate of 10–20 °C/min, followed by separate cooling regimes:

[12]
Author

water, air, and furnace cooling. Samples cooled in air and furnace
showed increases of escalating surface cracks with increasing w/c
c
b
a

ratios whereas no cracks were observed on water cooled

 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
specimens. After exposure to 600 °C, the residual compression
strength loss of the sand, ACS and WQS mortars were 55%, 60%
and 75 %, respectively. Air cooled mortars exhibited lower residual
strength losses than those cooled in the furnace or water. Overall
the ACS mortar exhibited a better thermal stability.
Aydin [73] developed a series of mortars containing pumice
aggregates and 0%, 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% ground BFS. They were
heated up to 900 °C at 10 °C/min, held for 3 h and cooled quickly
or slowly to room temperature. External surface cracking or spall-
ing was not reported. The compressive strength of cement mortars
containing BFS did not show any strength loss up to 600 °C for
samples cooled in air. At 900 °C mortars with 80% BFS replacement
showed residual compressive strength losses of 23% (air cooled)
and 28% (water cooled), respectively. In contrast, mortars without
BFS, the residual compressive strength loss was as high as 72%.
Water cooling resulted in a greater residual strength loss than
specimens slowly cooled in air.
In a related work, Netinger et al. [74] produced mortars contain-
ing OPC and fine BFS aggregates as a total replacement of fine river
sand. The specimens were heated up to 1000 °C. The BFS showed
similar residual compressive strengths as the natural aggregate
mortar up to 400 °C, but at higher temperatures the BFS had better
fire resistance. For example, at 400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C, the nat-
ural aggregate mortar decreased in residual compression strength
by 21%, 63% and 77%, respectively, while the BFS mortar compres-
sion strengths were reduced by 27%, 51% and 70%, respectively. The
authors suggest the replacement of fine aggregates in totality with
BFS is valid for increasing the fire resistance of mortar and perhaps
concrete.
Experiments to evaluate the fire resistance of conventional con-
crete containing BFS as a cement replacement have also been con-
ducted in the literature. Carette et al. [50] assessed the long-term
high temperature exposure of concrete containing natural sand,
dolomitic LS and 35% fine BFS. The concrete samples were exposed
to 75, 150, 300, 450 and 600 °C for a period of 1, 4 and 8 months
and cooled to room temperature. After 1 and 4 months of exposure
at 300 °C, concrete with w/c ratios of 0.45 and 0.60 decreased in
strength by 39–40% and 24–36%, respectively. Adding BFS to con-
crete as a cement replacement did not improve the long term
residual compression strengths regardless of the temperature or
w/c ratio.
A fire resistance analysis was conducted by Ravindrarajah et al.
[47] to evaluate conventional HSC containing basalt aggregates and
62% BFS. At 200 °C, the BFS specimens lost 24% of their residual
strength as compared to 16% for HSC without BFS. Similarly, at
600 °C, the HSC with BFS and conventional HSC decreased in
strength by 33% and 26%, respectively. Up to 600 °C, the HSC per-
forms better than the HSC containing BFS; however at higher tem-
peratures the BFS concrete was observed to perform better.
In a related work, Janotka and Bagel [75] produced concrete
containing river gravel (type not reported) with 6–35% BFS. The
authors studied the effect of temperature using various heating
and cooling cycles up to 800 °C. For the heating regimes chosen,
the residual strength of the BFS concrete increased up to 400 °C,
however above 400 °C, the authors suggest the strength decreased
due to pore structure coarsening.
Xiao and Falkner [67] reviewed HPC containing siliceous aggre-
gates and BFS. The specimens were heated according to the stan-
dard fire curve ISO-834. C50 samples contained 50% BFS with a
w/c ratio of 0.34, while C80 samples contained 40% BFS with a w/
c ratio of 0.30. C50 and C80 concretes did not spall below 800 °C
and 400 °C, respectively but spalled at higher temperatures. At
400 °C, the residual compressive strength of C50 and C80 concretes
decreased by 15% and 7%, respectively, while at 600 °C the residual
compressive strength of concrete C50 and C80 decreased by 40%
and 52%, respectively. The results showed concrete containing
219
40% and 50% BFS could maintain their residual strengths without
spalling above 400 °C.
Poon et al. [48] produced two concrete mixes; one NSC and one
HSC. Both mixes contained granite aggregates and 30–40% BFS. The
samples were heated up to 800 °C at a rate of 2.5 °C/min, held for
1 h and cooled to room temperature. No spalling was observed in
the samples, although a network of fine cracks was observed on
the surface. For NSC specimens, at 400 °C a decrease of 15–19%
in strength occurs as compared to a 26% loss for NSC without
BFS. At 600 °C, a loss of 46–49% for BFS concrete compared to
70% for NSC. HSC specimens without BFS and with 30% BFS heated
to 400 °C showed a strength decrease of 11% and 3%, respectively,
while there was no decrease in strength for 40% BFS concrete.
Overall, the BFS concrete performed better than NSC, however con-
crete with 40% BFS performs much better than the HSC.
Sullivan and Sharshar [12] incorporated 65% BFS into concrete
containing crushed firebrick aggregates with a w/c ratio of 0.60.
The samples were heated at 1 °C/min to 600 °C, held for 9 to 22 h
and cooled to room temperature. The concrete increased in resid-
ual compressive strengths by 20% at 200 °C, but at 600 °C, the
strength dropped by 20%. An unstressed hot compressive strength
test was also conducted where specimens were heated at 1.5 °C/
min up to 600 °C and held for 2 to 6 h. Between 200 and 300 °C,
the BFS concrete decreased by 10%, while at 450 °C the strength
recovered to its room temperature strength and at 600 °C, the
specimens lost 15% of their strengths.
Xiao et al. [76] conducted an experiment with HPC containing
coarse aggregates (type not reported) and 50% BFS. The samples
were heated to 800 °C using a heating rate of 25 °C/min, held for
2–3 h and cooled to room temperature. No explosive spalling
was observed, but cracks appeared on the specimens above
400 °C. At 200, 400, 600 and 800 °C, the residual compressive
strengths decreased by 13%, 39%, 50% and 84%, respectively. The
authors suggest the HPC–BFS had a better performance then NSC
when subjected to fire. Similarly, Siddique and Kaur [77] studied
NSC containing coarse aggregates with additions of 20%, 40% and
60% BFS. The specimens were heated to 350 °C at a heating rate
of 8 °C/min, held for 1 h and cooled to room temperature. The spec-
imens had an initial moisture content of 1–2.5%, however spalling
and thermal cracks were not reported. At 100 °C, the residual com-
pressive strength of concrete with 20% BFS decreased 12%, but in-
creased 8% at 200 °C and further increased 16% at 350 °C as
compared to the its room temperature strength. The authors con-
cluded that up to 20% BFS is beneficial for use in concrete for high
temperature applications.
4.7. Limestone Portland cement
LS powder is an inert SCM used as an OPC replacement in PLC or
as filler in self-compacting concrete (SCC). LS powder is added to
OPC at ambient temperature to increase the rate of hydration by
promoting nucleation sites for the hydration products and early
strength gain [78]. One study suggested advantages of using LS
in concrete for elevated temperatures as it decomposes at 600–
900 °C [23]. Adding 15% LS as a cement replacement does not re-
duce the properties of concrete while benefiting the environment
[79]. In general, LS powder as a replacement or filler in concrete
has not been investigated to a great extent for its elevated temper-
ature and post-fire properties.
In an earlier study, Persson [15] investigated SCC containing
15% LS powder included in the OPC as well as additional LS filler
in amounts ranging from 29% to 80% by mass. Concrete containing
gneiss aggregates was heated to 800 °C and cooled to room tem-
perature. After 15 min of heating at a rate of 4 °C/min. explosive
spalling occurred for all SCCs. At 400 °C, the hot strength decreased
by 30%, while the residual strength decreased by 40%. The authors
220 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
suggested to add polypropylene fibres to prevent spalling in SCC
concretes.
Another study conducted by Annerel et al. [80] evaluated the
performance of SCC with 75% LS powder filler. The samples were
heated up to 800 °C at a rate of 3.5 °C/min and soaked for 12.5 h
followed by cooling to room temperature. The SCC had a better
performance than conventional concrete up to 350 °C. Spalling
did not occur due to specimen drying for a three week period at
105 °C, prior to testing.
In a recent paper, Fares et al. [81] assessed SCC specimens
containing 37–69% LS powder. The specimens were heated up
to 600 °C using a heating rate of 1 °C/min, soaked for 1 h and
cooled to room temperature. The results showed spalling oc-
curred at 315 °C for SCC using a heating rate of 1 °C/min. Be-
tween 150 and 300 °C, the compression strength increased but
decreased beyond 300 °C [82]. Spalling was also observed on
SCC specimens dried for 180 days and exposed to the standard
ISO 834 curve. After 7–15 min of heating, spalling occurred at
a depth of 20 mm [83].
4.8. Biomass/volcanic ash
Agricultural biomass and volcanic ash have recently been
found to exhibit pozzolanic properties in concrete. A recent
study by Al-Akhras et al. [84] evaluated olive waste ash (OWA)
obtained from incinerating olive mill waste on the residual per-
formance of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Con-
crete containing basalt aggregates with OPC replacements of
0%, 7%, 15%, and 22% OWA were submitted to elevated temper-
atures of 400 and 600 °C using a heating rate of 1.67 °C/min and
held for 2 h, followed by cooling to room temperature. The re-
sults showed incorporating OWA in concrete reduces cracking
when exposed to elevated temperatures while spalling was not
reported. The residual compressive strength of the OWA concrete
improved from 51% to 71% by increasing the OWA from 0% to
22% at 400 °C. It was shown that OWA in concrete increases
its fire resistance.
In another study, Hossain [85] evaluated concrete containing LS
aggregates and volcanic ash (VA) in the amount of 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% by mass. The specimens were heated up to 800 °C using a
heating rate of 2.5 °C/min and held for 1 h followed by cooling to
room temperature. A strength loss of 4–15% of the original strength
was observed between 200 °C and 400 °C, while a more severe
strength loss occurred between 400 °C and 600 °C in the amount
of 38–48%. The performance of the concrete containing VA showed
no spalling but hair line cracks were visible. Overall the VA con-
crete was shown to retain its strength better than the conventional
concrete at elevated temperatures.
4.9. Ternary blends
In general, this review illustrated the fire resistance studies
conducted on OPC replacements with single SCMs. Works con-
taining ternary blends of two or more SCMs are scarce. It is
known that natural aggregates in cement mortar or concrete
break down at higher temperatures than OPC pastes. In this re-
gard researchers have produced ternary blends in an effort to
optimize the elevated temperature properties OPC pastes, closer
to that of the aggregates.
Heikal [86] conducted a study of blended cement pastes con-
taining FA and LS. Two mix batches were produced. In the first
mix, OPC was partially replaced by 10%, 20% and 30% FA. In the sec-
ond mix, the specimens containing 20% FA were partially replaced
with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% LS. The specimens were heated at 10 °C/
min and furnace cooled to room temperature. At 450 °C the resid-
ual strength of the specimens containing OPC suffered a loss of 9%,
FA cement increased up to 26% while the cement paste containing
both FA–LS, increased by 35%. However at 600 °C, the OPC paste
decreased by 62%, the FA cement paste decreased by 20% and the
FA–LS cement paste decreased in the range of 14–38%. The authors
suggested adding LS to FA had a positive effect on the OPC cement
paste but cannot be used above 450 °C, while the LS content should
not be greater than 5 wt%.
At ambient temperatures, the high reactivity of SF has been
used to compensate for the slower strength development of FA in
concretes. Ghosh and Nasser [87] performed tests on concrete con-
taining natural gravel, with additions of 20% and 60% FA and a fixed
amount of SF (10%). The specimens were submitted to creep tests
by placing them under high temperature and load. Samples were
subjected to temperatures of 71, 121, 149, 177 and 232 °C and
simultaneously uni-axially loaded to 5.2, 10.4 and 13.8 MPa for
90 days. The residual strength for concrete containing 20% and
60% FA in combination with 10% SF both decreased gradually as
the temperature increased from 21 to 232 °C for all three loads.
The decrease in strength was found to be due to a gradual deteri-
oration of the binding matrix. From microscopic investigation, at
71–149 °C, the CSH gel was found to be dense with a good bonding,
but at 232 °C the CSH gel transformed into white, loose particles of
CSH of poor bonding quality. Based on these results, the authors
recommended creep tests to be performed on concrete containing
FA and SF.
Poon et al. [48] studied the effects of HSC containing granite
aggregates, 10% SF and 20% FA. During heating at 2.5 °C/min., se-
vere spalling and cracking was observed in all samples between
400 and 600 °C. At 400 °C, a decrease of 6% in strength occurred
in the FA-SF samples, compared to an 11% loss for conventional
HSC. In contrast, at 600 °C a loss of 49% for FA–SF concrete com-
pared to 42% for HSC. The amounts of blended FA–SF cements in
this work performed worse than the HSC beyond 400 °C.
5. Summary
This report reviewed the fire resistance of residual compressive
strengths for recycled materials added to concrete. Maximizing the
amount of recycled wastes in new concrete is a sustainable prac-
tice. The studies reviewed in this paper were primarily conducted
on mixtures of cement paste, cement mortar and concretes con-
taining RBA, RCA, SCMs (FA, SF, BFS and PLC), ternary blends and
biomass/volcanic ashes. Because of an insufficient number of stud-
ies, it was not possible to evaluate repeatability in the results. The
main test parameters chosen by each investigator; specimen size,
heating rate, soak period, target temperature, w/c ratio, curing
time, cooling regime, OPC replacement ratios and spalling behav-
iour are scattered. Nevertheless, important findings are summa-
rized in the following sections.
5.1. Recycled aggregates
 Explosive spalling was not reported nor observed for RBA or
RCA concretes.
 The majority of RBAs were obtained from clean, mortar-free
bricks as opposed to a pile of rubble.
 Certain RBAs may contain high levels of sulphate that are detri-
mental to concrete.
 The strength of the original brick controls the strength of the
concrete.
 Fine brick aggregates may have pozzolanic activity.
 RBA cement paste residual strength is improved after exposure
up to 600 °C.
 Fine and coarse RBA in concrete begins to lose residual com-
pression strengths between 400 °C and 650 °C, but remains
higher than conventional concretes.
 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
 Coarse RCA in concrete has a better residual strength than the
conventional concrete for temperatures ranging from 500 °C
to 700 °C.
5.2. Supplementary cementing materials
5.2.1. Fly ash
 Water cooling FA concrete was found to be more destructive
than air cooling.
 Explosive spalling does not appear to be a problem for FA
concrete.
 Concrete with at least 10% FA was shown to resist surface crack-
ing better than OPC concrete, specifically at temperatures
beyond 250 °C to 600 °C.
 Cement paste with FA should not be used above 400 °C.
 On average the residual strengths were improved with 10–40%
FA contents compared to OPC concrete in the temperature
range of 250–450 °C. The strength was shown to be strongly
dependant on the type of aggregate employed.
5.2.2. Silica fume
 Cement paste containing MK and SF increased in residual
strength up to 400 °C.
 SF mortar samples cooled in water decrease in residual strength
after 300 °C, while SF mortar specimens cooled in air decreased
at 600 °C.
 Concrete containing coarse river aggregate with fine ground
pumice and SF increased in residual strength up to 400 °C.
 Residual strength of concretes containing SF begins to decrease
in the range of 200 °C to 250 °C, depending on the type of sili-
ceous aggregates.
 Calcareous aggregate concretes containing SF were able to
maintain their residual strengths up to 300 °C to 350 °C.
 In all experiments the room temperature strength was
improved by adding SF. However, the majority of studies indi-
cate the addition of SF has an adverse effect on the residual high
temperature compressive strengths of concrete.
 There is disagreement as to which parameter has more adverse
effects, SF addition or w/c ratio.
 It is well known that HSC containing SF is prone to spalling at
elevated temperature. However, many of the studies reviewed
either do not report spalling or interestingly, it does not occur.
 Unloaded samples cooled to room temperature were more
likely to have an increased loss in strength as compared to
loaded and unloaded samples tested hot.
 Cooling SF concrete specimens in water was shown to have a
more significant residual strength loss than cooling in air.
5.2.3. Blast furnace slag
 BFS cement pastes have increased residual strengths after expo-
sure to temperatures of 400–440 °C. Very little surface cracks
appear in BFS cement pastes.
 BFS mortars cooled in water had a greater residual strength loss
than specimens slowly cooled in air.
 BFS mortars containing fine pumice aggregate and river sand
did not show any residual compressive strength loss up to
400 °C and 600 °C, respectively. BFS mortars have an increased
fire resistance over conventional mortars.
 Concrete containing BFS powder was able to maintain its resid-
ual strength without spalling up to 350–400 °C.
 In general surface cracks in BFS concrete appear around 300–
400 °C, while explosive spalling occurs around 400 °C.
221
5.2.4. Ternary cement blends
 The residual properties of ternary blended FA–LS cement pastes
have a positive effect up to 450 °C.
 Residual properties of concrete containing blended FA–SF
cement performed well up to 400 °C.
 The performance of SCC containing LS under elevated tempera-
tures shows a tendency to spall, even at low heating rates.
6. Research needs
Research conducted to date in this field is at its infancy stage.
The following research needs and recommendations were recog-
nized during this literature review:
6.1. Recycled aggregates
 For all recycled materials, evaluate the hot strength of stressed
and unstressed specimens, as well as creep behaviour at high
temperatures.
 RBA and RCA containing mortar and impurities should be
assessed at elevated temperatures.
 Evaluate the effect of adding moderate or high sulphate resis-
tance cement to RBA concrete to reduce the adverse effects of
elevated sulphate contents in certain RBAs.
 Research ambient and elevated temperature residual properties
of concrete containing recycled–recycled concrete.
 Study the addition of SCMs to RBA and RCA to improve proper-
ties at elevated temperatures.
6.2. Supplementary cementing materials
 A more concise method to evaluate concretes at elevated tem-
peratures using more common test parameters should be
developed.
 The phenomenon of surface cracking and explosive spalling
should be reported in all studies even if it does not occur.
 Future studies should report both furnace and specimen core
temperatures because the differences can be greater than 50 °C.
 Report moisture content at time of test; it may be important for
explosive spalling.
6.3. Ternary blends
 More elevated temperature studies are required with different
replacement ratios and combinations of SCMs (FA, SF, BFS and
LS), different concretes (NSC, HSC and LWC) and recycled aggre-
gates (RBA/RCA).
 High temperature creep tests are needed on concrete containing
various blended cements.
 Residual strengths and hot strengths (stressed and unstressed).
6.4. Biomass/volcanic ashes
 Evaluate municipal waste ash, rice husk ash and others for their
fire performance in concrete.
 Incorporate blends of ashes in combination with SCMs or lime-
stone to evaluate elevated temperature properties.
 Compression testing in hot stressed and unstressed states.
7. Conclusions
If recycled materials are to be used in concrete for building con-
struction, their fire resistance behaviour must be well established.
Concrete members are designed to be in compression, therefore,
222 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223

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