Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Review
h i g h l i g h t s
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This review summarizes research conducted on concrete containing recycled materials after exposure to
Received 22 December 2012 fire. Discarded products consist of brick and concrete demolition from the construction and building
Received in revised form 27 March 2013 industries, in addition to supplementary cementing materials from industrial waste such as fly ash, blast
Accepted 3 April 2013
furnace slag, silica fume and biomass/volcanic ashes. To understand the effects with and without aggre-
Available online 4 May 2013
gates, researchers have conducted a variety of tests on cement pastes, cement mortars, and concrete.
Three heating and loading conditions have been used by researchers in this area: preloaded and tested
Keywords:
hot, unloaded and tested hot, and unloaded and tested at room temperature. Of the many possible mate-
Recycled materials
Brick
rial property measurements, the most common was the compression strength and is reported here. The
Concrete literature suggests a great deal of work is needed in this area to understand the performance in fire of
Limestone structures constructed with sustainable concretes.
SCM Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fire resistance
High temperature
Sustainable concrete
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
2. Testing procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3. Conventional concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.1. Conventional cement paste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.2. Conventional natural aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4. Recycled materials in conventional concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.1. Brick aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.2. Glass aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.3. Concrete aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.4. Fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.5. Silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.6. Blast furnace slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.7. Limestone Portland cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 533 2731; fax: +1 613 533 2128.
E-mail addresses: creed@queensu.ca (D. Cree), greenm@civil.queensu.ca
(M. Green), albert.noumowe@u-cergy.fr (A. Noumowé).
0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.04.005
D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223 209
10-hole perforated bricks. The RBA concrete showed an improve- tar and the old RCA mortar to be composed of identical materials
ment in elevated temperature behaviour. At 200 °C, the RBA con- (e.g. mortar–mortar). Therefore, the CTE of the old/new mortar
crete lost 7–9% of its strength, while conventional concrete with interface was perceived to be comparable and its compatibility re-
granite aggregate lost 25% its strength. At 400 °C, the RBA concrete duced micro/macro cracking of the cement mortars. In a later
recovered to its non-heated properties, while concrete without study, Zega and Di Maio [35] examined three types of RCA; recy-
RBA recovered 90%. Upon further heating to 800 °C, the RBA con- cled granite (RGC), recycled siliceous (RSC) and recycled quartz
crete and conventional concrete preserved 35–37% and 33%, (RQC) each in replacements of 75% by volume of natural aggregates
respectively of their original strength. Two parameters were deter- and compared each to their respective natural aggregate type; gra-
mined to influence the concrete strength; adhesion of the RBA with nitic crushed stone (GC), siliceous gravel (SC) and quartzitic
cement paste and strength of the original bricks. crushed stone (QC). Test specimens were heated to 500 °C for 1 h
To determine the stability of aggregates in concrete under cyclic followed by cooling to ambient temperature. Samples produced
heating as occurring in nuclear reactor vessels, Campbell and Desai from QC and RQC were observed to have superior residual
[33] investigated heating cycles on three separate high strength strengths. The results are attributed to the coarse quartz aggre-
concretes. Specimens were temperature cycled using a heating rate gates and fine siliceous sand mortar having comparable CTEs thus
of 1 °C/min. to 300 °C and held for 10 h for each of the 20 cycles. reduced the stresses and micro-cracks in the mortar. Overall, RCA
The deterioration in residual strength for all aggregates decreased concretes with low water–cement (w/c) ratio showed an improved
within the first five cycles. The concrete with the fireclay brick fire resistance compared to conventional concretes.
showed the best strength properties while the limestone (LS) Xiao and Zang [36] reviewed previous works conducted at ele-
aggregate concrete deteriorated the most. After 20 cycles, the ex- vated temperature on normal strength concrete, high strength con-
panded shale–clay concrete, LS concrete and fire–clay brick con- crete, high performance concrete and light weight concrete (LWC).
crete retained compression strengths of approximately 60%, 50% The publications established that different types of concretes had
and 75%, respectively of the original unheated concretes. Based diverse performances at elevated temperatures. Based on this con-
on their results, the authors suggest using caution for concretes clusion, a study was conducted on RCA concrete obtained from
containing LS aggregate under heated conditions. demolished concrete derived from an abandoned airport runway
in replacement ratios of 0–100% by weight. Spalling was not ob-
4.2. Glass aggregates served on the RCA concrete up to the maximum test temperature
of 800 °C which may have inferred good spalling resistance, though
Recycled glass has been used as a replacement of fine and spalling was not reported for the control samples. The residual
coarse aggregates in concrete. In the past, glass and cement were compressive strength for concrete containing 50% or more RCA
known to be incompatible. The alkali in the OPC and the silica in was superior to that of conventional concrete and specimens with
the glass collectively reacted in the presence of moisture to pro- 30% RCA after exposure to temperatures between 400 and 700 °C.
duce an alkali–silica reaction (ASR). However, recently Terro [34] However no further explanations were provided to clarify this
referenced a number of studies conducted at room temperature trend. Vieira et al. [37] compared the residual strengths of RCA
indicating replacement of natural aggregates with certain amounts limestone in replacement ratios of 0–100% by weight to the resid-
of recycled glass can be used in concrete to reduce the effects of ual strengths of conventional concrete containing natural coarse
ASR. In this respect, desert sand and gabbro (equivalent to basalt) limestone. After exposure to 400, 600 and 800 °C, both concretes
aggregates were replaced with fine waste glass (FWG), coarse decreased in strength by the same magnitudes of 20%, 25% and
waste glass (CWG) and both fine and coarse waste glass (FCWG) 40%, respectively. The results did not show a correlation of residual
in the amounts of 10%, 25%, 50% and 100%. In general, the concretes mechanical properties with replacement ratios of coarse RCA.
containing 10% replacement of FWG, CWG and FCWG possess Eguchi et al. [38] investigated the spalling behaviour of RCA
higher residual compressive strength than conventional concrete concrete from concrete blocks in replacement ratios of 0–100%
exposed temperatures of 150–300 °C. This occurred because more by volume. The specimens were heated according to the Japanese
water was absorbed in the natural aggregates during mixing. Given standard JIS A 1304 ‘‘Method of Fire Resistance Test for Structural
that glass material does not absorb water, fewer pores develop in Parts of Building’’. Spalling was not observed on either the RCA or
concrete containing glass, consequently a denser and stronger con- the control samples. The authors considered the elevated temper-
crete is produced. Adding 50% or more of glass content the concrete ature behaviour of RCA concrete was comparable to conventional
showed reduced strengths at all temperatures. The author suggests concrete. However, the residual compressive strength of the RCA
this was due to the large differences in the coefficients of thermal concrete was not reported.
expansion (CTE) of the glass and cement mortar which can cause
cracks at the interface between the glass aggregates and cement 4.4. Fly ash
matrix.
FA is a derivative from coal powdered electrical generating sta-
4.3. Concrete aggregates tions. FA particles are spherical in shape with a larger size than OPC
particles. They can be used as-received or can be ground to a fine
Studies conducted on RCA were to evaluate the residual fire powder. In general, FA is used to improve workability, compression
temperature properties of conventional concrete incorporating strength, sulphate resistance and to reduce heat of hydration;
RCA. RCA consists of natural aggregate, cement mortar and both however it also aids to increase the rate of strength development.
cement mortar bonded to the natural aggregates. Zega and Di Maio A review summary of past research conducted in this area is
[28] considered replacing granite with 75% by volume of waste summarized in Table 3. The majority of studies evaluated the un-
concrete also containing granite aggregates. The specimens were stressed-residual strengths with the exception of one hot strength
heated to 500 °C, soaked for 1 and 4 h followed by cooling to ambi- test.
ent temperature. Subsequent to a 1 h hold period, the residual Dias et al. [39] submitted cement pastes containing FA to 600 °C
strength of conventional concrete and RCA concrete reduced by for 4 months. During cooling, the OPC paste deteriorated at 400 °C,
16% and 10%, respectively, whereas after 4 h the strengths of both while the FA paste did not weaken up to 600 °C. Additions of 10%,
concretes decreased by about the same magnitude of 26%. The 25% and 40% FA showed retained strengths of 27%, 36% and 40%
authors consider the majority of the interface of new cement mor- after exposure to 600 °C. Furthermore, surface cracks were
212 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
eliminated by adding 10% FA. The FA reduced the amount of CH, and 20%, respectively. From these results, there is no advantage
thus less expansion material during re-hydration. In another study, for addition of FA to concrete at these temperatures since the
Sullivan and Sarshar [12] evaluated OPC paste containing 30% FA. strengths decreased. However at 800 °C, FA was found to be of ben-
The results showed FA paste retained their residual strengths be- efit since the residual compressive strength decreased by 64% for
tween 200 and 500 °C, but decreased by 30% at 600 °C. In a similar OPC and 57% for specimens with 20–30% FA. The authors found
investigation, Sarshar and Khoury [13] assessed OPC paste contain- the addition of FA was of benefit at higher temperatures as a result
ing 30% FA under no load and under load. Unloaded samples had a of its pozzolanic effect.
loss in residual strengths after 300 °C, but compared to the loaded Although elevated temperature residual strengths are impor-
specimens had an 18% residual strength increase after exposure to tant for concrete structures, cracking of the concrete can affect
this temperature. At 600 °C, the residual strengths of the unloaded its mechanical properties and durability. To study the influence
FA and OPC paste specimens had losses of 30% and 52%, respec- of cracking on post-heated OPC NSC, Xu et al. [46] prepared spec-
tively, which indicated an improved performance for OPC pastes imens consisting of granite aggregates with 25% and 55% FA. In
containing FA. both samples exposed to 250 °C small cracks on the concrete sur-
Aydin and Baradan [40] investigated an OPC mortar containing face were produced. At temperatures above 450 °C the presence
pumice aggregates with varying FA ratios of 20–60%. The speci- of FA reduced the extent of thermal cracks in contrast to severe
mens were heated up to 900 °C and cooled in air or water. Speci- cracking of the OPC concrete. Fine networks of cracks were ob-
mens with and without FA, cooled in air from 300 °C both had a served with 25% FA while the crack widths and lengths reduced
residual strength increase of 24% compared to their control sample. in size with 55% FA. The authors reported that cracking was due
At 600 °C, the pumice mortar decreased by 4 %, while additions of to the CH rehydrating; therefore the addition of FA consumes the
FA increased the residual strengths in the range of 2–14%. The excess CH resulting in less cracking. Above 250 °C, the residual
residual strengths of FA mortars began to decrease at 900 °C in strengths began to decrease for both FA concretes. At 450 °C, the
the amounts of 19–46%, based on the FA content. Mortars quickly concrete containing 25% FA lost 14–17% strength; while concrete
cooled in water had greater strength loss than mortars slowly with 55% FA the concrete decreased in strength by 2–3% of its room
cooled in air. temperature properties.
Papayianni and Valiasis [41] conducted a study on normal Ravindrarajah et al. [47] reviewed high strength concrete (HSC)
strength concrete (NSC) containing LS aggregates with 30–40% containing basalt aggregates and 20% FA. The samples were heated
FA. At 400 °C, the OPC concrete lost 50% of its strength while the up to 1000 °C, held for 7 h followed by quenching in water. At
FA concrete lost 65 % of its strength. The result showed FA addi- 200 °C, the specimens’ loss 20% of their non-heated strength as
tions to LS concrete were more sensitive to elevated temperatures compared to a 16% loss for HSC concrete without FA. At 600 °C a
than conventional concrete. In contrast, Savva et al. [42] reported strength decrease of 52% was observed for FA concrete, while
the results of NSC containing either limestone or siliceous aggre- HSC has a loss of 26%. At all elevated temperatures, the HSC con-
gates with 10% and 30% FA. At 300 °C, the OPC limestone concrete taining FA was observed to perform worse than HSC without FA.
decreased in strength by 7–8% and OPC siliceous concrete in- Poon et al. [48] investigated one mix of NSC and a second mix of
creased by 5–6%. However, the LS concrete increased by 6–14%, HSC both containing granite aggregates with 20–40% FA. At
while the siliceous aggregate improved in the order of 16–39% 400 °C the NSC and NSC containing FA decreased in strength by
for concretes containing FA. At 600 °C, the limestone and siliceous 26% and 14–16%, respectively. At 600 °C a loss of 55–63% for FA
concretes with FA decreased in strength by 47–66% and 51–68%, concrete compared to a 70% loss for NSC. Similarly, for HSC at
respectively. The authors suggested a critical temperature of 400 °C, the FA concrete increased in strength by 4% compared to
300 °C for FA concrete. an 11% loss for HSC concrete. At 600 °C, HSC and HSC with FA
Analogous to the above studies, Xu et al. [43] evaluated NSC had a loss of 42% and 33–43%, respectively. In both NSC and HSC,
containing granite aggregates with 25% and 55% FA. The post- the residual strengths for specimens containing FA additions per-
heated concrete containing FA demonstrated an improved fire formed better than concretes without FA. Tang and Lo [49] re-
resistance as compared to the OPC concrete. For example, an in- ported the results of NSC and HSC containing granite aggregates
crease in compressive strength occurred in the order of 10–15% and 25% FA. After exposing specimens to 400 °C and slowly cooled,
for FA concrete and 8–9% for OPC concrete after exposure to the NSC and HSC containing FA decreased in compressive strength
250 °C. The residual compressive strengths at 450 °C for the 25– by 16% and 29%, respectively in contrast to concrete without FA
55% FA concretes reduced by 4–15% while the concrete without which decreased by 20% and 43%, respectively. At 400 °C after fast
FA reduced by about 20% of their initial strengths. The investigators cooling, the NSC and HSC with FA decreased by 29% and 24% while
suggest a working temperature of 450 °C for FA concrete in without FA decreased by 30% and 38%, respectively. Both NSC and
compression. HSC containing FA had better elevated temperature residual
In a related investigation, Jia et al. [44] studied the residual strengths as compared to the control specimens. Overall the resid-
strength properties of NSC concrete containing aggregates (type ual strengths of FA concrete were less affected by fast cooling.
not reported) with 30%, 40% and 50% FA. At 20 °C, for 30%, 40% The majority of elevated temperature studies on concretes con-
and 50% FA replacement content, the compressive strength de- taining recycled SCMs were relatively short-term exposures in the
creased by approximately 3%, 8% and 8%, respectively. At 250 and range of 2–5 h. However long-term heat exposure of concrete con-
450 °C, the OPC compression strength decreased by 23% and 31%, taining FA is important to investigate as some concrete structures
respectively while the 40% FA concrete decreased by 3% and 5%, are submitted to high temperatures for long periods of time. In this
respectively. In general the presence of FA was effective in increas- regard, Carette et al. [50] conducted a long-term investigation on
ing the residual elevated temperature of the concrete as compared concrete containing dolomitic LS and 25% FA. The specimens were
to conventional concrete. The best results were obtained for a 40% exposed up to 600 °C for a period of 1, 4 and 8 months followed by
FA replacement at 250 and 450 °C. cooling to room temperature. Addition of FA to concrete did not
Tanyıldızı and Cosßkun [45] evaluated the effect of high temper- improve the long-term residual compression properties. For exam-
ature on the compressive strength of LWC made with scoria or ple, concrete after 1, 4 and 8 months of exposure at 300 °C, the
pumice aggregates containing 10%, 20% and 30% FA. For all mix- strengths decreased by 37–44% and 35–40%, respectively. Another
tures, the residual compressive strength dropped after 200 °C. At long-term study was carried out by Nasser and Marzouk [51] to
400 °C, the OPC, 10%, 20% and 30% FA decreased by 7%, 13%, 15%, indentify the effect of temperature on NSC. Concrete containing
Table 3
A review summary of test results from past research containing FA concrete.
Author OPC/aggregate Type of Compression Furnace Sample Heating Soak w/c Curing FA Cooling Strength begins to Spalling or cracking
[reference] test strength temp. sized (mm) rate (°C/ time ratio time cement medium decrease (°C) at furnace
(RRTSa or (MPa)c range min) (hours) (days) (wt%) and (% change)e temperature (°C)
b
HTS ) (°C)
Material type: cement paste
Sullivan and OPC RRTS 71.8 50–600 63 63 1 9–22 0.34 144 30 Furnace 450 ( 12) Not reported
Sharshar [12] 600 ( 30)
Sarshar and OPC RRTS & 71.8 50–600 62.5 62.5 1 2–24 0.34 144 30 Natural Unstressed 450 ( 12) Not reported
Khoury [13] HTS Unstressed 600 ( 30)
Unstressed 300 ( 12)
Loaded hot 300 ( 28)
Dias et al. [39] OPC RRTS & 76.0 20–600 187.5 62.5 1 120 0.3 98 10, 25, Furnace 400 ( 8) No surface cracks at 600 °C
HTS 40 600( 54)
Material type: cement mortar
a
Residual room temperature strength (RRTS).
b
High temperature strength (HTS).
c
Design compression strength at room temperature.
d
Cylinder, diameter x height.
e
A negative sign indicates a percent change (+gain, -loss).
213
214
Table 4
A review summary of test results from past research with SF concrete.
Author OPC/aggregate Type of Compression Furnace Sample Heating Soak w/c ratio Curing SF Cooling Strength begins to Explosive spalling at
[reference] test strength temp sized (mm) rate (°C/ time time cement medium decrease (°C) furnace temperature
(RRTSa (Mpa)c range (°C) min) (hours) (days) (wt.%) and (% change)e (°C)
orHTSb)
Material type: cement paste
Sullivan and OPC RRTS & 66.3 50–600 63 63 1 9–22 0.43 144 10 Furnace 450 ( 30) Not reported
to 177 and 232 °C, the strengths were reduced to 47% and 73%,
concrete temp No
furnace or 128 °C
flange at 715 °C
its fine particle size, SF tends to increase the reaction rate and early
strength of concrete, but also increases the ambient compressive
strength, durability and lowers the permeability of concrete. It is
Furnace 400 ( 9)
30
8
28
0.21
0.40
gravel aggregate.
ISO 834 3
Not
ilar behaviours as pure OPC paste. The samples without load began
Flange: 150 and
Web: 450
20–600
15% SF. However in an earlier study Morsy and Shebl [55] deduced
Design compression strength at room temperature.
concrete.
Siliceous sand mortars containing 10% SF were heated at a rate
High temperature strength (HTS).
water was more critical than cooling in air for both mortars
Saad et al. [69]
Stocks [68]
Sanjayan and
e
c
b
5% SF showed a higher residual compressive strength then mortars The spalling phenomenon occurred within the furnace tempera-
with 10% SF at 300 °C. ture range of 480–500 °C.
In order to have a better understanding on the high tempera- An early study on calcareous aggregates was conducted by
ture behaviour of concrete containing SF, the following studies Hertz [63] who investigated HSC containing basalt aggregates with
were grouped according to the type of coarse aggregates. The first 16.7% SF. Out of three samples heated for each temperature, one
group of studies were based on siliceous aggregates, the second specimen spalled at a furnace temperature of 350 °C while two
group calcareous aggregates while the third group were concretes specimens spalled at 450 °C and at 650 °C, respectively. On un-
with aggregate types not reported. spalled specimens, the residual strength increased by 21% at
Felicetti and Gambarova [59] investigated the effects of NSC and 350 °C, but decreased by 17% and 55% at 450 °C and 650 °C,
HSC containing siliceous aggregates with 6.7–9.4% SF. The speci- respectively.
mens were heated at a rate of 0.2 °C/min. while no effects of spall- In another study, Phan et al. [64] evaluated HPC containing LS
ing were disclosed. For HSC specimens with SF exposed to 250 °C, with 10% SF. Concrete with a w/c ratio of 0.22, moisture content
the residual strength reduced by 20–30%, while after 500 °C the of 5.0% and 10% SF spalled at a furnace temperature of 300 °C (or
specimen strength loss was 65–75%. In general, NSC had better a core temperature was 240 °C). Similarly, concrete with a w/c ra-
residual compression strength than the HSC containing SF. tio of 0.33, moisture content of 6.1% and 10% SF spalled at a furnace
Tanyıldızı and Cosßkun [45] carried out research on HSC contain- temperature of 300 °C (or a core temperature of 275 °C). At 300 °C,
ing granite aggregate with 5–10% SF. During heating at 2.5 °C/min. the residual strength of specimens with 10% SF and w/c ratios of
severe spalling and cracking was observed between 400 and 0.22 and 0.33 decreased by 13% and 33%, respectively, while the
600 °C. At 400 °C HSC with and without SF decreased in strength samples without SF and a w/c of 0.33, decreased in residual
by 7–13% and 11%, respectively. At a higher temperature of strengths by 26%. These results indicated SF had an adverse effect
600 °C a loss of 42% for HSC and 48–56% for SF concrete. It was con- on residual properties. However, concrete containing SF was able
cluded that SF concrete performed worse than the NSC at elevated to retain a larger residual strength compared to those without SF.
temperatures. For this reason, the authors suggest to use no more Phan and Carino [14] produced HPC containing LS aggregates
than 5% SF to prevent spalling. with 10% SF and w/c ratios of 0.22 and 0.33. The specimens were
Poon et al. [60] assessed HSC containing granite aggregates and heated at 5 °C/min. Three loading conditions were evaluated; (i)
10% SF. Specimens were heated at a rate of 2.5 °C/min., soaked for stressed and tested ‘hot’, (ii) unstressed and tested ‘hot’ and (iii)
1 h, followed by cooling to room temperature. During heating unstressed and cooled to room temperature. For (i) and (ii) spalling
above 200 °C, both OPC and SF concretes decreased in residual occurred at a furnace temperature of 600 °C for specimens with
strengths. At 600 °C, the OPC and SF concrete decreased by 52% and without SF and w/c ratios of 0.33. In addition, specimens with
and 54% from their non-heated strengths, respectively. The data SF and w/c ratios of 0.22 spalled at 450 °C, while samples without
showed concrete prepared with SF results in a quicker loss of resid- SF did not spall. In (iii), samples containing SF and w/c ratios of 0.22
ual compressive strength when exposed to elevated temperature. spalled at of 450 °C. This work showed the tendency to spall was
However, SF increases the compressive strength of the unheated seen to amplify with a decrease in w/c ratio rather than the addi-
concrete at lower temperatures. tion of SF.
Sancak et al. [61] conducted tests on two separate concrete In contrast, Behnood and Ziari [65] evaluated HSC containing LS
mixes; one with pumice aggregates for LWC and another with aggregates and 6–10% SF. Samples with w/c ratios of 0.3, 0.35 and
coarse aggregates (type not reported) for NSC. Samples containing 0.4 were heated at a rate of 3 °C/min. In general, the results showed
5–10% SF were heated at a rate of 5 °C/min and cooled to room a decrease in residual strength when SF is added as a cement
temperature. For all concrete mixes an increase in SF produced replacement at all elevated temperatures. For example, at 200 °C
concretes with decreased residual compressive strengths. For in- concrete containing OPC and SF decreased in strength by 10–11%
stance at 400 °C, LWC with OPC, 5% and 10% SF reduced their room and 12–15%, while at 300 °C, they decreased in strength by 24–
temperature strengths by 21%, 3% and 61%, respectively, while the 27% and 23–31%, respectively. In terms of residual strength loss,
NSC with OPC, 5% and 10% SF, reduced by 20%, 27% and 34% respec- the amounts of SF replacements had a larger negative effect than
tively. Overall, with additions of 5% SF the LWC produced the best the w/c ratios.
residual strengths while greater amounts tended to have a nega- Noumowé [66] studied HSC containing silico-calcareous aggre-
tive effect on the residual strength. gates and LWC containing expanded clay aggregates. Both mixes
Demirel and Kelestemur [20] analyzed concrete containing river contained 10% SF with a w/c ratio of 0.3. The samples were heated
aggregates with 5–20% finely ground pumice (FGP) and 10% SF. The to 200 °C using a heating rate of 1 °C/min and held for 7 h followed
specimens were heated and cooled to room temperature. At 400 °C by furnace cooling to room temperature. Explosive spalling was
all mixtures containing FGP and SF increased in strength with re- not observed during the heating or cooling cycles. For both types
spect to the room temperature values in the range of 3–20%. At of concrete, the residual compressive strengths decreased by 18–
600 °C, the samples with 10% SF and 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% FGP de- 38% as compared to the non-heated specimens.
creased by 26%, 19%, 20% and 25%, while concrete containing FGP Ravindrarajah et al. [47] combined basalt aggregates and 6.6%
without SF decreased by 11%, 5%, 5% and 6%, respectively. The out- SF to produce HSC. Specimens were heated at a rate of 3.3 °C/
come showed concrete containing SF has an increased loss in resid- min up to 1000 °C, held for 7 h and further cooled in a water tank.
ual compressive strength after exposure to elevated temperature. At 200 °C, the SF specimens lost 27% of their non-heated strength
The authors concluded the maximum temperature for concrete as compared to a 16% loss for HSC without SF. At 600 °C a strength
containing FGP or FGP and SF is 600 °C. decrease of 58% was observed for SF specimens, while HSC had a
Chan et al. [62] evaluated the spalling behaviour of high perfor- loss of 26%. At all elevated temperatures, the HSC containing SF
mance concrete (HPC) containing granite aggregates with 10.7% SF. performed worse than the HSC without SF.
For concrete with strengths lower than 60 MPa and moisture con- Xiao and Falkner [67] employed calcareous aggregates with 10%
tents of 60% no explosive spalling occurred. For concrete strengths SF to generate HPC. The specimens with a w/c ratio of 0.25 were
greater than 60 MPa and higher moisture contents between 63% heated according to the standard fire curve ISO-834 and cooled
and 88% the probability of spalling increased. Spalling was shown to room temperature. For identical specimens, a strength decrease
to be dependent on compressive strength and moisture content. of 9% occurred at 400 °C, while at 600 °C the residual strength
Table 5
A review summary of test results from past research with BFS concrete.
Author OPC/ Type of Compression Furnace Sample Heating Soak w/c Curing BFS Cooling Strength begins to Spalling or cracking at furnace
[reference] aggregate test (RRTSa strength temp., sized (mm) rate (°C/ time ratio time cement medium decrease (°C) and temperature (°C)
or HTSb) (Mpa)c range (°C) min) (hours) (days) (wt.%) (% change)e
Material type: cement paste
Sullivan and OPC RRTS & 68.7 50–600 63 63 1 9–22 0.34 144 65 Furnace 300 (0) Not reported
Sharshar HTS 600 (0)
[12]
Sarshar and OPC RRTS & 68.7 50–600 62.5 62.5 1 2–24 0.34 144 65 Natural Unstressed 300 (0) Not reported
Khoury HTS Unstressed 600 (0)
[13] Preloaded hot 300
( 28)
Mendes et al. OPC RRTS 30–47 20–800 50 100 6.25 1 0.5 14 35, 50, Furnace 300 ( 11 to 17) Spalling not reported, very few to no
[70] 65 400 ( 23 to 34) cracks at 400 °C
600 ( 43 to 54)
Wang [71] OPC RRTS 2.6–61.8 25–1050 20 40 0.67 2 to 6 0.23, 28 5,10, Natural 440 (+31 to 50) Spalling not reported. Surface cracks
0.47, 20, 50, 580 (+9 to 77) begin at 580 °C but reduced with BFS
217
(continued on next page)
218 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
early (18 min) into the test on the HSC in the area where the con-
Not reported
715 °C) however no spalling occurred in the NSC. The results indi-
cated HSC had a higher tendency for explosive spalling than NSC
such that the HSC had higher moisture content than NSC. Since
Unstressed residual
both beams were poured at the same time, the authors suggested
Strength begins to
decrease (°C) and
HSC 600 ( 39 to
the NSC dried quicker than the HSC due to the lower porosity of the
100 ( 11.8)
HSC.
(% change)e
400 (+15.6)
200 ( 13)
400 ( 39)
600 ( 20)
200 (+8)
10%, 20% and 30% SF without reporting the coarse aggregates type.
The samples were heated (heating rate not reported) from 20 to
600 °C, held for 3 h and cooled to room temperature. At 300 and
medium
Furnace
Cooling
Natural
Natural
20, 40,
(wt.%)
BFS
50
60
Curing
(days)
144
150
0.45
0.60
w/c
9 to 22
2 to 3
Mendes et al. [70] produced OPC paste containing 35%, 50% and
rate (°C/
Heating
65% fine ground BFS. Samples were heated at a rate of 6.25 °C/min.
1–1.5
min)
(cubes)
400 °C, the OPC paste crumbled to the extent the specimens had no
range (°C)
20–350
50–600
20–800
34% and 43–54% at 400 and 600 °C, respectively. The results
temp.,
ment pastes containing 10%, 20%, 50%, 80% and 100% fine BFS and
strength
(Mpa)c
offered the best fire resistance between 440 and 580 °C. From this
investigation it is possible to improve the fire resistance of OPC by
test (RRTSa
RRTS
RRTS
crushed stone
OPC, Agg. not
reported
firebrick
crushed
coarse
coarse
Siddique and
water, air, and furnace cooling. Samples cooled in air and furnace
showed increases of escalating surface cracks with increasing w/c
c
b
a
specimens. After exposure to 600 °C, the residual compression 40% and 50% BFS could maintain their residual strengths without
strength loss of the sand, ACS and WQS mortars were 55%, 60% spalling above 400 °C.
and 75 %, respectively. Air cooled mortars exhibited lower residual Poon et al. [48] produced two concrete mixes; one NSC and one
strength losses than those cooled in the furnace or water. Overall HSC. Both mixes contained granite aggregates and 30–40% BFS. The
the ACS mortar exhibited a better thermal stability. samples were heated up to 800 °C at a rate of 2.5 °C/min, held for
Aydin [73] developed a series of mortars containing pumice 1 h and cooled to room temperature. No spalling was observed in
aggregates and 0%, 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% ground BFS. They were the samples, although a network of fine cracks was observed on
heated up to 900 °C at 10 °C/min, held for 3 h and cooled quickly the surface. For NSC specimens, at 400 °C a decrease of 15–19%
or slowly to room temperature. External surface cracking or spall- in strength occurs as compared to a 26% loss for NSC without
ing was not reported. The compressive strength of cement mortars BFS. At 600 °C, a loss of 46–49% for BFS concrete compared to
containing BFS did not show any strength loss up to 600 °C for 70% for NSC. HSC specimens without BFS and with 30% BFS heated
samples cooled in air. At 900 °C mortars with 80% BFS replacement to 400 °C showed a strength decrease of 11% and 3%, respectively,
showed residual compressive strength losses of 23% (air cooled) while there was no decrease in strength for 40% BFS concrete.
and 28% (water cooled), respectively. In contrast, mortars without Overall, the BFS concrete performed better than NSC, however con-
BFS, the residual compressive strength loss was as high as 72%. crete with 40% BFS performs much better than the HSC.
Water cooling resulted in a greater residual strength loss than Sullivan and Sharshar [12] incorporated 65% BFS into concrete
specimens slowly cooled in air. containing crushed firebrick aggregates with a w/c ratio of 0.60.
In a related work, Netinger et al. [74] produced mortars contain- The samples were heated at 1 °C/min to 600 °C, held for 9 to 22 h
ing OPC and fine BFS aggregates as a total replacement of fine river and cooled to room temperature. The concrete increased in resid-
sand. The specimens were heated up to 1000 °C. The BFS showed ual compressive strengths by 20% at 200 °C, but at 600 °C, the
similar residual compressive strengths as the natural aggregate strength dropped by 20%. An unstressed hot compressive strength
mortar up to 400 °C, but at higher temperatures the BFS had better test was also conducted where specimens were heated at 1.5 °C/
fire resistance. For example, at 400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C, the nat- min up to 600 °C and held for 2 to 6 h. Between 200 and 300 °C,
ural aggregate mortar decreased in residual compression strength the BFS concrete decreased by 10%, while at 450 °C the strength
by 21%, 63% and 77%, respectively, while the BFS mortar compres- recovered to its room temperature strength and at 600 °C, the
sion strengths were reduced by 27%, 51% and 70%, respectively. The specimens lost 15% of their strengths.
authors suggest the replacement of fine aggregates in totality with Xiao et al. [76] conducted an experiment with HPC containing
BFS is valid for increasing the fire resistance of mortar and perhaps coarse aggregates (type not reported) and 50% BFS. The samples
concrete. were heated to 800 °C using a heating rate of 25 °C/min, held for
Experiments to evaluate the fire resistance of conventional con- 2–3 h and cooled to room temperature. No explosive spalling
crete containing BFS as a cement replacement have also been con- was observed, but cracks appeared on the specimens above
ducted in the literature. Carette et al. [50] assessed the long-term 400 °C. At 200, 400, 600 and 800 °C, the residual compressive
high temperature exposure of concrete containing natural sand, strengths decreased by 13%, 39%, 50% and 84%, respectively. The
dolomitic LS and 35% fine BFS. The concrete samples were exposed authors suggest the HPC–BFS had a better performance then NSC
to 75, 150, 300, 450 and 600 °C for a period of 1, 4 and 8 months when subjected to fire. Similarly, Siddique and Kaur [77] studied
and cooled to room temperature. After 1 and 4 months of exposure NSC containing coarse aggregates with additions of 20%, 40% and
at 300 °C, concrete with w/c ratios of 0.45 and 0.60 decreased in 60% BFS. The specimens were heated to 350 °C at a heating rate
strength by 39–40% and 24–36%, respectively. Adding BFS to con- of 8 °C/min, held for 1 h and cooled to room temperature. The spec-
crete as a cement replacement did not improve the long term imens had an initial moisture content of 1–2.5%, however spalling
residual compression strengths regardless of the temperature or and thermal cracks were not reported. At 100 °C, the residual com-
w/c ratio. pressive strength of concrete with 20% BFS decreased 12%, but in-
A fire resistance analysis was conducted by Ravindrarajah et al. creased 8% at 200 °C and further increased 16% at 350 °C as
[47] to evaluate conventional HSC containing basalt aggregates and compared to the its room temperature strength. The authors con-
62% BFS. At 200 °C, the BFS specimens lost 24% of their residual cluded that up to 20% BFS is beneficial for use in concrete for high
strength as compared to 16% for HSC without BFS. Similarly, at temperature applications.
600 °C, the HSC with BFS and conventional HSC decreased in
strength by 33% and 26%, respectively. Up to 600 °C, the HSC per- 4.7. Limestone Portland cement
forms better than the HSC containing BFS; however at higher tem-
peratures the BFS concrete was observed to perform better. LS powder is an inert SCM used as an OPC replacement in PLC or
In a related work, Janotka and Bagel [75] produced concrete as filler in self-compacting concrete (SCC). LS powder is added to
containing river gravel (type not reported) with 6–35% BFS. The OPC at ambient temperature to increase the rate of hydration by
authors studied the effect of temperature using various heating promoting nucleation sites for the hydration products and early
and cooling cycles up to 800 °C. For the heating regimes chosen, strength gain [78]. One study suggested advantages of using LS
the residual strength of the BFS concrete increased up to 400 °C, in concrete for elevated temperatures as it decomposes at 600–
however above 400 °C, the authors suggest the strength decreased 900 °C [23]. Adding 15% LS as a cement replacement does not re-
due to pore structure coarsening. duce the properties of concrete while benefiting the environment
Xiao and Falkner [67] reviewed HPC containing siliceous aggre- [79]. In general, LS powder as a replacement or filler in concrete
gates and BFS. The specimens were heated according to the stan- has not been investigated to a great extent for its elevated temper-
dard fire curve ISO-834. C50 samples contained 50% BFS with a ature and post-fire properties.
w/c ratio of 0.34, while C80 samples contained 40% BFS with a w/ In an earlier study, Persson [15] investigated SCC containing
c ratio of 0.30. C50 and C80 concretes did not spall below 800 °C 15% LS powder included in the OPC as well as additional LS filler
and 400 °C, respectively but spalled at higher temperatures. At in amounts ranging from 29% to 80% by mass. Concrete containing
400 °C, the residual compressive strength of C50 and C80 concretes gneiss aggregates was heated to 800 °C and cooled to room tem-
decreased by 15% and 7%, respectively, while at 600 °C the residual perature. After 15 min of heating at a rate of 4 °C/min. explosive
compressive strength of concrete C50 and C80 decreased by 40% spalling occurred for all SCCs. At 400 °C, the hot strength decreased
and 52%, respectively. The results showed concrete containing by 30%, while the residual strength decreased by 40%. The authors
220 D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223
suggested to add polypropylene fibres to prevent spalling in SCC FA cement increased up to 26% while the cement paste containing
concretes. both FA–LS, increased by 35%. However at 600 °C, the OPC paste
Another study conducted by Annerel et al. [80] evaluated the decreased by 62%, the FA cement paste decreased by 20% and the
performance of SCC with 75% LS powder filler. The samples were FA–LS cement paste decreased in the range of 14–38%. The authors
heated up to 800 °C at a rate of 3.5 °C/min and soaked for 12.5 h suggested adding LS to FA had a positive effect on the OPC cement
followed by cooling to room temperature. The SCC had a better paste but cannot be used above 450 °C, while the LS content should
performance than conventional concrete up to 350 °C. Spalling not be greater than 5 wt%.
did not occur due to specimen drying for a three week period at At ambient temperatures, the high reactivity of SF has been
105 °C, prior to testing. used to compensate for the slower strength development of FA in
In a recent paper, Fares et al. [81] assessed SCC specimens concretes. Ghosh and Nasser [87] performed tests on concrete con-
containing 37–69% LS powder. The specimens were heated up taining natural gravel, with additions of 20% and 60% FA and a fixed
to 600 °C using a heating rate of 1 °C/min, soaked for 1 h and amount of SF (10%). The specimens were submitted to creep tests
cooled to room temperature. The results showed spalling oc- by placing them under high temperature and load. Samples were
curred at 315 °C for SCC using a heating rate of 1 °C/min. Be- subjected to temperatures of 71, 121, 149, 177 and 232 °C and
tween 150 and 300 °C, the compression strength increased but simultaneously uni-axially loaded to 5.2, 10.4 and 13.8 MPa for
decreased beyond 300 °C [82]. Spalling was also observed on 90 days. The residual strength for concrete containing 20% and
SCC specimens dried for 180 days and exposed to the standard 60% FA in combination with 10% SF both decreased gradually as
ISO 834 curve. After 7–15 min of heating, spalling occurred at the temperature increased from 21 to 232 °C for all three loads.
a depth of 20 mm [83]. The decrease in strength was found to be due to a gradual deteri-
oration of the binding matrix. From microscopic investigation, at
4.8. Biomass/volcanic ash 71–149 °C, the CSH gel was found to be dense with a good bonding,
but at 232 °C the CSH gel transformed into white, loose particles of
Agricultural biomass and volcanic ash have recently been CSH of poor bonding quality. Based on these results, the authors
found to exhibit pozzolanic properties in concrete. A recent recommended creep tests to be performed on concrete containing
study by Al-Akhras et al. [84] evaluated olive waste ash (OWA) FA and SF.
obtained from incinerating olive mill waste on the residual per- Poon et al. [48] studied the effects of HSC containing granite
formance of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Con- aggregates, 10% SF and 20% FA. During heating at 2.5 °C/min., se-
crete containing basalt aggregates with OPC replacements of vere spalling and cracking was observed in all samples between
0%, 7%, 15%, and 22% OWA were submitted to elevated temper- 400 and 600 °C. At 400 °C, a decrease of 6% in strength occurred
atures of 400 and 600 °C using a heating rate of 1.67 °C/min and in the FA-SF samples, compared to an 11% loss for conventional
held for 2 h, followed by cooling to room temperature. The re- HSC. In contrast, at 600 °C a loss of 49% for FA–SF concrete com-
sults showed incorporating OWA in concrete reduces cracking pared to 42% for HSC. The amounts of blended FA–SF cements in
when exposed to elevated temperatures while spalling was not this work performed worse than the HSC beyond 400 °C.
reported. The residual compressive strength of the OWA concrete
improved from 51% to 71% by increasing the OWA from 0% to 5. Summary
22% at 400 °C. It was shown that OWA in concrete increases
its fire resistance. This report reviewed the fire resistance of residual compressive
In another study, Hossain [85] evaluated concrete containing LS strengths for recycled materials added to concrete. Maximizing the
aggregates and volcanic ash (VA) in the amount of 5%, 10%, 15% and amount of recycled wastes in new concrete is a sustainable prac-
20% by mass. The specimens were heated up to 800 °C using a tice. The studies reviewed in this paper were primarily conducted
heating rate of 2.5 °C/min and held for 1 h followed by cooling to on mixtures of cement paste, cement mortar and concretes con-
room temperature. A strength loss of 4–15% of the original strength taining RBA, RCA, SCMs (FA, SF, BFS and PLC), ternary blends and
was observed between 200 °C and 400 °C, while a more severe biomass/volcanic ashes. Because of an insufficient number of stud-
strength loss occurred between 400 °C and 600 °C in the amount ies, it was not possible to evaluate repeatability in the results. The
of 38–48%. The performance of the concrete containing VA showed main test parameters chosen by each investigator; specimen size,
no spalling but hair line cracks were visible. Overall the VA con- heating rate, soak period, target temperature, w/c ratio, curing
crete was shown to retain its strength better than the conventional time, cooling regime, OPC replacement ratios and spalling behav-
concrete at elevated temperatures. iour are scattered. Nevertheless, important findings are summa-
rized in the following sections.
4.9. Ternary blends
5.1. Recycled aggregates
In general, this review illustrated the fire resistance studies
conducted on OPC replacements with single SCMs. Works con- Explosive spalling was not reported nor observed for RBA or
taining ternary blends of two or more SCMs are scarce. It is RCA concretes.
known that natural aggregates in cement mortar or concrete The majority of RBAs were obtained from clean, mortar-free
break down at higher temperatures than OPC pastes. In this re- bricks as opposed to a pile of rubble.
gard researchers have produced ternary blends in an effort to Certain RBAs may contain high levels of sulphate that are detri-
optimize the elevated temperature properties OPC pastes, closer mental to concrete.
to that of the aggregates. The strength of the original brick controls the strength of the
Heikal [86] conducted a study of blended cement pastes con- concrete.
taining FA and LS. Two mix batches were produced. In the first Fine brick aggregates may have pozzolanic activity.
mix, OPC was partially replaced by 10%, 20% and 30% FA. In the sec- RBA cement paste residual strength is improved after exposure
ond mix, the specimens containing 20% FA were partially replaced up to 600 °C.
with 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% LS. The specimens were heated at 10 °C/ Fine and coarse RBA in concrete begins to lose residual com-
min and furnace cooled to room temperature. At 450 °C the resid- pression strengths between 400 °C and 650 °C, but remains
ual strength of the specimens containing OPC suffered a loss of 9%, higher than conventional concretes.
D. Cree et al. / Construction and Building Materials 45 (2013) 208–223 221
Coarse RCA in concrete has a better residual strength than the 5.2.4. Ternary cement blends
conventional concrete for temperatures ranging from 500 °C
to 700 °C. The residual properties of ternary blended FA–LS cement pastes
have a positive effect up to 450 °C.
5.2. Supplementary cementing materials Residual properties of concrete containing blended FA–SF
cement performed well up to 400 °C.
5.2.1. Fly ash The performance of SCC containing LS under elevated tempera-
tures shows a tendency to spall, even at low heating rates.
Water cooling FA concrete was found to be more destructive
than air cooling. 6. Research needs
Explosive spalling does not appear to be a problem for FA
concrete. Research conducted to date in this field is at its infancy stage.
Concrete with at least 10% FA was shown to resist surface crack- The following research needs and recommendations were recog-
ing better than OPC concrete, specifically at temperatures nized during this literature review:
beyond 250 °C to 600 °C.
Cement paste with FA should not be used above 400 °C. 6.1. Recycled aggregates
On average the residual strengths were improved with 10–40%
FA contents compared to OPC concrete in the temperature For all recycled materials, evaluate the hot strength of stressed
range of 250–450 °C. The strength was shown to be strongly and unstressed specimens, as well as creep behaviour at high
dependant on the type of aggregate employed. temperatures.
RBA and RCA containing mortar and impurities should be
5.2.2. Silica fume assessed at elevated temperatures.
Evaluate the effect of adding moderate or high sulphate resis-
Cement paste containing MK and SF increased in residual tance cement to RBA concrete to reduce the adverse effects of
strength up to 400 °C. elevated sulphate contents in certain RBAs.
SF mortar samples cooled in water decrease in residual strength Research ambient and elevated temperature residual properties
after 300 °C, while SF mortar specimens cooled in air decreased of concrete containing recycled–recycled concrete.
at 600 °C. Study the addition of SCMs to RBA and RCA to improve proper-
Concrete containing coarse river aggregate with fine ground ties at elevated temperatures.
pumice and SF increased in residual strength up to 400 °C.
Residual strength of concretes containing SF begins to decrease 6.2. Supplementary cementing materials
in the range of 200 °C to 250 °C, depending on the type of sili-
ceous aggregates. A more concise method to evaluate concretes at elevated tem-
Calcareous aggregate concretes containing SF were able to peratures using more common test parameters should be
maintain their residual strengths up to 300 °C to 350 °C. developed.
In all experiments the room temperature strength was The phenomenon of surface cracking and explosive spalling
improved by adding SF. However, the majority of studies indi- should be reported in all studies even if it does not occur.
cate the addition of SF has an adverse effect on the residual high Future studies should report both furnace and specimen core
temperature compressive strengths of concrete. temperatures because the differences can be greater than 50 °C.
There is disagreement as to which parameter has more adverse Report moisture content at time of test; it may be important for
effects, SF addition or w/c ratio. explosive spalling.
It is well known that HSC containing SF is prone to spalling at
elevated temperature. However, many of the studies reviewed 6.3. Ternary blends
either do not report spalling or interestingly, it does not occur.
Unloaded samples cooled to room temperature were more More elevated temperature studies are required with different
likely to have an increased loss in strength as compared to replacement ratios and combinations of SCMs (FA, SF, BFS and
loaded and unloaded samples tested hot. LS), different concretes (NSC, HSC and LWC) and recycled aggre-
Cooling SF concrete specimens in water was shown to have a gates (RBA/RCA).
more significant residual strength loss than cooling in air. High temperature creep tests are needed on concrete containing
various blended cements.
5.2.3. Blast furnace slag Residual strengths and hot strengths (stressed and unstressed).
BFS cement pastes have increased residual strengths after expo- 6.4. Biomass/volcanic ashes
sure to temperatures of 400–440 °C. Very little surface cracks
appear in BFS cement pastes. Evaluate municipal waste ash, rice husk ash and others for their
BFS mortars cooled in water had a greater residual strength loss fire performance in concrete.
than specimens slowly cooled in air. Incorporate blends of ashes in combination with SCMs or lime-
BFS mortars containing fine pumice aggregate and river sand stone to evaluate elevated temperature properties.
did not show any residual compressive strength loss up to Compression testing in hot stressed and unstressed states.
400 °C and 600 °C, respectively. BFS mortars have an increased
fire resistance over conventional mortars. 7. Conclusions
Concrete containing BFS powder was able to maintain its resid-
ual strength without spalling up to 350–400 °C. If recycled materials are to be used in concrete for building con-
In general surface cracks in BFS concrete appear around 300– struction, their fire resistance behaviour must be well established.
400 °C, while explosive spalling occurs around 400 °C. Concrete members are designed to be in compression, therefore,
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