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Building Envelope
Credit: USAID ECO-III Project
E Source Technology Atlas International Resources Group
Window Systems for High-Performance Buildings Phone: +91-11-2685-3110
90.1 User's Manual Email: eco3@irgssa.com
LBNL Tips for Daylighting Guide Web Site: www.eco3.org
Alliance to Save Energy
A well-designed building envelope not only helps in complying with the Energy
Conservation Building Code (ECBC) but can also result in first cost savings by taking
advantage of daylighting and correct HVAC system sizing. This document acts as a primer
on better envelope design practices and steps needed to comply with ECBC.
T
he building envelope refers Secondly, to maintain thermal comfort
Passive Solar Design Strategy
to the exterior facade, and is and minimize internal cooling/heating
comprised of walls, windows, roof, loads, the building envelope needs to Architects should pay attention to the
skylights, doors, and other openings. The regulate and optimize heat transfer through following basic design elements in an effort
envelope protects the building’s interior roof, walls, windows, doors, and other to reduce the energy consumption in small
and occupants from the weather conditions openings. Effective insulation of roof and commercial building that can be operated
and other external elements. The design walls, appropriate selection of glazing and without Central HVAC System.
features of the envelope strongly affect framing for windows, and suitable shading Siting and Orientation: Longer axis of
the visual and thermal comfort of the strategy are important in designing energy- the building should be in east-west direc-
occupants, as well as energy consumption efficient buildings. tion with maximum opening on north
in the building. An integrated building design considers side; also position the building on site to
the Envelope, the Heating, Ventilation and facilitate breeze access.
Envelope Design Basics Cooling (HVAC) system, and the Lighting Shade: Use different shading strategies to
From an energy efficiency point of view, system as a whole, rather than dealing minimize solar heat gain and reduce glare
the envelope design must take into with these independently. Changing the inside buildings. Provide vertical louvers
consideration both the external and internal specifications of one system can affect the on east and west side and horizontal shad-
heat loads, as well as daylighting benefits. performance of the other two significantly. ing devices on south side.
External loads include mainly solar heat For instance, investments in good insulation Cross-Ventilation: Building envelope
gains through windows, heat losses across of the roof, energy-efficient windows, or should allow the movement of breeze
the envelope surfaces, and unwanted air increased envelope airtightness can result in through out the building.
infiltration in the building; internal loads a smaller HVAC system, thereby reducing
include heat released by the electric lighting
systems, equipment, and people working in Heat Gain through roof Heat Loss through roof
Building Envelope: Exterior and the the window. SHGC is the ratio of solar effects of conduction, convection, and long
semi-exterior portions of a building. For heat gain that passes through fenestration wave radiation. Fenestration U-factor is the
the purposes of determining envelope to the total incident solar radiation that rate of heat flow through one square meter of
requirements for the ECBC, these are: falls on the fenestration. Solar heat gains fenestration when there is 1⁰C temperature
a. Elements that separate the conditioned includes directly transmitted solar heat and difference. U-factor dose not consider
spaces from the weather conditions, or absorbed solar heat, which is re- radiated, solar gains through the fenestration; this is
b. Elements of a building that separate the conducted, on convected into the interior addressed by SHGC. The lower the U-factor,
conditioned spaces of the building from space. (Fig.2) the better it is. Center-of-glass U-factors
the unconditioned spaces, i.e. office are generally lower than whole-window
space from unconditioned storage. Heat gain due
to direct solar
Direct and re-emitted U-factors, which account for the effect of
energy in an enclosed
radiation space the frame and mullions. This property is
Cool Roof: Property of roof that describes Outside Inside important for reducing heating load in cold
its ability to reflect and reject heat. Cool climates and for reducing cooling load in
roof surfaces have both high solar reflec- (a) incident solar
radiation
hot climates.
(b) directly
tance and a high emittance (rejecting heat (c) reflected heat transmitted heat Roof and opaque wall U-factor also re-
back to the environment). (d) absorbed heat fers to the amount of heat transferred (lost/
(e) re-emitted heat (f) re-emitted heat
gain), due to a temperature differential of
Effective Aperture: Visible Light Trans- 1⁰C between inside and outside, per square
mittance × Window-Wall Ratio (EA= Fig. 2: Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
meter. Figure 3 illustrates the concept of U-
VLT × WWR). factor. R-value is the resistance to heat flow
Sound Transmission: An important (R=1/U), with higher values indicating
Envelope Performance Factor: Trade-off requirement in some projects. Many energy- better insulation.
value for the building envelope performance efficient glazing deliver improved acoustic
compliance option, calculated using the performance as a side benefit. Vertical Fenestration: All fenestration
procedures specified in Appendix D of the other than skylights.
ECBC. Spectral Selectivity: Refers to the ability
of a glazing material to respond differently Visible Light Transmittance (VLT): The
Fenestration: All openings (including the to different wavelengths of solar energy – ratio of light passing through the glazing to
frames) in the building envelope that let in in other words, to admit visible light while light passing through perfectly transmissive
light (e.g. windows, plastic panels, skylights, rejecting unwanted invisible infrared heat. glazing. VLT is concerned only with the
glass doors) that are more than one-half Newer glazing products have achieved this visible portion of the solar spectrum, as
glass, and glass block walls. characteristic, permitting much clearer glass opposed to SHGC, which is the ratio of
than previously available for solar control all solar radiation. VLT is an important
Skylight: A fenestration surface having glazing. A glazing with a relatively high VLT parameter for daylighting of buildings.
a slope of less than 60 degrees from the and a low SHGC indicates that a glazing is
horizontal plane. selective. Spectrally selective glazing use Window-Wall Ratio (WWR): Ratio of
special absorbing tints or coatings, and are vertical fenestration area to gross exterior
Fenestration Area: Total area of the typically either clear or have a blue or blue/ wall area. Gross exterior wall area is
fenestration measured using the rough green appearance. measured horizontally from the exterior
opening (including glazing, sash, and surface; it is measured vertically from the
frame). For glass doors where glazed vision Thermal Emittance: Relative ability of a top of the floor to the bottom of the roof.
area is less than 50% of the door area, the material to radiate the absorbed heat.
fenestration area is the glazed vision area Weather stripping: Materials, such as a
otherwise it is the door area. U-Factor (W/m2·K): When there is a strip of fabric, plastic, rubber or metal, or
temperature difference between inside and a device used to seal the openings, gaps or
Opaque Wall: All areas in the building outside, heat is lost or gained through the cracks of venting window and door units to
envelope, except fenestration and building window frame and glazing by the combined prevent water and air infiltration.
service openings such as vents and grills.
U-factor Affects amount of heat transfer due to temperature difference
Solar Reflectance: Ratio of the light
reflected by a surface to the light incident Surface area=1m2
U= 0.57 W/m 2·K
Surface area=1m2
U= 0.42 W/m 2·K
upon it.
with the ECBC, but it may be the best method for designing a building C
(no shading)
Method yields the greatest flexibility of design for the design team, South
of building simulation tools and very close communication between 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0
which just meets the ECBC requirements (the “base case criteria” as Fig. 5: Annual Electricity Consumption by Orientation of Different
Glazing
described in detail in Appendix B of ECBC). The model compares
Total Energy Use for Different Orientation
the total predicted energy use of the Standard Design with that for Window B: double glazing, reflective coating, U=0.54, SHGC = 0.17, VT = 0.10
the Proposed Design. A building complies with the whole building North No Shading North With Shading
performance method when the estimated annual energy use of the South No Shading South With Shading
Proposed Design is less than or equal to that of the Standard Design, 390.0
even though it may not comply with all the prescriptive requirements 380.0
Fig. 5 shows the impact of different types of glazing for a 0.30 360.0
KWh/m2-yr
a warm and humid climate (e.g. Mumbai or Chennai). Fig. 6 shows 340.0
total energy use for different orientation (North and South- with 330.0
and without shading) for the same glazing. Hourly simulation tools 320.0
(e.g. Energy Plus and DOE2) are indispensable for conducting this 310.0
type of energy simulation analysis that looks at the interactive effects 300.0
0 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6
Window to Wall Ratio
of different building systems and are able to predict a more reliable Fig. 6: Impact of Orientation and Shading on Annual Electricity
energy performance of the building. Consumption
Interior
critical design consideration and requires a fundamental
Interior
Air and Water Air and Water
Barrier (Vapor Barrier (Vapor understanding of the physics of moisture transport. There
open) open)
Exterior
are three key moisture transport mechanisms: bulk water
Exterior
Thermal Thermal ingress, air transported water Vapor and water Vapor
Insulation Insulation
diffusion. The three mechanisms do not equally contribute
Vapor Barrier/
Air and Water to wetting. Bulk water has the largest contribution to
Barrier (Vapor wetting, followed by air transported moisture, with Vapor
Retarder
open)
Structural Structural diffusion being the least important. Incidental moisture
Wall Wall intrusion is nearly impossible to avoid: walls will sometimes
Interior Interior Cladding get wet. However, moisture problems only occur when
Cladding wetting exceeds drying; that is, when walls get wet and stay
wet for extended periods of time. It is therefore critical to
design forgiving walls which will allow drying of incidental
moisture ingress. The key to avoiding moisture problems is
to manage the balance between wetting and drying: protect
Assembly for Cold and Temperate climate zones Assembly for Hot, Composite and Humid against wetting and promote drying. As the diagram below
climate zones shows, diffusion is minor wetting source; however, it is a
Fig. 7: Schematic Showing the Correct Placement of Barriers. very critical drying source. Vapor diffusion is the secondary
line of defense that allows drying of incidental moisture
Source: DuPont intrusion.
improving energy efficiency; look for for new construction, but sometimes can owners and users. Once these factors are
opportunities to include a continuous be cost-effectively retrofitted, especially identified, a designer can then apply the
membrane or roll-applied continuous when timed with planned replacement and appropriate technology to address them.
air barrier, which can also serve as the downsizing of HVAC equipment. Glazing The three components of the solar radiation
building’s primary bulk moisture control products (windows, skylights, etc.) can are: Ultra-Violet (UV), Visible, and Near-
layer. be specified to reduce solar heat gain and Infrared (NIR)- Fig. 9. While half of this
control light levels and glare. As a rule of energy is invisible, either in the UV or NIR,
Technical Tips for Glazing thumb, double glazing should always be it must still be considered in the selection
Most large commercial buildings are preferred over single glazing since facades of glazing. Standard, untreated glass is
dominated by cooling loads, so window with double glazing not only offers superior naturally transparent to 85 percent of the
selection for commercial buildings thermal performance but can also help in UV, Visible, and NIR rays, but selective
is usually an exercise in maximizing significantly reducing unwanted external glazing has the ability to distinguish visible
daylighting and keeping summer heat noise of traffic. from invisible energy in ways that decrease
out. Today’s best windows block heat Windows are affected by many factors, solar heat gain while maintaining daylight
transfer more than five times better than which in turn affect the comfort and energy transmittance and vice-versa.
single-pane glass, the standard windows of performance of buildings. Understanding
just two decades ago. High-performance these factors is critical to designing UV
(3%)
Visible
(45%)
Near- infared
(52%)
windows are not only a wise investment buildings that meet the needs of building Spectral distribution of
Solar radiation
Relative Intensity
Eye Sensitivity
Infiltration Curve
Daylighting Tips
• Minimize apertures and large glazing to help in window design and to
Fenestration should be designed to facilitate
surfaces on the east and the west. Low determine the importance of glazing
daylighting and reduce the need for electric
sun angles for these orientations make and shading decisions yet to come. If a
lighting. But bringing daylight to the
shading extremely difficult without light shelf or exterior shading are under
interior of the building is complex. Effective
blocking the entire window. Higher consideration, include these elements in
daylighting strategy should include a
WWR requires careful handling. the calculations.
combination of the following:
• Study the potential for (a) an articulated • Identify which occupant tasks best
• Exterior shading: Overhangs and verti- form that yields a high percentage benefit from daylight before laying
cal fins block direct sun. of perimeter space, (b) an envelope out task locations on floors. Put tasks
• Interior light distribution: Light structure and cladding that can integrate requiring low, uniform light levels or
shelves, diffusers, or reflective surfaces shading, and (c) opportunities for the with periodic occupancy in the building
move the light further back into space. building to shade itself. core. Keep interior finishes light-
• Daylighting controls: Automatic or • Develop initial thoughts about shading colored.
manual controls dim or turn off electric strategy and glazing type. • Discuss daylighting concepts with
lighting when there is sufficient daylight. lighting designer or consultant to ensure
• Determine whether the project budget
allows consideration of a light shelf or that electric lighting layout and controls
Tips that can be followed to maximize address daylight needs at the start of
daylighting without compromising thermal exterior projecting shading elements.
lighting design process.
performance are as follows: • Begin window design with both interior
considerations and exterior appearance • Build a simple model and view it
• Know the true north orientation of the outdoors for lighting quality and glare.
site and include it on all plan drawings. concerns simultaneously. Place windows
Lot property lines are typically given primarily to provide view and light. • Check coordination issues with lighting,
relative to true north. Size and place windows for best glare- structural, and mechanical design. Keep
free daylighting with minimal energy ceiling as smooth and high as possible.
• If the site allows, the first attempt at penalty. The designer should perform
building placement should be with the preliminary calculations at this point
long axis running east-west.
Guide for Early Architectural Decisions windows on comfort when weighing • Select an effective energy management
the benefit of an improved U-factor system to optimize building operation
• Try to reduce cooling loads. Look or the disadvantages of a darkly tinted and tie together all HVAC, lighting and
for opportunities where architectural glazing. automated shading controls.
decisions can save operating costs,
reduce mechanical first costs, and reduce Reduce First and Operating Costs Maintain Thermal Comfort
mechanical space requirements. • Calculate peak cooling load and en- • Window and shading design are strongly
ergy use with reduced perimeter elec- linked to perimeter zone comfort,
• Calculate building energy use starting
tric lighting load and size mechanical regardless of air temperature. Hot or
during schematic design phase, even
system accordingly. Be sure to specify cold glass behaves like a radiant panel and
if this requires many assumptions
proven and reliable daylight controls affects occupant comfort independent
about unknown details, and refine the
that will dim or switch electric lighting of air temperature.
calculation as the building becomes
more defined. during peak cooling conditions. • An airtight building envelope contributes
• Examine cooling system downsizing to increased thermal comfort of building
• Mechanical engineer should be an
opportunities with various glazing and occupants.
integral team player from the beginning.
This is a departure from the traditional shading options. Work with architect in • Consider the effect of the window’s
model of building design procedure, fine-tuning window sizing and location, mean radiant temperature on thermal
where the mechanical engineer enters the shading strategy and glazing selection comfort. Poorly insulated windows
design process after major architectural for a smaller and more efficient system. (high U-factor) decrease the surface
decisions are already established. • Calculate the annual energy saved with temperature in winter. Since the
improved fenestration elements. Calcu- mechanical system controls the room’s
• Assist in an optimal glazing selection.
lations will show some of the benefit air temperature, occupants near the
Stay up to date on glazing technologies-
of exterior over interior shading, lower windows can be very uncomfortable.
dark or reflective glazing are no longer
the only choices for solar heat reduction. solar heat gain coefficient glazing, and
Consider carefully the radiant effect of daylighting controls.
Rigid Insulation: • Interior applications: Must be covered with • Basement walls, Exterior walls • High insulating value for
Extruded polystyrene 1/2-inch gypsum board or other building-code under finishing (Some foam boards relatively little thickness
foam (XPS), Expanded approved material for fire safety include a foil facing which will act as • Can block thermal short
polystyrene Foam • Exterior applications: Must be covered with a vapor retarder. Additionally, some circuits when installed
(EPS or Beadboard), weather-proof facing or continuous Air and insulation materials- e.g. XPS and continuously over frames
Polyurethane foam, Weather Resistive Barrier (WRB) closed cells polyurethane foams– or joists
Polyisocyanurate foam are vapor retarders. Please read the
discussion about where to place, or
not to place a vapor retarder)
• Unvented low slope roofs
Reflective Systems: • Foils, films, or papers: Fitted between wood-frame • Unfinished ceilings, walls, and floors • Easy installation: All
Foil-faced paper, studs joists, and beams (for wall applications, must consider suitable for framing at
Foil-faced polyethylene that most foil faced systems act as a standard spacing
bubbles, Foil-faced vapor retarder) • Bubble-form suitable if
plastic film, Foil-faced framing is irregular or if
cardboard obstructions are present
Getting Started that construction technique– i.e. proper • E Source (2005): E Source Technology
In this new and emerging market for installation of an air insulation system and Atlas Series- Volume I: Lighting,
energy-efficient buildings and building barrier, and correct use of shading devices Boulder, CO, USA.
components, it can be difficult at times for windows –has a significant impact on • E Source (1997): E Source Technology
to locate and secure the best products for energy efficiency along with the energy Atlas Series- Volume II: Commercial
use in construction. This may be because efficiency of individual components. Space Cooling and Air Handling,
they are not available locally or are too Boulder, CO, USA.
expensive for the building owner’s budget. References • Ministry of Power, Government of
It may also be a significant task to determine • American Society of Heating, India: Energy Conservation Building
the energy efficiency properties (default Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Code 2007,(Revised Version, May
values) of products that are used for typical Engineers Inc. (2000): 90.1 User’s 2008) New Delhi, India.
construction and building assemblies used Manual ASHRAE/IESNA Standard • O’Connor, J., Lee, E., Rubinstein, F.,
locally. 90.1-1999, Atlanta, GA, USA. Selkowitz, S.: Tips for Daylighting with
As the demand for products grows, • Carmody, J., Selkowitz, S., Lee, E., Windows- The Integrated Approach,
there will likely be more competition Arasteh, D. and Willmert, T. (2004): LBNL-39945, Lawrence Berkeley
and choice available to designers. In Windows Systems for High Performance National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
the meantime, it is important to note Buildings, New York: W. W. Norton. USA.