Precast and Modular Construction Practices

2012
PRECAST AND MODULAR

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Mohd. Asjad
Civil Engineering (B. Tech.)
ECE 041 PRECAST AND MODULAR CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Unit-1: Overview of reinforced and prestressed concrete construction Design and detailing of
precast/prefabricated building components,
Unit-2: Structural design and detailing of joints in prefabricated structures, Production of ready mixed
concrete, quality assurance,
Unit-3: Use of equipments in precast prefabricated structure, Productivity analysis, Economics of form
work, Design of Formwork and their reusability,
Unit-4: Modular construction Practices, Fibonacci series, its handling and other reliable proportioning
concepts.
Unit-5: Modular coordination, Standardization, system building, Lamination and Advantages of

modular construction.
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Overview of reinforced
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and prestressed concrete construction
1. INTRODUCTION: Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in resisting tension.
Hence reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The best
reinforcement is steel, since tensile strength of steel is quite high and the bond between steel and
concrete is good. As the elastic modulus of steel is high, for the same extension the force resisted by
steel is high compared to concrete.
Since concrete is a brittle material and it is weak in tension but strong in compression, so steel is used
inside concrete for strengthening and reinforcing the tensile strength of concrete. The steel must have
suitable deformations to provide strong bonds and interlocking of both materials and be surrounded by
the hardened concrete mass it forms an integral part of the two materials, known as "Reinforced
cement Concrete".
Reinforced concrete, as a structural material, is widely used in many types of structures. It is
competitive with steel if economically designed and executed.
Properties of R.C.C./Requirement of Good R.C.C.
1. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear forces.
2. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
3. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrosion is prevented.
4. The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
5. It is a good fire resistant material.
6. When it is fresh, it can be moulded to any desired shape and size.
7. Durability is very good.
8. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load.
Uses of R.C.C.
It is a widely used building material. Some of its important uses are listed below:
1. R.C.C. is used as a structural element, the common structural elements in a building where
R.C.C. is used are:
(a) Footings (b) Columns
(c) Beams and lintels (d) Chejjas, roofs and slabs. (e) Stairs.
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like
(a) Water tanks (b) Dams (c) Bins (d) Silos and bunkers.
3. It is used for the construction of big structures like
(a) Bridges (b) Retaining walls (c) Docks and harbors (d) Under water structures.
4. It is used for pre-casting
(a) Railway sleepers (b) Electric poles
5. R.C.C. is used for constructing tall structures like
(a) Multistory buildings (b) Chimneys (c) Towers.
6. It is used for paving
(a) Roads (b) Airports.
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Advantages of reinforced concrete
 Relatively high compressive strength
 Better resistance to fire than steel
 Long service life with low maintenance cost
 In some types of structures, such as dams, piers and footings, it is most economical
 It can be casted in any required
 It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection
 Yield strength of reinforcement is about 15 times the compressive strength of structural concrete
and well over 100 times its tensile strength
Disadvantages of reinforced concrete
 It has a low tensile strength of about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
 It needs mixing, casting and curing to affect the final strength of concrete
 The cost of the forms used for casting concrete is relatively high than other materials.
 It has low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio 1:10 based on material).
 Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and the application of live loads.
Causes of Deterioration of Structures
A structure becomes deteriorated for the following reasons:
Defective Construction: If proper supervision and inspection are not carried out during the
construction, the work will be defective. Such structures may show signs of deterioration in due course
of time. The ageing and atmospheric effects will increase the degree of deterioration.
Defective materials: If poor quality materials are used in the construction, deterioration can occur at a
fast rate. Proper inspection and quality control of the materials is a must. Where required, materials that
can withstand the effects of fire should be used.
Environmental factors: The main environmental factors are atmospheric pollution, floods, and
earthquakes. Industries in the surrounding areas may inject poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide into
the atmosphere, which in turn may cause deterioration of the structures.
Design drawbacks: If the design is not per the prescribed norms in tune with the site conditions, it may
cause defects. For example in seismic zones, the additional force on account of the vibrations has to be
taken into account.
The Repair and Rehabilitation of structures include the following
 Inspection methods, assessment, monitoring, maintenance of structures.
 Concrete durability, fatigue issues in bridges, laboratory studies, dynamic testing & analysis
 Seismic strengthening
 General repairs
The repair and rehabilitation methods involve the attachment of new materials to existing structures or
applying protective coatings to the structures. Research in rehabilitation includes the prevention of
corrosion of steel which is the most important structural member used in the construction. Research in
design, behavior, and analysis of reinforced building and bridge construction includes studies in
materials, components, and complete structural systems. Materials studies have included normal- and
high-strength concretes; effects of material sagging and materials deterioration on component
properties; bond between concrete and steel reinforcement, and use of headed reinforcement.
Methods of Design of R.C.C. Members
 Working Stress or Elastic Theory Method,
 Ultimate Load Method,
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 Limit State Method
 Limit State of Serviceability: (i) Deflection,
 Limit State of Collapse: (i) Flexural, (ii) Shear, (iii) Tensional
Precast Concrete Structures
The concept of precast (also known as ―prefabricated‖) construction includes those buildings, where the
majority of structural components are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from the
building, and then transported to the site for assembly. These components are manufactured by
industrial methods based on mass production in order to build a large number of buildings in a short
time at low cost.
The main features of this construction process are as follows:
 The division and specialization of the human workforce
 The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually automated, in the production of
standard, interchangeable parts and products
 Compared to site-cast concrete, precast concrete erection is faster and less affected by adverse
weather conditions.
 Plant casting allows increased efficiency, high quality control and greater control on finishes.
 This type of construction requires a restructuring of entire conventional construction process to
enable interaction between design phase and production planning in order to improve and speed up
construction.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN R.C.C. AND P.S.C.
S. No. Item R.C.C. P.S.C.
1. Concrete Ordinary Strength High Strength
2. Reinforcement Mild and Tor Steel High Tensile Strength Wires
3. Const. Method Simple Difficult
4. Effectiveness Above N.A. Whole Section
5. X-sectional Area Large and Heavy Small and Light
6. Shear Reinf. Required Not Required
7. Deflection More Less
8. Serviceability Less More
9. Durability Less More
10. Cost More than P.S.C. Low
11. Water Resistance Low High
1.1 TYPES OF PRECAST SYSTEMS
Depending on the load-bearing structure, precast systems can be divided
into the following categories:
 Large-panel systems
 Frame systems
 Slab-column systems with walls
 Mixed systems
LARGE PANEL SYSTEMS
The designation ―large-panel system‖ refers to multistory structures
composed of large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the A large-panel concrete building
under construction
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vertical and horizontal directions so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooms within
a building. These panels form a box-like structure. Both vertical and horizontal panels resist gravity
load. Wall panels are usually one story high. Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as one-way or
two-way slabs. When properly joined together, these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that transfer
the lateral loads to the walls.
Depending on wall layout, there are three basic configurations of large-panel buildings:
 Cross-wall systems
 Longitudinal wall systems
 Two-way system
FRAME SYSTEMS
Precast frames can be constructed using either linear
elements or spatial beam column sub-assemblages. Precast
beam-column sub-assemblages have the advantage that the
connecting faces between the sub-assemblages can be placed
away from the critical frame regions; however, linear
elements are generally preferred because of the difficulties
associated with forming, handling, and erecting spatial
elements. The use of linear elements generally means
placing the connecting faces at the beam-column junctions.
The beams can be seated on corbels at the columns, for ease
of construction and to aid the shear transfer from the beam to
the column. The beam-column joints accomplished in this
way are hinged. However, rigid beam-column connections
are used in some cases, when the continuity of longitudinal reinforcement through the beam-column
joint needs to be ensured. The components of a precast reinforced concrete frame are shown in Figure
SLAB-COLUMN SYSTEMS WITH SHEAR WALLS
These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load effects, whereas the slab-column structure
resists mainly gravity loads. There are two main systems in this category:
 Lift-slab system with walls
 Prestressed slab-column system
In the Lift –slab system, the load-bearing structure consists of precast
reinforced concrete columns and slabs. Precast columns are usually two
stories high. All precast structural elements are assembled by means of
special joints. Reinforced concrete slabs are poured on the ground in forms,
one on top of the other. Precast concrete floor slabs are lifted from the
ground up to the final height by lifting cranes. The slab panels are lifted to
the top of the column and then moved downwards to the final position.
Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in the position until the
connection with the columns has been achieved.
The prestressed slab-column system uses horizontal pre-stressing in two
orthogonal directions to achieve continuity. The precast concrete column
elements are 1 to 3 stories high. The reinforced concrete floor slabs fit the
clear span between columns. After erecting the slabs and columns of a
story, the columns and floor slabs are prestressed by means of pre-stressing
5 A lift-slab building
tendons that pass through ducts in the columns at the floor level and along the gaps left between
adjacent slabs. After pre-stressing, the gaps between the slabs are filled with in situ concrete and the
tendons then become bonded with the spans. Seismic loads are resisted mainly by the shear walls
(precast or cast-in-place) positioned between the columns at appropriate locations.
Post-tensioned slab-column connection

2. PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Precast Slabs:
Precast Beam & Girders:
Precast Columns:
Precast columns Inverted Tee beams supported on precast columns
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Precast Walls
Other Elements
Precast concrete Stairs

DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDINGS
The design concept of the precast buildings is based on the build ability, economy and standardization
of precast components.
In design of precast members and connections, all loading and restraint conditions from casting to end
use of the structure should be considered. The stresses developed in precast elements during the period
from casting to final connection may be more critical than the service load stresses. Special attention
should be given to the methods of stripping, storing, transporting, and erecting precast elements.
When precast members are incorporated into a structural system, the forces and deformations occurring
in and adjacent to connections (in adjoining members and in the entire structure) should be considered.
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The structural behavior of precast
elements may differ substantially
from that of similar members that
are monolithically cast in place.
Design of connections to transmit
forces due to shrinkage, creep,
temperature change, elastic
deformation, wind forces, and
earthquake forces require special
attention. Details of such
connections are especially
important to insure adequate
performance of precast structures.
Precast members and connections
should be designed to meet
tolerance requirements. The
behavior of precast members and
connections is sensitive to
tolerances. Design should provide
for the effects of adverse combinations of fabrication and erection tolerances. Tolerance requirements
should be listed on contract documents, and may be specified by reference to accepted standards.
Tolerances that deviate from accepted standards should be so indicated.
All details of reinforcement, connections, bearing elements, inserts, anchors, concrete cover, openings
and lifting devices, and specified strength of concrete at critical stages of fabrication and construction,
should be shown on either the contract documents prepared by the architect/engineer of record or on the
shop drawings furnished by the contractor. Whether this information is to be shown on the contract
documents or shop drawings depend on the provisions of the contract documents. The shop drawings
should show, as a minimum, all details of the precast concrete members and embedded items. The
contract documents may specify that portions of connections exterior to the member are also to be
shown on the shop drawings. The contract documents may also require the contractor to provide
designs for the members and/or connections.
The contract documents should show the loads to be
considered in design of the precast concrete elements
of the structure, and they should indicate any special
requirements or functions (for example: seismic
loads, allowance for movements, etc.) that should be
considered in design assigned to the contractor. In
this case, the shop drawings should include complete
details of the connections involved.
Precast concrete structure consisting of solid wall

panels and hollow core slabs.
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Structural design and detailing
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of joints in prefabricated structures
1. Introduction
Well detailed and constructed joints play a vital part in maintaining the integrity of the external
envelope of the building, ensuring it is weatherproof and meeting any other requirements such as fire
resistance and acoustic performance. This Practice Note provides guidance on planning joint locations
gives requirements for joint types, widths and the choice of sealant and discusses the fire rating of
joints.
For the purpose of this Note, a joint is an intentional gap between adjoining elements (typically
cladding) or between an element and some other portion of the structure. Joints may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined.
The function of a joint between precast elements is to provide physical separation between the units
and, in conjunction with joint sealants, prevent the ingress of
water and air into the building; and, if required, fire resistance.
Two aspects of joint selection need to be emphasized:
 The positioning of joints in relation to windows and to the
structure can affect the serviceability, construction and
maintenance of the building envelope. Poor joint location
will lead to problems which cannot be overcome by joint
detailing (see Figure 1)
 Careful control of construction tolerances is necessary to
ensure the integrity of the cladding system.
2 Designs
2.1 General
It is recommended that joints be treated as a strong visual feature
of architectural wall design. Recessing of joints and/or sealants
will help diminish the visual impact of possible variations Location of Joints 1
between adjacent surfaces.
The following general aspects need to be addressed
 Build ability and minimum size
Select details that are simple to fabricate & install on site. Proven details should be used wherever
possible.
 Maintenance and repair
Although modern sealants have a long service life they, if exposed to sunlight, will eventually need
replacement or repair. Access for repair and replacement must be taken into consideration in the design
of the building. The positioning of services or other features in front of joints will make future access
difficult. Consideration must be given to the fact that inspection and repair will usually have to be made
from the exterior of the building.
2.2 Number, location and width of joints: The key points are (see also Figure 1):
 For maximum economy in manufacture and erection, panels should be as large as practical.
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 If architectural requirements dictate more-closely spaced joints, false joints can be used to achieve
a similar visual effect.
 Weathering of the building facade can be controlled to a large extent by careful joint location.
 Recessing the sealant in the joint, or use of an open-drained system, will minimize concentrated
rainwater runoff and water-stain patterns.
 A nominal joint width of 20 mm will usually be satisfactory for most conditions and is the
recommended design starting point.
3 Types of Joints
3.1 General
The most common types of joint between precast concrete cladding and/or wall panels are:
 Open-drained;
 Face-sealed; and
 Compression-seal.
Their advantages and disadvantages are summarized in Table 1.
Joint Type Advantages Disadvantages
Open-drained  Can tolerate relatively large  Careful supervision is required
movements. during installation as it is difficult
 The rear sealant is protected from to remedy defects due to poor
UV light and weather. workmanship.
 Can be installed from inside the  Not suitable for tall vertical panels
building (> 9.0 m in height).
 (No scaffold required).  Cannot accommodate joint gap
 Long maintenance-free life. tolerances > 5 mm.
 Best for medium- and high-rise
construction.
Face-sealed  Panel edges can have simple  Must be applied from external
profile, no grooves required. scaffolding or other form of access.
 Can be used for complex panel  Sealant is exposed to UV light and
shapes (angled or curved). weather –needs more maintenance.
 Can have a rear seal as a second  In a single-seal system even a
line of defence. small failure may allow water
 Lowest first cost. penetration due to capillary effects
 Can be readily inspected, repaired and pressure differentials.
or replaced.
 Best for low-rise construction.
Compression-seal  Simple and quick to install.  Cannot be fully weatherproof, so
 Panel edges can be plain or simple limited to low-rise industrial
profile. buildings.
 Economical.  Joint width is critical.
 Maintaining compression on seal at
intersection of horizontal and
vertical joints is difficult.
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 Difficult to maintain and/or
replace.
 Time-consuming while erecting.
3.2 Open-drained joints

The open-drained joint is recommended for high-rise construction. It consists of a rain barrier in the
form of an expansion chamber with a loose-fitting baffle and an air-seal at the interior face of the panel
(see Figure 2).
The baffle prevents direct entry of the wind-driven rainwater. The pressure in the chamber between the
baffle and the internal air seal is at external air pressure. There is, therefore, no pressure differential to
drive rain past the baffle. The air-seal is the demarcation barrier between outside and internal air
pressures.
Water that enters the joint in front of the baffle is drained downwards. At every intersection between the
vertical and horizontal joints, a short length of flashing (300 mm) is used to ensure water is discharged
to the outside.
Open-Drained Joints are the recommended type for most Medium- to High-Rise Construction.
Open-Drained Joints can Tolerate Large Movements and the Rear Sealant is Protected from UV Light
Open-Drained Joints can be installed from Inside the Building.
3.3 Face-sealed joints
These joints are simple, economical and are most suited to low-rise construction (see Figure 3).They are
sealed by a single run of gun-applied sealant close to the exterior surface of the joint. A backing-rod
forms the rear of the sealant. The external face seal should, where practical, be supplemented by a seal
near the inside face of the panel.
Figure 2
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Figure 3 Figure 4
3.4 Compression-seal joints

This type of joint utilizes a compressible impregnated polyethylene or polyurethane foam strip. The
strip is pre-compressed and inserted into the joint after the panels are erected or it is glued in position
before placement of the second panel, Figure 4. It then expands to fill the joint.
The use of this type of joint seal is usually limited to low-rise buildings such as factories and
warehouses where wind pressures are low. It can be used where spandrel beams, downturns or columns
restrict the access required for placement of gun-applied sealants.
3.5 Hollow core wall joints
Hollow core wall units are primarily used on low-rise commercial and industrial buildings. The joints
between panels are normally 10 mm wide and are sealed with a two-part polyurethane sealant placed
against a closed-cell backing rod.
4 Joint Sealants
4.1 General
The choice of sealant and its specification should be discussed with sealant manufacturers.
Factors to be considered by the designer when choosing a suitable sealant material include:
 The sealant should be impermeable to water.
 It should have a low elastic modulus to accommodate strain due to joint movement without
significant stress, with the shape of the sealant influencing the stress in the sealant.
 It should be able to recover its original shape after cyclic deformation.
 It must bond firmly to the joint face without failing in adhesion nor splitting or peeling under the
anticipated joint movements.
 It must not soften or flow at higher service temperatures and should not harden and become brittle
at low temperatures.
 It should not be adversely affected by ageing or weathering and should be stable when exposed to
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UV light.
 For face-sealed joints the sealant should have a stable color, be non-staining and resistant to pickup
of dirt.
4.2 Sealant Types
Field-moulded sealants are available in the following types:
 Poly-sulphide sealants (two-part)
 Polyurethane sealants (one- or two-part)
 Acrylic sealants
 Butyl sealants
 Silicone sealants.
Note: silicone sealants should be avoided where possible as they stain the concrete surface and cannot
be painted.
4.3 Joint Design and Sealant Application
To ensure the joint and sealant give satisfactory performance, the following points should be noted (see
also Figure 5):
Figure 5
 Correct joint preparation
 Correct sealant-backing systems
 Correct joint geometry
 Sufficient curing time.
5 Fires Rating of Joints
External cladding may be required to have a specified Fire Resistance Level (FRL). Cladding panels
will usually be designed or tested to meet these requirements in accordance with Section 5 of AS 3600.
Most sealant manufacturers produce sealants that are designed to provide resistance to fire. The joint
details and sealants should be designed and applied in accordance with the manufacturer‘s
recommendations to give the required level of fire resistance.
6 Typical Connections of Precast Concrete Elements
Column to column connection
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Beam to column connection
Slab to beam connection
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Wall panel connected to in-situ concrete
Connection between slabs
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Corner connections of wall panels
Connection of wall panels to columns
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7. Ready Mix Concrete
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world and with a 9000-year history it has
played a major part in shaping modern civilization. The Romans were particularly adept at using
concrete but it was also known to the Egyptians and in a primitive form to Neolithic civilizations.
The main difference between the concrete found in these classical civilizations and modern ready mixed
concrete is the binding agent. The Egyptians used crushed gypsum, the Romans knew how to make
lime by burning crushed limestone and they even discovered that adding volcanic ash or old bricks and
tiles improved the setting characteristics of their cement.
Modern concrete was developed after the discovery of Portland cement. First patented in 1824 but not
developed in its present form until 1845 when higher kiln temperatures were achieved, Portland cement
made new forms of construction possible.
Despite these advances attempts to supply the building trade with ready mixed concrete on-site
foundered until the late 1920‘s when delivery trucks were fitted with a drum that agitated the concrete
while on the move. In the UK, the first Ready-mix operation was set up in 1930 and by the 1960‘s a
successful national network of concrete plants was firmly established.
Today, Ready-mix concrete comprises a mix of aggregates, cement, water and a variety of admixtures.
Understanding these individual ingredients in a little more detail provides an insight into ways of
obtaining the best results for different types of project.
The Ready Mixed Concrete Industry supplies a valuable construction product to the transportation,
building sector, residential and other construction markets. The industry is composed of varying sized
family owned business to multi-national corporations. Since it is a perishable product ready mixed
concrete production facilities are located in numerous metropolitan and rural locations and typically
within 60 to 90 minutes traveling distance from any construction project.
8. Types Of Ready Mix Concrete
It has a wide range of products and services, including technical support for its different types of ready-
mix concrete. Below are a few examples of ready-mix concrete technologies with special properties and
performance:
Standard Ready-Mix Concrete
Standard ready-mix concrete is the most common form of concrete. It is prepared for delivery at a
concrete plant instead of mixed on the construction site, which guarantees the quality of the concrete.
Architectural and Decorative Concrete
This type of concrete can provide a structural function, as well as an aesthetic or decorative finish. It
can offer smooth or rough surfaces or textures, as well as a variety or range of colors.
Rapid-setting Concrete
Designed to enhance early strength development, this concrete allows fast formwork removal,
accelerated construction sequencing, and rapid repair for such jobs as roads and airport runways.
Typically used in low temperature (5-10°C) concreting during winter, this concrete can also be used in
buildings, railways, and precast applications. In addition to saving time, this concrete technology offers
improved durability and acid resistance.
Fiber-reinforced Concrete
Concrete designed with micro or macro fibers can be used either for structural applications, where the
fibers can potentially substitute for steel rebar reinforcement, or for reducing shrinkage—primarily
early age shrinkage. Macro fibers can significantly increase the ductility of concrete, making it highly
resistant to crack formation and propagation.
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Fluid-fill Concrete
Fluid mortar or concrete simplifies the process of laying pipe and cable by surrounding the pipe or cable
with a tightly packed shell that provides protection from the elements, prevents settling, and enables
crews to work quickly.
Roller-compacted Concrete
Compacted in place and cured, roller-compacted concrete is a zero slump concrete with the abrasion
resistance to withstand high velocity water—making it the material of choice for spillways and other
infrastructure subject to high flow conditions. It represents a competitive solution in terms of cost and
durability when compared to asphalt.
Self-consolidating Concrete (SCC)
SCC has very high flow; therefore, it is self-leveling, eliminating the need for vibration. Due to the
super plasticizers used—chemical admixtures that impart very high flow—SCC exhibits very high
compaction as a result of its low air content. Consequently, SCC can have very high strengths,
exceeding 50MPa.
Pervious Concrete
Because of its unique design mix, pervious concrete is a highly porous material that allows water,
particularly rainwater, to filter through, reduces flooding and heat concentration by up to 4°C, and helps
to prevent skidding on wet roads. This concrete is ideally used in parking lots, footpaths, and swimming
pool border applications.
Antibacterial Concrete
This concrete controls bacteria growth and is used to help maintain clean environments in structures
such as hospitals, laboratories, and farms.
9. PRODUCTION OF READY MIX CONCRETE
i. Transit Mixed (or "truck-mixed") Concrete
In transit-mixed concrete, also called truck mixed or dry-batched, all of the raw ingredients are
charged directly in the truck mixer. Most or all water is usually batched at the plant. The mixer
drum is turned at charging (fast) speed during the loading of the materials. There are three options
for truck mixed concrete:
Concrete mixed at the job site. While travelling to the job site the drum is turned at agitating speed
(slow speed). After arriving at the job site, the concrete is completely mixed. The drum is then
turned for 70 to 100 revolutions, or about five minutes, at mixing speed.
Concrete mixed in the yard. The drum is turned at high speed or 12-15 rpm for 50 revolutions. This
allows a quick check of the batch. The concrete is then agitated slowly while driving to the job site.
Concrete mixed in transit. The drum is turned at medium speed or about 8 rpm for 70 revolutions
while driving to the job site. The drum is then slowed to agitating speed.
ii. Shrink Mixed Concrete
Concrete that is partially mixed in a plant mixer and then discharged into the drum of the truck
mixer for completion of the mixing is called shrink mixed concrete. Central mixing plants that
include a stationary, plant-mounted mixer are often actually used to shrink mix, or partially mix the
concrete. The amount of mixing that is needed in the truck mixer varies in these applications and
should be determined via mixer uniformity tests. Generally, about thirty turns in the truck drum, or
about two minutes at mixing speed, is sufficient to completely mix shrink-mixed concrete.
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iii. Central Mixed Concrete
Central-mixing concrete batch plants include a stationary, plant-mounted mixer that mixes the
concrete before it is discharged into a truck mixer. Central-mix plants are sometimes referred to as
wet batch or pre-mix plants. The truck mixer is used primarily as an agitating haul unit at a central
mix operation. Dump trucks or other non-agitating units are sometimes be used for low slump and
mass concrete pours supplied by central mix plants. About 20% of the concrete plants in the US use
a central mixer. Principal advantages include:
 Faster production capability than a transit-mix plant
 Improved concrete quality control and consistency and
 Reduced wear on the truck mixer drums.
There are several types of plant mixers, including:
 Tilt drum mixer
 Horizontal shaft paddle mixer
 Dual shaft paddle mixer
 Pan mixer
 Slurry mixer
The tilting drum mixer is the most common American central mixing unit. Many central-mix drums can
accommodate up to 12 yd3 and can mix in excess of 200 yd3 per hour. They are fast and efficient, but
can be maintenance-intensive since they include several moving parts that are subjected to a heavy load.
Horizontal shaft mixers have a stationary shell and rotating central shaft with blades or paddles. They
have either one or two mixing shafts that impart significantly higher horsepower in mixing than the
typical drum mixer. The intensity of the mixing action is somewhat greater than that of the tilt drum
mixer. This high energy is reported to produce higher strength concrete via to thoroughly blending the
ingredients and more uniformly coating the aggregate particles with cement paste. Because of the
horsepower required to mix and the short mixing cycle required to complete mixing, many of these
mixers are 4 or 5 yd3 units and two batches may be needed to load a standard truck or agitator.
Pan mixers are generally lower capacity mixers at about 4 to 5 yd3 and are used at precast concrete
plants.
Slurry Mixing
The slurry mixer is a relative newcomer to concrete mixing technology. It can be added onto a dry-
batch plant and works by mixing cement and water that is then loaded as slurry into a truck mixer along
with the aggregates. It is reported to benefit from high-energy mixing. Another advantage is that the
slurry mixer reduces the amount of cement dust that escapes into the air.
"Mix Mobiles" - Mobile Volumetric Proportioning Plants
"Mix Mobile" are truck-mounted, volumetric batching and continuous mixing units. These "plants-on-
wheels" often supply small-volume or specialty pours and offer the convenience of freshly mixed
concrete in fairly precise quantities. The unit consists of a truck with bins of sand, coarse aggregate,
cement, water, and admixtures. The aggregate bins have longitudinal belts at the bottom of the sand,
and as well as coarse aggregate bins that drag the aggregate to separate adjustable gates at the rear of
19
the bin. The speed of the belts is connected to a feeder in a cement bin, and all three materials drop
down into a mixer. Flow meters control the introduction of water and admixtures.
Plant Styles, etc.
Concrete batch plants come in a variety of styles and configurations designed to accommodate a variety
of markets, technical and environmental considerations.
 Portable Plants In general, they have a cement silo and an overhead bin for sand or one or two
coarse aggregates.
 Permanent Plants The plant operates from same location for a relatively long period of time.
Large quantities of materials of greater variety are stored at the plant. The plant will tend to have
larger overhead storage and may have two lanes to permit batching two trucks at the same time.
Plants may be also classified as
 High profile - The traditional stack up plant is a tall plant that has aggregate and cement storage
bins that feed into batchers or weigh hoppers by gravity.
 Low profile - The aggregate weigh hoppers are near the ground with belts to elevate the aggregate
to load the mixer.
Quality
What does ‗quality‘ mean when applied to concrete?
It is very easy to say that a product is ‗top quality‘ but what does this really mean?
For concrete, ‗quality‘ has a specific meaning. It must meet the relevant British Standards (eg BS 8500)
and its quality is independently verified. All CEMEX concrete is certified by QSRMC, the quality
scheme for ready mixed concrete. QSRMC provided ISO 9001 and product conformity certification for
the design, production and supply of ready mixed concrete.
To ensure that concrete meets the high demands imposed in constructing bridges, concrete-framed
buildings and other complex structures, CEMEX‘s in-house technical department provides advice and
carries out standard tests. The most common of these is the cube test. A small concrete cube is formed
using a sample of concrete at the construction site and when set it is crushed in a laboratory. The force
needed to crush the concrete determines its strength. This force is commonly described in Newton‘s and
so the strength of different concrete mixes can also be expressed in Newton.
Concrete for a path or simple footings need not be as strong as that used in a bridge but it must still be
‗fit for purpose‘. In other words it must still be of an equally high ‗quality‘. So having high quality
concrete is just as important for a small project as for a massive civil engineering site.
All CEMEX concrete is produced to the same high quality, irrespective of the end use. As one of the
World‘s leading suppliers of building materials CEMEX concrete plants benefit from the very best
computerized systems, ensuring consistent accuracy in measuring the proportions of cement, aggregate
and special additives required for each mix. CEMEX is also a major manufacturer of cement and
produces a range of products which can be blended to give the best handling and setting characteristics
under all conditions.
Such refinements cannot be achieved with any degree of consistency using a small site mixer and other
forms of site mixing may not be QSRMC certified.
Quality Assurance
PCI has three different certification programs:
Plant Certification – First introduced in 1967, covers the overall management of the quality system
within precast/prestressed plants.
20
Personnel Training and Certification – First introduced in 1985, covers the qualification and
certifications of the people doing the product inspections and managing the Quality Assurance
departments within precast/prestressed plants.
Erectors Qualification/Certification – First introduced in 1999, covers the training and qualification of
field services personnel.
PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND SEISMIC DESIGN
There is a general concern regarding the seismic performance of precast construction. It is noticed that
large panel construction performs better than frame system. However, in areas of high seismic risk,
structures must be designed to respond safely to the dynamic forces imparted into the structure.
Innovations in joint design are improving the connection systems in precast concrete structures and
making them increasingly suitable for use in such areas.
21
Use of equipments in precast prefabricated
3
structure, Productivity analysis
Formwork
Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or similar
materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the false work supports the shuttering
moulds.
Formwork and concrete form types
Formwork comes in several types:
1. Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood or moisture-
resistant particleboard. It is easy to produce but time-consuming for larger structures, and the
plywood facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the labour costs are
lower than the costs for procuring re-usable formwork. It is also the most flexible type of
formwork, so even where other systems are in use, complicated sections may use it.
2. Engineered Formwork System. This formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a metal
frame (usually steel or aluminium) and covered on the application (concrete) side with material
having the wanted surface structure (steel, aluminum, timber, etc.). The two major advantages of
formwork systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction (modular
systems pin, clip, or screw together quickly) and lower life-cycle costs (barring major force, the
frame is almost indestructible, while the covering if made of wood; may have to be replaced after a
few - or a few dozen - uses, but if the covering is made with steel or aluminium the form can
achieve up to two thousand uses depending on care and the applications).
3. Re-usable plastic formwork. These interlocking and modular systems are used to build widely
variable, but relatively simple, concrete structures. The panels are lightweight and very robust.
They are especially suited for low-cost, mass housing schemes.
4. Permanent Insulated Formwork. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of insulating
concrete forms (ICF). The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured, and may provide
advantages in terms of speed, strength, superior thermal and acoustic insulation, space to run
utilities within the EPS layer, and integrated furring strip for cladding finishes.
Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms. These are in the shape of hollow tubes, and are usually
used for columns and piers. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured and acts as axial
and shear reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and prevent against environmental
effects, such as corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles.
22
Description Construction Speed
A B C D
Construction speed 3 flats/day 4 flats/day 5 flats/day 6 flats/day
Period of const. 23 months 18.7 months 16.2 months 14.2 months
Forming area 741.9 989.2 1236.5 1483.8
Misc formwork 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5
Total formwork to be 797.4 1044.7 1292 1539
ordered
Cost of formwork 14353200 18804600 23256000 27707400
Two third of the 9568800 12536400 1550400 18471600
loaded cost
Profit & Overhead 1435320 1880460 2325600 2770740
15%
Total Rs. 11004120 14416860 17829600 21242340
Cost per flat, Rs 9825 12872 15919 18966
Note:
Construction period is calculated as follows:
Average 22 pouring of concrete are considered per month.
About 3 months are required for mobilization and getting plinths ready.
About 3 months are required for finishing.
Cost of formwork = $ 360; dollar Exchange Rate = Rs50; No of flats = 1120
(Weight of aluminium formwork = 24 kg/m²).
Formwork Design Criteria
Formwork components can be designed and constructed in many materials, such as plywood, wood,
steel, aluminum, and fiber composites. Frequently, a mixture of materials is used (Figure 7.31). Steel,
aluminum, and fiber composites are more likely to be parts of manufactured components or systems
that are rated or designed by the producer and may be supplied predesigned on a rental basis for the
project needs. Forms intended to be job built are often made of wood and require design by the
construction engineer associated with the project or by a consultant to the contractor. The examples in
this chapter illustrate the latter case for wood components designed by allowable stress methods. To
understand the examples, it is necessary to provide some of the essentials of wood design. Readers
undertaking the design of formwork in wood are advised to obtain and follow the more comprehensive
specifications in the National Design Specification for Wood Construction (AFPA, 2005) and the
Plywood Design Specification (APA, 1997).
Most of the lumber used in formwork is surfaced on four sides (S4S) to achieve its final dimensions as
shown in Table 7.3. The S4S dimensions are smaller than the nominal sizes referred to in the table.
23
Except for classification purposes, it is the actual dimensions and actual section properties that are used
in design. A second set of sizes known as rough lumber (not shown in Table 7.3) has slightly larger
dimensions but is still not the full nominal size. Rough lumber sizes are sometimes used in heavy false
work-supporting forms.
Plywood is frequently used as the surface layer of the formwork in contact with the fresh concrete.
Plywood has different strengths and stiffness depending on the direction of its span relative to the
direction of the grain in the outer layers. The equivalent section, considering the varying elastic
modulus and strength between parallel-to-grain loading and side-grain loading, is illustrated by
equivalent sections in Figure 7.32. When the grain of the outer layers is parallel to the span direction,
the strength and stiffness are greatest (Figure 7.33). Many types of plywood are available. Section
properties for B-B Ply form, Class I, plywood, one of the most frequently selected types for moderate
reuse in formwork, are given in Table 7.4. Note that, due to the alternating grain directions in the
plywood veneer layers, conventional methods for calculating section properties of homogeneous,
isotropic sections do not apply.
The section properties given in Table 7.4 have been determined by considering the varying properties in
the different layers as well as the complications of weakness induced by the tendency of fibers to roll
over each other in shear lateral to the grain, or rolling shear (Figure 7.34). For these reasons, use the
listed value of S only in bending calculations, use I only for deflection calculations, and use Ib/Q, the
rolling shear constant, for shear calculations.
The basic design values for wood and for plywood of the species, grades, sizes, and types frequently
used in formwork are listed in Table 7.5. The species and grades readily available in the area of the
project should always be verified. Contractors also often have stocks of form lumber for reuse from
previous projects. Such lumber should always be inspected for defects as the material is assembled, and
unsuitable pieces must be rejected.
1 ASD Adjustment Factors for Lumber Stresses
The AFPA-NDS (AFPA, 2005) provides for adjustment of the lumber reference design values (F),
such as those given in Table 7.5, by a series of multipliers yielding the allowable design values (F′) for
stress as follows:
Bending:
24
Some of the adjustment factors (in brackets) only apply to truss members (buckling stiffness factor,
CT), when the member is incised (incising factor, Ci) or when the temperature is >100°F (temperature
factor,
Ct), and thus have only rare uses in formwork. The remaining factors are discussed below.
2 Load Duration Factor (CD)
The adjustment for load duration (CD) reflects the ability of wood to exhibit increased strength under
shorter periods of loading. The following values may be applied for the indicated cumulative maximum
load durations:
CD = 0.9 Load duration > 10 year
CD = 1.0 2 months < load duration ≤ 10 year
CD = 1.15 7 days < load duration ≤ 2 months
CD = 1.25 Load duration ≤ 7 days
CD = 1.6 Wind/earthquake
CD = 2.0 Impact
For most formwork, an adjustment of CD = 1.25 is applied; however, when the components are reused
for longer cumulative durations at maximum level, CD should be appropriately reduced.
3 Moisture Factor (CM)
Wood gains in strength as it loses moisture in a range below the fiber saturation point (about 30%
moisture content). The basic design values are established for lumber that has moisture content of 19%
or less, typical of air-dried lumber. When the exposure is such that the wood moisture content will
exceed 19% for an extended period of time, the design values should be multiplied by the CM values
indicated in Table 7.5.
4 Size Factor (CF)
Tests indicate that member overall size affects the failure stress. To account for these variations, the
size factor (CF) as shown in Table 7.6 is applied to the bending and compression basic design values.
Note that the size factor does not apply to the basic design values of Southern Pine, whose basic design
values in Table 7.5 are pre adjusted to reflect most of the size effect.
5 Flat-Use Factor (Cfu)
Lumber loaded on its wide face and bending about its weak axis (y–y) exhibits a slightly higher failure
stress. To reflect these variations, the flat-use factor (Cfu) adjustments in Table 7.6 may be applied to
the basic design values for bending stress.
6 Beam-Stability Factor (CL)
The AFPA-NDS (AFPA, 2005) provides equations for determining the beam-stability factor (CL), an
adjustment less than 1.0, when the compression edge of a beam may become unstable. For sawn
lumber, however, the AFPA-NDS also provides prescriptive d/b ratios, based on nominal dimensions
and lateral support conditions where the member may be assumed to be stable and no reduction for CL
is needed, as follows:
• d/b = 2 to 1 or less, no lateral support is necessary.
• d/b = 3 to 1 or 4 to 1, ends shall be held in position against lateral rotation or displacement by
25
blocking or connection to other members.
• d/b = 5 to 1, one edge shall be held in line for the entire length.
• d/b = 6 to 1, bridging, blocking, or cross-bracing shall be installed at intervals not exceeding 8 ft
unless both edges are held in line.
• d/b = 7 to 1, both edges shall be held in line for the entire length.
7 Column-Stability Factors (CP)
The column-stability factor (CP) is an adjustment less than 1.0 to reduce the allowable compression
stress parallel to the grain when longer column-like members such as shores or braces may fail in a
buckling mode rather than by crushing. The factor is given by:
where:
Fc* = tabulated compression design value multiplied by all applicable adjustment factor except CP.
c = 0.8 (for sawn lumber).
FcE = 0.822E ′min/(le/d)2, where le is the effective length, and le/d is the larger of the slenderness
ratios about the possible buckling axes; the value of le/d shall not normally exceed 50, except for short
duration loadings during construction when it shall not exceed 75.
8 Bearing-Area Factor (Cb)
The bearing-area factor (Cb) is for the case of bearing perpendicular to the grain of the wood—that is,
bearing on the side grain. The bearing factor is normally taken as 1.0; however, if the bearing area is
more than 3 in. from the end of the member and less than 6 in. in length as measured along the grain,
then the following increase factor may be applied:
9 Repetitive-Use Factor (Cr)

The AFPA-NDS (AFPA, 2005) includes a repetitive-use factor (Cr) that may be used to increase the
bending design value when there are at least three members spaced not more than 24 in. on-center, such
as joists and studs, and they are joined by a load-distributing member, such as sheathing. The increase is
allowed because it is unlikely that normal defects would occur in the repetitive members at the same
critical location and the load could be shared if one had a defect. In formwork design, however, ACI
SP-4 (Hurd, 2005) suggests that this factor should only be applied to carefully constructed panels whose
components are securely nailed or bolted together. The factor values > 1.0 are listed in the AFPA-NDS.
10 Adjustment Factors for Plywood Stresses
Relative to formwork, the allowable stresses given by the APA—The Engineered Wood Association
(APA, 2004) are subject to three primary adjustments: load duration, wet use, and experience factors. A
load duration factor similar to the value of CD for wood is normally applied as listed in Table 7.5. The
wet use and experience factors appropriate to formwork applications have been incorporated in the
26
allowable stresses listed for B-B Ply form, Class I, plywood in Table 7.3. The calculation of plywood
deflection can be refined to include both the bending deflection and the shear deflection. In this
presentation, for simplicity, only the bending deflection is considered, but the lower value of the
plywood elastic modulus will be used to partially compensate for this. Consult APA (2004) for
procedures for calculating the shear deflection component.
Formwork Design
Most components of a form system can be subdivided into members that are primarily bending
elements (sheathing, joists, studs, stringers, and Wales) and members that are primarily tension or
compression elements (shores, braces, etc.). In addition, there are numerous details to design, such as
connections (Figure 7.35), hangers, and footings or mudsills (Figure 7.36). The following sections
provide example designs, in wood, of the main members of an elevated floor slab form and a vertical
wall form to convey a sense of the procedures involved. After the design is complete, the formwork
material specifications, member layout, member sizes, connection details, erection procedures, and use
limitations should be conveyed by means of drawings with appropriate notes to the field workers who
will fabricate and erect the form.
7.6.1 Determination of Resultants from Loads
The bending members of a wood form system are either single-span or continuous multiple-span
elements, usually with bearing supports as illustrated in Figure 7.37. Although the members may
sometimes have more than three spans, the benefits from considering more than three span conditions
are very limited. Many of the member loads are uniform. In other cases, the loadings may be a series of
closely spaced concentrated loads that can often be approximated as a uniform load if there is a
sufficient number in a span. Figure 7.37 also provides the formulas for the maximum moments, shears,
and deflections for the uniformly loaded one-, two-, and three-span cases. It should be noted that the
formulas for calculating the maximum shear force are modified to calculate the shear at a distance d
from the face of the supporting member, where d is the depth of the member being designed and lb is
the length of bearing at the supporting member. In wood design, the AFPA-NDS provides that loads
within a distance d of the face of the support can be neglected when designing for shear if the member
is loaded on one face and supported on the opposite face or edge. However, in cases where the member
is notched or connection is made in the web, as by bolting, other AFPA-NDS special provisions should
be consulted which, in effect, magnify the shear force used for design.
7.6.2 Fundamental Relations between Resultants and Stresses
From mechanics of solids, the following relationships apply to the elastic design of wood elements:
Bending of beams or plywood:
𝑀
𝑓𝑏 =
𝑆
Shear of solid rectangular beams:
3𝑉
𝑓𝑣 =
2𝑏𝑑
27
Shear of plywood:
𝑉𝑄 𝑉
𝑓𝑣 = =
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏 𝑄
28
Where Ib/Q is the rolling shear constant.
Bearing and axial compression:
𝑓𝑐 = 𝑃 𝐴
When f is used in the above equations, the actual stress is sought in the calculation from the actual
resultant. When F is used, the maximum allowable stress is implied and the maximum resultants are
sought. Load–deflection relationships are given in Figure 7.37 as a function of the number of spans.
Bracing Design Considerations
The slab form must be braced, as a minimum, to resist the horizontal loads recommended by ACI 347-
04. When the concrete columns have been placed prior to erection of the floor forms, the column can
contribute to lateral stability if the form has an adequate horizontal diaphragm and is tied to the
columns. Horizontal cross-bracing can be added to improve the diaphragm. Vertical cross-bracing in
two directions at right angles, in combination with an adequate diaphragm, can also provide a workable
system. The braces need not be located in the opening between every pair of shores (Figure 7.29).
Often, they are located between alternate pairs of shores (and sometimes farther apart) in a well-
dispersed, symmetrical pattern in each direction. The brace size is usually controlled by the buckling
resistance in the compression direction of force, and the analysis and design proceed in a manner
similar to that for the shore or wall form brace design. It is critical to provide a connection at the top
and bottom ends of the brace that is adequate to resist the forces imposed.
Used Of Equipment in Precast Prefabricated Structures
Production Plant for Houses
Sandwich-, lightweight, solid walls, solid floors
• Manufacturer: TECHNOPLAN – WECKENMANN – TEKA
• Year of construction: approx. 1998 (as good as new)
• Performance: sandwich-, lightweight, solid walls, solid floors, stairs
• Concrete mixing plant: fab. TEKA, performance: 45 m³/ h, incl. scraper unit
• Battery mould: fab. TECHNOPLAN, 17 slots, incl. vibrator facility
dim.: 9 slots: 9,00 x 2,80 m – 8 slots: 6,50 x 2,80 m
incl. comprehensive equipment for window and door openings
• Stationary concrete pump: fab. TEKA, performance: 30 m³/ h, infinitely variable,
incl. rotatable and moveable pipe system for manual casting
• tilting table production line: fab. TECHNOPLAN, 6 hydraulic tilting tabels, steel surface in very good
condition
dim.: 12,00 / 7,00 / 6,00 x 3,75 m
incl. hydraulic window and door openings (removeable)
• tilting tables: fab. TECHNOPLAN, 2 hydraulic tilting tabels, steel surface in very good condition
dim.: 10,80 x 4,20 m
• tilting tabels: fab. TECHNOPLAN, 3 mechanical tilting tabels, steel surface in very good condition
dim.: 9,00 x 4,00 m
• Concrete distributor: fab. WECKENANN, hydraulic, working width: 4,00 m, volume: 6m³
29
for on rail travel, transverse carriage, drives over the tilting tables
• production line: fab. TECHNOPLAN, steel surface in very good condition, incl. shuttering
dim.: 52,50 x 4,20 m
• stair moulds: fab. GÄRTNER, for straight and spiral stairs
incl. mould for front door stair
Fully Automatic Pallets Circulating Plant
Sandwich-, lightweight concrete-, solid walls, solid floors
• Manufacturer: VOLLERT – WECKENMANN – UNITECHNIK
• Year of construction: approx. 1998 (as good as new)
• Performance: sandwich-, lightweight concrete-, solid walls, solid floors
• 49 pallets, dim. 12,50 x 3,50 (effec. dim.), excellent steel surface
• Perfectly flat
• Fully automatic shelf operating device
• Complete drying chamber; 45 storing positions; incl. housing in steel construction
• Fully automatic shuttering robot
• Automatic cleaning and oiling device for pallets
• 2-chamber concrete distributor for lightweight concrete and standard concrete
• Frequency adjustable shaking- station for concrete compacting; man. NETTER
• Vibration- and smoothing facility
• Automatic power trowel, gantry construction
• Hydraulic tilting station for pallets
• 6 heavy load trailers for rail travel; cable control; man. NUSPL
• handling crane for shuttering; man. ABUS
• working station for manual shuttering integration
• Cleaning and transportation device for magnets and shuttering
• Extensive magnets and shuttering system for walls and floors
• Extensive circulation equipment; friction wheels, transverse traveler, rolls
• Fully automatic main computer control system; man. UNITECHNIK/SIEMENS
Fully Automatic Concrete Mixing Plant
• Manufacturer: EIRICH - SIEMENS
• Year of construction: approx. 1996
• Performance: 2,0 m³ concrete effec. Output per charge
->approx. 120 m³/ h
Consisting of the following main components:
• Compulsory mixer with swirl; type: DZV29
• Automatic hygrometer
• 8 chamber steel silo for aggregates storage
• 3 cement silos incl. screw conveyor
• feed hopper
30
• Elevator/ bucket belt conveyor for aggregates
• Hopper for aggregates
• cement scale
• Color dosing system
• dosing with up to 8 pneumatic valves
• dedusting- and filtering device, additive batching plant
• Compressor device; fab. KAESER, type: SM8
• Computer control; fab. SIEMENS, type S5
Recycling Plant for Leftover Concrete
• Manufacturer: BIBKO System
• Performance: 20 m³/ h
• Type: 16-1
• SPS - control
• Incl. pumping device and supply to the mixing plant
• Incl. discharge conveyor, agitator etc.
Stockyard Bridge Crane Incl. Crane Tracks
Bridge crane:
• Manufacturer: ABUS
• Lifting capacity: 2 x 16 to -> 32 to total
• Span: 27.500 mm
• Performance: crane: 40,0 / 10,0 m/min
Trolley: 20,0 / 5,0 m/min
Lifting unit: 5,0 / 0,8 m/min
• Incl. radio control and load spectrum storage
Crane tracks:
• Drive: 84 m ->168 m crane tracks
• Incl. steel construction (Steel columns)
• Incl. power supply
• screwed construction
Automatic Adjusting Cross Beam
• Manufacturer: NUSPL
• Lifting capacity: 32 to
• 4 hooks
• Adjustable over crane radio
• With automatically adjustable load balance
31
Gantry Crane
• Manufacturer: DEMAG – LIEBHERR
• Lifting capacity: 10 to
• Span: 25.000 mm
• Cantilever: 8.000 mm, each side
• Performance: crane: 5,0 / 40 m/min
Trolley: 8,0 / 30 m/min
Lifting unit: 0,5 / 5,0 m/min
• Incl. radio control and track system, approx. 120 m track system
FILIGREE - floor production
• Manufacturer: AVERMANN
• Length: approx. 125 m
• Operation width: approx. 2,49 m
• Lateral shuttering: approx. 7 cm
• Steel cover: good condition
• Incl. concrete distributor
• Incl. plotter
• Incl. cleaning and oiling device
• incl. 2 transversal transporter
Transportation Racks
• Lifting capacity: approx. 25 to
• Dimensions: 2,50 x 7,50 m / 9,0 m x 2,20 m
• Pieces: approx. 30 pieces
• Incl. fixation anchor
Heavy Load Trailer
• Load capacity: approx. 25 to
• dim.: 6,0 m x 2,5 m
• Incl. transportation rack for wall panels
Cutting Machine for FILIGREE- Lattice Girder
• Manufacturer: FILZMOSER
• Type: Gitterträgerschere TA
• cutting performance: - up to Ø 16 mm -> 1 piece
- up to Ø 10 mm -> 4 pieces
32
Cement silo
• Manufacturer: STANELLE
• Volume: approx. 40 m3
• Incl. complete silo equipment
• Ladder and safety cage
Hydraulic Ring- And Cone Clamp
• Manufacturer: PROBST / RKZ- H
• Opening range: 600 - 1.500 mm
Hydraulic Turning Device for Concrete Elements
• Manufacturer: PROBST
• Opening range: 500 - 1.800 mm
• rotating range: 360° endless
Fork Lifter
• Manufacturer: LINDE / CLARK
• Load capacity: 3,0 to; 4,0 to; 4,5 to
33
Modular construction Practices,
4
Fibonacci series
In the market for a new facility or addition but concerned about construction costs? Look to permanent
modular construction (PMC) as a way to acquire a new building in a tough economy. This alternative
construction technique yields faster completion times, improved efficiency, cleaner materials, and better
quality control.
Overview of Modular Construction
The speed with which a building is completed is the key advantage of modular construction. Because
site preparation and module fabrication processes occur simultaneously, the overall project construction
timeline is decreased by 30 to 50 percent. Modular construction has to adhere to the same building code
requirements as traditional construction methods, and the same building materials and standards are
utilized to fabricate each module. All modules meet the building, safety and occupancy code
requirements (typically International Building Code) and in many instances, modular buildings exceed
local building specifications. Designs are flexible, expandable and easily reconfigured, so they may be
adapted to meet the changing needs of the healthcare facility over time. Their durable, secure and
relocatable characteristics make them ideal for both temporary and permanent applications that will
meet the requirements of healthcare organizations over a longer time horizon.
The old ―square box‖ or ―cookiecutter‖ building analogy no longer applies to today‘s modular
buildings. Today, designers and builders have much more flexibility to design using the highest quality
materials and finishes. They are not limited or forced to compromise aesthetics for overall space or time
efficiencies.
Modules and building components are built in a controlled environment, therefore mitigating risks to
the project due to volatile weather, material shortages, theft and vandalism. Prefabricated components
and modules are built in a factory and installed on-site to expedite assembly time and create less
disruption to the site environment during the installation phase. This differs from conventional
construction by minimizing noise and debris from the existing patient services and creating a safer work
and patient environment during construction. The interior finishes can be selected from a variety of
options and are consistent with those of conventional construction methods. Facility planners can easily
choose from existing blueprints for examination rooms, patient treatment areas, nurses‘ stations and
waiting rooms; or the building modules can be constructed in accordance with their already established
design criteria.
Modular construction enhances quality assurance because QA is built into every step of the process.
Quality control is assured with multiple inspections performed at each phase. The building components
are inspected and approved by third-party inspectors who are usually agents of the state, not the
locality.
34
This unique building technique enhances quality and simplifies logistics on the job site. Scheduling,
trade coordination and construction sequences are all streamlined. Modular methodologies build
technical innovation into a repeatable construction process that utilizes proven, standardized practices
and process efficiencies. The result is greater reliability and higher quality than conventional site-built
construction projects, particularly in areas where a skilled labor force is unavailable. This process truly
exemplifies the philosophies of ―best practices.‖
Many modular healthcare structures have been recognized for their design excellence, as architects and
interior designers often work closely with modular consultants and manufacturers to ensure optimum
design outcomes for the client. Again, the days of the boring boxy structure are long gone. Permanent
modular buildings can be built as single one-story structures or intricate multiple-story buildings.
When it comes to the internal space, interior designers and architects collaborate with the client to
develop the architectural interior finishes and patient and workflow environments that are consistent for
each medical application. Designs can be altered for specific services. For example, considerations are
made for additional floor loading, and provisions are incorporated into building design to accommodate
the weight of heavy dialysis water treatment equipment in dialysis treatment centers. Depending on the
client‘s needs, the modular builder can be responsible for just a few or all of the prefabricated interiors
of the modules.
Lastly, the new or renovated structure can be designed to correspond with the surrounding environment
and existing buildings and hospitals. Exterior architectural finishes, such as brick, stucco and exposed
aggregate architectural panels, can complement those of neighboring buildings on the healthcare
campus.
A DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
PMC is a method of construction, not a building type. It greatly differs from temporary buildings, such
as construction trailers or mobile homes.
―These are custom-designed commercial buildings just like their site-built counterparts,‖ explains Phil
Slingerlands, COO of Warrior Group, a firm specializing in modular construction. ―Using PMC does
not change the design, structural system, or finish materials options available to the owner and architect.
The only difference is in the method of construction.‖
After the design is finalized with an architect, construction plans are sent to a factory where the
majority of the building is erected. PMC uses prefabricated elements for as many building components
as possible. Everything from walls and mechanical systems to painting and carpet can be completed on
the assembly line.
―The difference is that 60% to 90% of modular buildings are completed offsite in a controlled
production environment, including all MEP, fixtures, and interior finishes,‖ says Tom Hardiman,
executive director of the Modular Building Institute (MBI).
While modules are assembled at the factory, site work can begin at the same time, such as laying the
foundation or prepping utility connections. This greatly decreases the time needed for total construction.
Modular buildings are often completed 30-50% faster than conventional structures.
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Once the modules are ready, they are shipped to the site and fastened together. The final construction
stage includes completing exterior systems such as cladding and roofing components and internal
spaces like lobbies, stairwells, and elevator shafts.
The beauty of the finished building is that occupants will not be able to tell how the structure was built.
―The art of PMC is to make the modularity disappear once you complete the building,‖ says Sue
Johnson, chief development officer for Warrior Group.
SERVING MULTIPLE MARKETS
This technique can produce a single building, an addition, or a campus setting, but it is most beneficial
for projects with highly repetitive spaces. Think of duplicate rooms common to schools, dorms, offices,
military housing, senior living, and hotels.
Modular construction has also been used for standalone buildings, such as banks, chain restaurants,
satellite bureaus, and retail. Any building without irregular layouts or large expanses will benefit.
The only limitations to size are those dictated by material use and code. For example, the world‘s tallest
modular building in the U.K. is over 25 stories. Buildings can occupy any square footage specified and
are easy to expand. Modular construction is also a great way to add an addition onto a traditional
building.
THE CORE BENEFITS
From factory precision to faster installation, modular construction offers an attractive range of
advantages:
1) Scheduling: One of the greatest benefits is the ability to dramatically reduce the time needed for
construction. Factory efficiencies allow building components to be completed quickly and without
weather delays. No more contracting with multiple crews – the factory has all of the key player‘s onsite
to handle multiple building requirements.
This makes modular construction suitable for owners who need buildings quickly, properties with hard
dates for occupancy, and areas where seasonal weather restricts or even halts construction.
2) Jobsite Improvement: Nearly completed modules ease the need for site equipment and staging
areas, making them ideal for complicated sites. Perhaps your property is in a remote location or has
accessibility difficulties. You may be in an urban or campus setting and have a narrow building site.
Modular construction is likewise a great alternative for areas where an experienced or affordable labor
force is difficult to come by.
PMC affords a cleaner worksite with fewer disruptions. With the majority of work completed offsite,
issues such as noise, dust, debris, and weather complications are greatly reduced.
The lower numbers of people, equipment, and traffic at the worksite also decreases the number of
construction hazards. ―The chance for accidents and related liabilities caused by such a volume of
people and materials moving on, around, and offsite every day is significantly reduced,‖ says Slinger
land.
3) Waste Reduction: Because the factory process decreases the potential for errors, material use is
more carefully monitored, Hardiman explains. By controlling inventory, resources and building
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materials are better protected. An assembly line also offers more opportunities for recycling throughout
the process.
―PMC really works well with lean construction – it‘s engineered to cut out any construction waste,‖
says Johnson. ―For example, steel studs are usually cut to a standard length and shipped to a jobsite
where they‘re cut to the needed size. Instead of wasting 2 feet of metal, the studs are created on the
factory line to the exact length required.‖
4) Quality Control: Just like a car assembly line, a prefabricated building module has built-in quality
checks. Modular building factories are dedicated to crafting highly effective buildings with inspections
at each station, eliminating on-the-fly decisions or unexpected complications that can occur in the field.
―The construction process is carefully engineered to create a sequence of steps that is repeated precisely
on every module,‖ Slingerland explains. ―This decreases the variability that can occur on a site-build
project.‖
After installation, capital improvements to extend the building‘s life, such as HVAC or
roofreplacements, can be made on the same schedule as a conventional building. The same maintenance
and inspection requirements common to traditional facilities will also apply to modular buildings.
5) Sustainability: As with traditional buildings, modular construction easily incorporates sustainability.
Specify the use of recycled materials, LED lighting, high-efficiency mechanical systems, and
sustainably harvested wood and low-flow fixtures just as you normally would.
―We‘re seeing a shift toward high-performance, sustainable design,‖ says Maggie Hartley, director of
marketing for American Modular Systems. ―Energy efficiency over the lifespan of the building is a
definite priority. There‘s a reliance on mechanical systems, tight envelopes, ventilation, and smart
lighting to achieve energy savings.‖
While the process itself affords more opportunities for sustainability, other green benefits include:
 Improved IAQ – Moisture reduction, use of dry materials, and time for off-gassing result in fewer
VOCs.
 Compatible with LEED – Modular buildings can compete in the same categories as traditionally
built ones. They can even yield an advantage in credits for Sustainable Sites, Materials and
Resources, and Energy and Atmosphere.
 Reusable – Whether you need a new layout or your building has been damaged, modular buildings
can be disassembled so individual modules can be replaced or refurbished.
 Tighter Envelope – PMC typically results in a tighter envelope, which improves
energy efficiency. This is due to the durability required for transportation and the lack of weather
complications such as moisture and water intrusion.
 Renewable Energy – Modular construction can accommodate alternative energy sources, from
solar panels to a geo exchange system. Buildings can also be designed so renewable energy can be
added down the road.
LIMITATIONS OF PMC
Modular construction isn‘t without its drawbacks. Much like choosing a sustainable building, the
decision to use modular construction must be made from the onset of design.
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―Using PMC changes the critical path for construction and, if not scheduled properly, you can easily
lose the schedule benefits of PMC,‖ warns Slingerland.
The advantages of PMC also wane considerably if your intended building doesn‘t have repeating
spaces. The prefabrication of entire rooms lies at the heart of modular construction, so a building with
open expanses is not the best candidate.
―For example, an office building shell designed with unfinished interiors and intended for multiple
tenants who would finish out their own individual space would not be a good option for PMC,‖
Slingerland adds.
Permanent vs. Temporary
Modular construction is an alternative to traditional construction only. It is not an extension of
temporary modular buildings, which meet a different purpose and offer separate benefits.
 Permanent modular buildings are comparable to buildings strictly built onsite in terms of quality,
life span, and materials used for construction. They are not intended to be relocated, though
individual modules can be replaced.
 Temporary buildings provide an affordable space that is mobile or relocatable. Clients are
typically offered a predesigned layout and have little input over materials used or opportunities for
extensive customization. These structures are commonly used for construction site offices,
emergency spaces, sales centers and mobile showrooms, and temporary classrooms.
While there are many benefits associated with portable buildings, their purpose and lifespan can be
abused by owners unwilling to commit to the costs of a permanent building.
―Temporary buildings often become permanent fixtures,‖ explains Maggie Hartley, American Modular
Systems. ―That‘s a problem as many of these structures are aging and have poor ventilation and
lighting. This leads to an unhealthy learning or work environment.‖
Relocatable buildings also don‘t offer the same investment benefits as a permanent structure. Some are
available for lease only and aren‘t truly part of your portfolio.
―Relocatable buildings are not permanently affixed to real estate as a rule,‖ explains Tom Hardiman,
MBI. ―This allows for the building to be considered personal property or equipment, which depreciates
over a shorter span.‖
Step-by-Step Process of Dialysis Treatment Centre
Specific steps should be followed when planning and building dialysis treatment centers using modular
construction methods:
Step One: Define the need. Engage a team that includes the client, builder, architect and modular
construction consultant. At this time, it is appropriate to have a short list of site locations (if a site hasn‘t
already been selected) and understand any restrictions pertaining to site setbacks, zoning and ―use‖
permitting. Identify the immediate design and space needs, taking into consideration the architectural
features of existing buildings and surroundings. Also consider future needs in terms of extensibility so
that additional components can be conceptualized as medical needs change and expand, and
accommodations are made for potential future applications. At this point, budget should be determined
and financing options, unique to modular construction, explored. In addition to an outright purchase,
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additional options include lease purchase programs, conventional lease and other creative financing
options. Consulting with accounting and tax professionals regarding the potential accelerated
depreciation characteristics of modular structures is recommended.
Step Two: Design. Analyze all requirements specific to dialysis treatment centers and devise a clear
strategy and recommendations based on the design and budget. Develop a componentized approach that
incorporates value engineering, project efficiencies and alternative module configurations.
Step Three: Apply the concurrent construction process. Conventional construction is a linear process.
One step cannot begin until other steps have been completed. With concurrent construction, critical
steps in the construction process occur simultaneously. More than 50 percent of the construction occurs
off-site, in a factory-controlled environment. Site work and building preparations including grading,
foundations, utilities, paving and some landscaping happen while the building‘s modules are fabricated
in the factory.
Step Four: Deliver and install. Shipment of all modular components is coordinated and completed.
Additionally, the majority of the site work, including final grading, utility connections, sidewalks,
ramps, stairs and final landscaping is finished. The goal is to create pleasing aesthetics and coordinating
exterior elements that establish the facility harmoniously within its setting.
Step Five: Complete the interior finishes and finalize for occupancy. Interior finishes, such as
furnishings are completed on-site. Finally, the modular building consultant instructs the client on
modular-specific maintenance, planning for future expansion and other specifics while a building
inspector conducts final code inspections and approvals.
Considering Modular Construction
Modular building is proving to be an outstanding choice for quality healthcare environments. According
to Architectural Record, accelerated construction methods have been employed since the 1960s and
now account for an estimated 40 percent of all building projects. The range of modular healthcare
buildings existing today attests to the diversity and creativity that modular processes afford. Modular
construction is an attractive option to get dialysis treatment centers up and running quickly and
efficiently.
Fibonacci Series
The Fibonacci Series is a sequence of numbers first created by Leonardo Fibonacci (fi-bo-na-chee) in
1202. It is a deceptively simple series, but its ramifications and applications are nearly limitless. It has
fascinated and perplexed mathematicians for over 700 years, and nearly everyone who has worked with
it has added a new piece to the Fibonacci puzzle, a new tidbit of information about the series and how it
works. Fibonacci mathematics is a constantly expanding branch of number theory, with more and more
people being drawn into the complex subtleties of Fibonacci legacy.
The Fibonacci sequence is the series of numbers:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34...
The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it.
 The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1)
 Similarly, the 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
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Rabbits, Cows and Bees Family Trees
Let's look first at the Rabbit Puzzle that Fibonacci wrote about and then at two adaptations of it to make
it more realistic. This introduces you to the Fibonacci number series and the simple definition of the
whole never-ending series.
Fibonacci Rabbits
The original problem that Fibonacci investigated (in the year 1202) was about how fast rabbits could
breed in ideal circumstances.
Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field. Rabbits are able to mate
at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of
rabbits. Suppose that our rabbits never die and that the female always produces one new pair (one male,
one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was...
How many pairs will there be in one year?
1. At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still one only 1 pair.
2. At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits
in the field.
3. At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs in all in
the field.
4. At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, the female
born two months ago produces her first pair also, making 5 pairs.
The number of pairs of rabbits in the field at the start of
each month is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
Can you see how the series is formed and how it
continues? If not, look at the answer!
The first 300 Fibonacci numbers are here and some
questions for you to answer.
Now can you see why this is the answer to our Rabbits
problem? If not, here's why.
Another view of the Rabbit's Family Tree:
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Both diagrams above represent the same information. Rabbits have been numbered to enable
comparisons and to count them, as follows:
 All the rabbits born in the same month are of the same generation and are on the same level in
the tree.
 The rabbits have been uniquely numbered so that in the same generation the new rabbits are
numbered in the order of their parent's number. Thus 5, 6 and 7 are the children of 0, 1 and 2
respectively.
 The rabbits labeled with a Fibonacci number are the children of the original rabbit (0) at the
top of the tree.
 There is a Fibonacci number of new rabbits in each generation, marked with a dot.
 There is a Fibonacci number of rabbits in total from the top down to any single generation.
Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Number
If we take the ratio of two successive numbers in Fibonacci series, (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ..) and we divide
each by the number before it, we will find the following series of numbers:
1
/1 = 1, 2/1 = 2, 3/2 = 1·5, 5/3 = 1·666..., 8/5 = 1·6, 13/8 = 1·625, 21/13 = 1·61538...
It is easier to see what is happening if we plot the ratios on a graph:
The ratio seems to be settling down to a particular value, which we call the golden ratio or the golden
number. It has a value of approximately 1·618034
The golden ratio 1·618034 is also called the golden section or the golden mean or just the golden
number. It is often represented by a Greek letter Phi . The closely related value which we write
as phi with a small "p" is just the decimal part of Phi, namely 0·618034.
Fibonacci Rectangles and Shell Spirals
We can make another picture showing the Fibonacci numbers 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21. If we start
with two small squares of size 1 next to each other. On top of both of these draw a square
of size 2 (=1+1). We can now draw a new square - touching both a unit square and the
latest square of side 2 - so having sides 3 units long; and then another touching both the 2-
square and the 3-square (which has sides of 5 units). We can continue adding squares
around the picture; each new square having a side which is as long as the sum of the latest
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two square's sides. This set of rectangles whose sides are two successive Fibonacci numbers in length
and which are composed of squares with sides which are Fibonacci numbers, we will call the Fibonacci
Rectangles.
Here is a spiral drawn in the squares, a quarter of a circle in each square. The spiral is not a true
mathematical spiral (since it is made up of fragments which are parts of circles and does not go on
getting smaller and smaller) but it is a good approximation to a kind of spiral that does appear often in
nature. Such spirals are seen in the shape of shells of snails and sea shells and, as we see later, in the
arrangement of seeds on flowering plants too. The spiral-in-the-squares makes a line from the centre of
the spiral increase by a factor of the golden number in each square. So points on the spiral are 1.618
times as far from the centre after a quarter-turn. In a whole turn the points on a radius out from the
centre are 1.6184 = 6.854 times further out than when the curve last crossed the same radial line.
Cundy and Rollett (Mathematical Models, second edition 1961, page 70) say that this spiral occurs in
snail-shells and flower-heads referring to D'Arcy Thompson's On Growth and Form probably meaning
chapter 6 "The Equiangular Spiral". Here Thompson is talking about a class of spiral with a constant
expansion factor along a central line and not just shells with a Phi expansion factor.
Below are images of cross-sections of a Nautilus sea shell. They show the spiral curve of the shell and
the internal chambers that the animal using it adds on as it grows. The chambers provide buoyancy in
the water. Click on the picture to enlarge it in a new window. Draw a line from the centre out in any
direction and find two places where the shell crosses it so that the shell spiral has gone round just once
between them. The outer crossing point will be about 1.6 times as far from the centre as the next inner
point on the line where the shell crosses it. This shows that the shell has grown by a factor of the golden
ratio in one turn. On the poster shown here, this factor varies from 1.6 to 1.9 and may be due to the shell
not being cut exactly along a central plane to produce the cross-section.
Several organizations and companies have a logo based on this design, using the spiral of Fibonacci
squares and sometime with the Nautilus shell superimposed. It is incorrect to say this is a Phi-spiral.
Firstly the "spiral" is only an approximation as it is made up of separate and distinct quarter-circles;
secondly the (true) spiral increases by a factor Phi every quarter-turn so it is more correct to call it a
Phi4 spiral.
Fibonacci Numbers, the Golden Section and Plants
One plant in particular shows the Fibonacci numbers in the
number of "growing points" that it has. Suppose that when a
plant puts out a new shoot, that shoot has to grow two
months before it is strong enough to support branching. If it
branches every month after that at the growing point, we get
the picture shown here.
A plant that grows very much like this is the "sneezewort":
Achillea ptarmica.
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Petals on flowers
On many plants, the number of petals is a Fibonacci number: buttercups have 5 petals; lilies and iris
have 3 petals; some delphiniums have 8; corn marigolds have 13 petals; some asters have 21 whereas
daisies can be found with 34, 55 or even 89 petals. The links here are to various flowers and plant
catalogues:
 The Dutch Flowerweb's searchable index called Flowerbase.
 The US Department of Agriculture's Plants Database containing over 1000 images, plant
information and searchable database.
3 petals: lily, iris
4 petals Very few plants show 4 petals (or sepals) but some, such as the fuchsia above, do. 4 is not a
Fibonacci number! We return to this point near the bottom of this page.
5 petals: buttercup, wild rose, larkspur, columbine (aquilegia), pinks (shown above)
8 petals: delphiniums
13 petals: ragwort, corn marigold, cineraria, some daisies
21 petals: aster, black-eyed susan, chicory
34 petals: plantain, pyrethrum
55, 89 petals: michaelmas daisies, the asteraceae family.
Pine cones
Pine cones show the Fibonacci Spirals clearly. Here is a picture of an ordinary pine cone seen from its
base where the stalk connects it to the tree. Can you see the two sets of spirals? How many are there in
each set?
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Fibonacci Fingers?
Look at your own hand:
You have...
 2 hands each of which has ...
 5 fingers, each of which has ...
 3 parts separated by ...
 2 knuckles
Is this just a coincidence or not?????
However, if you measure the lengths of the bones in your finger (best seen by slightly bending the
finger) does it look as if the ratio of the longest bone in a finger to the middle bone is Phi?
What about the ratio of the middle bone to the shortest bone (at the end of the finger) - Phi again?
Can you find any ratios in the lengths of the fingers that look like Phi? ---or does it look as if it could be
any other similar ratio also?
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Modular coordination,
5
Standardization, system building
Modular Coordination: Modular co-ordination is a co-ordinate unified system for dimensioning

spaces, components, fitting, etc. So that all elements fit together without cutting or extending even when
the components and fittings are manufactured by different suppliers (Trikha, 1999).
The objectives of modular co-ordination are:
a) To create a basis upon which the variety of types and sizes of building components can be
minimized. Through a rationalized method of construction, each component is designed to be
interchangeable with other similar ones and hence, provide a maximum degree of freedom and choice
offered to the designer. This can also be accomplished by adopting a relatively large basic measurement
unit (basic module) and by limiting the dimensions of building components to recommended preferred
sizes (Warszawski, 1999).
b) To allow for easy adoption of prefabricated components to any layout and for their interchangeability
within the building. This is achieved by defining the location of each component in the building with
reference to a common modular grid rather than with a reference to other components (Warszawski,
1999). The modular co-ordination for building component apply the basic length unit or module of
M=100cm. This allows the designer to apply this size or its multiple in the production of building
components.
Although this concept seems to be easy for adoption, its application involves a great degree of
coordination and adjustment in the manufacturing process and the interfacing aspects of components.
Standardization and Tolerances: For accomplishing the requirement of modular co-ordination, all
components need to be standardized for production. Such standardization of space and elements need
prescribing tolerances at different construction stages such as manufactured tolerances, setting out
tolerances and erection tolerances, so that the combined tolerance obtained on statistical considerations
is within the permitted limits (Trikha, 1999).
Production resources can be used in the most efficient manner if the output is standardized. Then the
production process, machinery, and workers‘ training can be best absorbed to the particular
characteristics of the product.
Mass Production: The investment in equipment, human recourses, and facilities associated with
industrialization can be justified economically only when large production volume is observed. Such
volume provides a distribution of the fixed investment charge over a large number of product units
without unduly inflating their ultimate cost (CIDB Singapore, 1992).
Specialization: Large production output and standardization of precast elements allow a high degree of
labour specialization with the production process. The process can be subdivided into a large number of
45
small homogenous tasks. In such working condition, workers are exposed to their work repetitiously
with higher productivity level
Advantages of Modular Construction
Modular construction has many advantages that are presented below:
 Reduces Waste- Modules are built using a controlled process; each stage is carefully planned and
is usually optimized by the modular plant. Most of the waste produced is either recycled or re-used
once again in the process, reducing the amount of waste being directed to our landfills.
 Increased Efficiency – Modular construction reduces the gaps on building, regulating the tightness
of its construction. Tighter construction produces and increases the energetic efficiency of the
building and induces a better indoor air quality.
 BIM Integration – Building Information Modeling can be used on modular construction allowing
better visualization and simulation of its performance. Using BIM in the pre-construction process
will stimulate the implementation of cost-effective measures.
 Superior Quality – Modular buildings should have a superior quality due to its controlled
manufacturing process. Several inspections are made to modular building during the construction
process reducing potential risks associated with poor building performance.
 Saves Time – One of the most important benefits of modular building is the speed increase that
they produce to the overall job construction. However, it is very important to monitor closely all
progress on the manufacturing plants, all them, to assure that construction progress of modules is
following scheduling requirements. The return of investment is achieved sooner due to fast
construction process.
 Saves Money – Faster construction means less money being paid. Completing a modular building
so fast, will reduce the amount of money being paid as interest, lower general conditions, and will
also produce savings when completed because modular buildings are energy efficient.
 Environmental Friendly- Modules being built off-site will reduce the environmental impact on
the job site. Safer conditions, fewer workers and less construction-generated dust will also be
obtained when using modules. This will also reduce safety and environmental violations to laws
and regulations.
 Planning- Less change orders will be issued when using modular buildings. Details and specific
architectural designs can be carefully reviewed during the manufacturing process, and a greater
detailed product should be obtained.
Technological Advances- Inserting chips into the modules that produce a great inventory control will
reduce errors when installing the modules. Many other technological advances can also be embedded or
attached to these modular buildings.
Lamination of Modular Construction
Approaches used to address lamination process bottlenecks include using larger area laminators,
multiple parallel laminators, stack laminators (multiple lamination chambers in a vertical stack), and
multi-stage laminators, in which the process steps are split into different processing units.
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Photovoltaic (PV) modules need to withstand the rigors of outdoor exposure in all kinds of climates for
long periods - 25 years or more - to convert sunlight to electricity at a reasonable cost. One of the keys
to module longevity is the lamination process, which encapsulates solar cells while attaching front and
back protective sheets. The materials, process technology, and equipment described in this article have
been proven by over 20 years of actual field experience for both crystalline silicon and thin film
modules.
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) based sheet materials have been the industry standard encapsulants since
the 1980s, although there have been significant improvements in these materials over time. The base
EVA is combined with a number of additives in the sheet extrusion process, including curing agents,
UV stabilizers, anti-oxidants, and primers for glass adhesion. The additive package comprises a few
percent of the final material. Early problems with EVA yellowing under combined UV and heat
exposure have been resolved by replacing the original curing agent with a more stable alternative, while
faster reacting curing agents have been developed to reduce process cycle times and increase the
throughput capacity of lamination equipment.
Thermoplastic encapsulants such as polyvinyl butyral (PVB) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) are
also available in sheet form. While these materials do not require curing, their melting points and
viscosities are higher than EVA, so the lamination process times are generally similar to EVA.
Because the encapsulants are in sheet form, a module laminate can be easily assembled in layers for
processing in a vacuum laminator. The most common module construction uses tempered low-iron
glass as the transparent front structural member, or superstrate, followed by a layer of EVA,
interconnected solar cells, another layer of EVA, and a UV-stable plastic film as the back sheet, as
shown in Fig. 1. An optional thin non-woven fiberglass sheet can be placed behind the cells to aid in air
removal and to prevent cell motion when the EVA melts and flows during lamination.
Other module designs include double-glass, which use glass for both the front and back sheets, and
flexible, which use flexible films for the front and back sheets. The former design is popular for thin
film applications (CdTe and CIGS) that need an excellent moisture barrier to prevent film degradation,
while the latter design is used where light weight portable modules are needed, and for roofing
applications, where the roof provides the module's structural support.
Lamination process
The lamination process involves pumping the air out of the module layers in a vacuum chamber,
heating the layers to melt the encapsulant, and pressing the layers together with a flexible diaphragm to
embed the cells in encapsulant and adhere the front and back sheets. EVA must be subjected to a
temperature/time profile to obtain a minimum cure level of 80% for long term module reliability. The
lamination process is qualified by performing visual inspections for voids, bubbles, back sheet wrinkles,
and other defects; peel force measurements to determine the adhesion of the encapsulant to the various
layers in the laminate; and gel content tests to measure the amount of EVA cross-linking. Gel content
tests are done by extracting cured EVA from a sample module, weighing it, and soaking it in hot
solvent (toluene) to dissolve the non-cured fraction of the material. Less accurate but quicker gel test
methods include thermal creep measurements and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
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Module laminators consist of a large area heated metal platen in a vacuum chamber. The top of the
vacuum chamber opens for loading and unloading modules. A flexible diaphragm is attached to the top
of the chamber, and a set of valves allows the space above the diaphragm to be evacuated during the
initial pump step and backfilled with room air during the press step. A pin lift mechanism is sometimes
used to lift modules above the heated platen during the initial pump step, but most standard modules
(including the design shown in Fig. 1) don't require it.
Platen temperature uniformities of ±5°C at the lamination temperature are sufficient for obtaining good
laminations with acceptable gel content and adhesion across the module. While more uniform
temperatures are available from some laminator suppliers, there is no real benefit to the module
manufacturer. Note that the uniformity specification refers to unloaded (empty) platens. Once a room
temperature module is placed on the platen, its thermal mass disturbs the platen temperature and it no
longer meets this specification.
Active platen cooling systems are optional on some laminators. This option can be useful for special
module designs to minimize bow or prevent edge delamination, but again, it is not needed for standard
modules. Laminator throughput decreases for processes with active cooling, since additional time is
needed to cool down and heat up the platen. On the other hand, active module cooling by convection or
conduction on laminator output conveyors does not slow down the lamination process, and is useful to
reduce work in process in high throughput production lines. That's because modules exit the laminator
at elevated temperatures, typically 150°C to 160°C, and need to cool down to about 45°C or less before
further processing and testing can be done.
Laminators are available with two types of cover opening systems: clamshell and vertical post. In the
clamshell design, the cover is mounted on a hinge at the back of the laminator, which opens like the
hood of a car. This leaves the laminator wide open on three sides, making it easy for an operator to load
and unload modules manually. Automated belt-fed laminators, on the other hand, use the vertical post
method, which lifts the cover horizontally above the process chamber. Because the cover does not need
to travel much for belt loading, the chamber opening and closing times are reduced. As a result, most
high throughput module lines use belt-fed laminators with vertical cover lifts, as shown in Fig. 2.
Process bottlenecks
The lamination process can be a bottleneck in module lines with throughputs of 50MW/year or more.
Several approaches are used to address this issue, including larger area laminators, multiple parallel
laminators, stack laminators (multiple lamination chambers in a vertical stack), and multi-stage
laminators, in which the process steps are split into different processing units. In addition, the laminator
can be used to do a lower temperature lamination process, which takes about one third the time of a full
lamination plus cure process. In this case, curing is done after lamination in an in-line or batch process
in a convection oven. The development of new faster curing and/or lower temperature curing
encapsulant materials could have a significant impact on process throughput.
Conclusion
Module lamination is a key process step that directly impacts module reliability and lifetime, as it
provides the weather barrier that protects solar cells from the environment. Sheet encapsulants allow for
48
simple assembly of a variety of module designs (glass superstrate, double glass, and flexible), while
providing good encapsulant thickness control with little material waste. Process control measures, such
as peel force measurements and gel content tests, are critical to maintaining module quality in
production. While a number of strategies may be used to alleviate bottlenecks in the lamination process
for high volume production, the PV industry would benefit from the availability of faster curing
encapsulants.
49

Precast and Modular Construction Practices

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2012

PRECAST AND MODULAR

Unit-5: Modular coordination, Standardization, system building, Lamination and Advantages of

Post-tensioned slab-column connection

Precast Beam & Girders:

Precast columns Inverted Tee beams supported on precast columns

Precast concrete Stairs

Precast concrete structure consisting of solid wall

3.2 Open-drained joints

3.4 Compression-seal joints

Slab to beam connection

Connection between slabs

Connection of wall panels to columns

9 Repetitive-Use Factor (Cr)

Modular Coordination: Modular co-ordination is a co-ordinate unified system for dimensioning

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