Rare Metal Materials and Engineering

Volume 44, Issue 5, May 2015

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: Rare Metal Materials and Engineering, 2015, 44(5): 1041-1045 ARTICLE

Impulse Pressuring Diffusion Bonding of Titanium to

Stainless Steel Using a Copper Interlayer
Deng Yongqiang, Sheng Guangmin, Yin Lijing

Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

Abstract: Impulse pressuring diffusion bonding of commercially pure titanium to 1Cr18Ni9 stainless steel was carried out using a
copper interlayer in an attempt to reduce the bonding time and alleviate the detrimental effect of interfacial reaction products on
bonding strength. Successful bonding has been achieved at 850 °C under a pulsed pressure of 8~20 MPa within a duration of only
120~180 s, which is notably shortened in comparison with conventional diffusion bonding. Microstructure characterization revealed
that a sequence of Ti-Cu intermetallic compounds were formed at the Ti/Cu interface and the Cu/stainless steel interface was
characterized by the presence of solid solution of Cu in γ Fe without any interfacial reaction products. Maximum bonding strength of
346 MPa was obtained when the joint was bonded for 120 s. Upon tensile loading, the joints fractured along the Ti/Cu interfacial
reaction layer in a brittle cleavage manner, indicating that the impulse pressuring diffusion bonding can alleviate the harmful
influence of interfacial intermetallic compounds on joint performances to a certain extent, but it is infeasible in completely
eliminating the negative effect of the brittle intermetallic compounds.

Key words: titanium; stainless steel; impulse pressuring diffusion bonding; Cu interlayer; mechanical properties

The composites (hybrid components) consisting of
titanium/titanium alloy (Ti) and stainless steel (SS) are widely
used in various engineering fields such as nuclear power plant
and golf club industry[1,2]. However, owing to the poor
metallurgical compatibility and significant mismatch in
physical and mechanical properties, the joining of Ti to SS is
facing to a particular challenge. Conventional fusion welding
would result in the formation of a thick brittle intermetallic
compound (IMC) layer and an accumulation of residual stress
at the joint, and thus is infeasible in the case of dissimilar
joining of Ti to SS[3].
Consequently, a variety of alternative joining techniques,
particularly the solid state ones such as friction welding,
brazing and diffusion bonding specific to the Ti-SS joining
couple have been developed[4-10]. Of these techniques available,
the diffusion bonding is most intensively documented. It was
reported that an integrated joint could be obtained by the
direct diffusion bonding of Ti to SS. However, the bonding
strength was rather low due to the formation of extremely
brittle Ti-Fe IMCs [11]. The negative effect of such IMCs can
be abated by adopting proper intermediate materials such as
Cu and Ni and the joint with satisfactory strength can be
obtained[4,5,12].
In spite of the success of diffusion bonding achieved, it is
worthwhile to mention that the diffusion bonding is quite time
consuming, for example, 60~120 min is generally required to
complete the bonding process [10-12]. Furthermore, due to the
reactive nature of Ti, sophisticated vacuum condition, which is
expensive to maintain is mandatory for the bonding[13-16]. In
this regard, it is of great interest to further optimize the
bonding circle to shorten the bonding time for the purpose of
both productive efficiency and cost saving. Additionally, it
was reported that the excessive growth of the interfacial IMC
would significantly deteriorate the joint strength[3-5,11]. Thus
thermodynamically, a reduction in bonding time which retard
the growth of interfacial IMC, would in turn potentially
contribute to the bonding strength.
To this end, a modified diffusion bonding technology,

Received date: May 14, 2014

Foundation item: National Natural Science Foundation of China (50675234)
Corresponding author: Sheng Guangmin, Ph. D., Professor, College of Material Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, P. R. China, Tel:
0086-23-65103045, E-mail: gmsheng@cqu.edu.cn
Copyright © 2015, Northwest Institute for Nonferrous Metal Research. Published by Elsevier BV. All rights reserved.

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impulse pressuring diffusion bonding (IPDB) was intended in

a b
the current investigation, to realize robust bonding of Ti to SS
within a greatly reduced duration.

1 Experiment
Cylindrical samples of commercially pure Ti and 1Cr18Ni9
SS with 12 mm in diameter and 35 mm in length were used.
The mating surfaces of the specimens were prepared by
conventional grinding and polishing techniques and
subsequently cleaned in acetone to eradicate any residual
contamination. 50 μm thick copper foil was used as interlayer. c d
Bonding trials were performed in a Gleeble-1500D tester at
850 °C under a pulsed compressive load of 8~20 MPa for
90~180 s in vacuum with 1×10-2 Pa. Detailed description of
the IPDB can be found in our previous report[14].
Subsequent to bonding, selected specimens were sectioned
and microstructural observations were conducted in scanning
electron microscope (SEM, TESCAN VEGA Ⅱ ) using
back-scattered mode (SEM-BSE) to reveal the interfacial
reaction layers. Chemical composition profile across the joints
was determined using energy dispersive spectroscope (EDS).
Room temperature tensile tests were performed in a tensile Fig.1 SEM-BSE micrographs of joint interfaces after bonding time
testing machine (Instron 1342) at a crosshead speed of 0.05 of 90 s (a), 120 s (b), 150 s (c), and 180 s (d)
mm/min using sub-sized specimen with dimension of 6 mm in
diameter and 30 mm in gauge length. Fracture morphology a b
was observed to identify the fracture location and
characteristics of the joints.

2 Results and Discussion

2.1 Microstructure characterization
Fig.1 shows the low magnification overview of the joints
bonded for 90~180 s. It is found that crack free joints are
formed for all bonding time. In all cases, interdiffusion and
reaction area can be found at the Ti/Cu interface and no
interfacial reaction layer is found at the Cu/SS interface. The c d
copper interlayer plays a role as effective diffusion barrier
between the Ti and SS and the formation of Ti-Fe IMCs which
is recognized to be the most detrimental to the joint strength is
successfully suppressed.
In order to further reveal the interfacial microstructure of
the Ti/Cu interface, detailed high resolution characterization
was conducted and the results are presented in Fig.2. It can be
seen that the joints bonded for 90, 120, 150 and 180 s
resemble each other with several diffusion and reaction layers
formed along the interface. Detailed elemental composition
analysis was conducted to identify the phase constituent of the Fig.2 SEM-BSE micrographs of joint interface after bonding time
interfacial reaction layers. Considering the great similarity, of 90 s (a), 120 s (b), 150 s (c), and 180 s (d)
only the analysis results of the joint bonded for 150 s as a
representative sample are given, as summarized in Table 1. In as the β Ti formed at bonding temperature transformed to α+β
combination with the EDS results and the Ti-Cu binary phase Ti aggregates during the cooling stage[5]. In the bonding
diagram, the phases formed at the interface was readily progress, due to the solid state interdiffusion of Ti and Cu,
predicted. As shown in Table 1, due to the diffusion of Cu, a β continuous IMC layers including Ti2Cu, TiCu, Ti2Cu3 and
stabilizing element, towards the Ti substrate, α+β Ti is formed Cu4Ti are generated.

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Table 1 Chemical composition of the marked regions

360
in Fig. 2c (at%)
Region No. 1 2 3 4 5

Bonding Strength/MPa
320
Ti 94.9 68.7 53.5 36.2 26.7
Cu 5.1 31.3 46.5 63.8 73.3 280
Possible phase α+β Ti Ti2Cu TiCu Ti2Cu3 Cu4Ti
240
The microstructure and corresponding EDS line scanning
results of the Cu/SS interface of the joint bonded for 120 s are 200
given in Fig.3. No interfacial reaction layer is found. The
90 120 150 180
composition profiles of Fe, Cu, Cr and Ni across the Cu/SS
Bonding Time/s
interface clearly show smooth variations of respective
elements, indicating the presence of solid solution without any Fig.4 Tensile strength change of the joints bonded for different time
IMC in the diffusion zone, which is in good agreement with
the Cu-Fe, Cr, Ni phase diagrams. The interdiffusion of
a b
elements indicates that considerable mass transfer occurs and
good metallurgical bonding is achieved across the bonding
interface.
2.2 Mechanical assessment
Tensile strength change of the joints bonded for different
time is given in Fig.4. The joint bonded for 90 s exhibits a
rather low strength of approximately 260 MPa and two of the
five samples for tensile test were separated during the
machining process. As the bonding time is prolonged to 120 s,
the joint strength is remarkably improved to 346 MPa. Further
increment in bonding time results in a slight decline in Fig.5 Fracture surfaces of samples bonded for 120 s (a) and 150 s (b)
bonding strength to about 330 MPa. The fracture morphology
and XRD analysis results of the fracture surfaces are shown in It can be reasonably deduced that the joints failed in a brittle
Fig.5 and Fig.6, respectively. Extensive cleavage patterns are manner along the Ti-Cu interfacial IMCs. It is worthwhile to
observed and Ti-Cu IMCs are identified in the fracture surfaces. mention that Ti3Cu4 is detected by the XRD analysis, but, not
identified during the SEM-EDS observation. This would be
a owing to the fact that the amount of this phase is too little to be
observed by the SEM and EDS with limited spatial resolution
(~1 μm).
The fracture surface of the separated specimen clearly
indicates that the joint departs along the Cu/SS interface as flat
Cu and SS faying surfaces can be readily distinguished. Owing
to the reactive nature of Ti, metallurgical bonding can be readily
formed at the Ti/Cu interface via forming Ti-Cu IMCs, as can
5 μm
be seen in Fig.1a. However, since the mutual solubility of the
Cu-γ Fe system is limited, a relatively prolonged duration is
b
required to achieve an adequate interdiffusion, which is a time
Fe
dependent process across the interface. It is thus deduced that
Intensity/a.u.

Cu the poor bonding quality of the joint bonded for 90 s is

Cr attributed to the inadequate mass transfer of the Ti/SS interface.
With increased bonding time, 120 s, the joint strength is notably
Ni improved. This improvement can be attributed to the enhanced
interdiffusion at the Cu/SS interface and a robust metallurgical
0 5 10
bonding of Cu to SS is formed. In this case, the solid solution
Distance/μm
formed at the Cu/SS interface exhibits a superior mechanical
performance compared to the Ti/Cu IMCs. Upon tensile loading,
Fig.3 Microstructure (a) and linear EDS linear scanning results (b)
the fracture location of the joint would shift from the partially
of the Cu-stainless steel interface of the joint bonded for 120 s
joined Cu/SS to the Ti/Cu IMC layer. This is in well agreement

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1400 a 1600 b
Ti2Cu
1200 1400 Ti2Cu
TiCu
TiCu
Ti3Cu4
Intensity/cps 1000 1200

800 1000
800
600
600
400
400
200 200
20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80

700 c d
Ti 400
Ti2Cu
600 Ti2Cu TiCu
TiCu Ti3Cu4
500 300
Intensity/cps

400
200
300
200 100
100
0
20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80
2θ/(°) 2θ/(°)

Fig.6 XRD patterns of the fracture surfaces of the joints bonded for 120 s, SS side (a); 120 s, Ti side (b); 150 s, SS side (c); 150 s, Ti side (d)

with previous study. The Ti-Cu IMCs have been long recogni-
zed to be detrimental to the joint strength. Further increment in
bonding time results in slight decline in bonding strength which
can be ascribed to the thickening of the IMC layers[5].
It is well known that for diffusion bonding, the most
important parameters, bonding temperature, pressure and
holding time, are not independent with each other. At a given
temperature, the holding time required to complete the
bonding is a function of the applied pressure. A higher
pressure would preferentially result in a reduced time
required.
In one of our preliminary study, the impulse pressuring
diffusion bonding has been already validated to be a feasible
approach to join TA17 alloy to stainless steel within duration
of only 180 s, which is dramatically shorter than the
conventional ones (60~120 min) [14]. The reduction in bonding
time is ascribed to the higher pressure which promotes the
intimate contact of the faying surfaces. Integrated joints were
obtained and the relative deformation of the substrate is
acceptable despite the much higher pressure applied. The
limited macroscopic deformation of the joint can be attributed
to the short loading cycle. However, owing to the presence of
Ti-Fe IMC at the interface, the joint strength is rather low
compared with the base metal. In the present study, a Cu
interlayer is intended to eliminate the Ti/Fe IMCs. On the
other hand, the application of Cu with relatively low softening
temperature and low flow stress might reduce the pressure
required to achieve intimate contact of the mating surfaces[5].
It is experimentally verified that the Cu interlayer can
effectively eradicate the formation of Ti-Fe IMCs and the
improved strength can be achieved.
In addition, it is found that the impulse pressuring diffusion
bonded joint exhibits higher tensile strength than the
counterparts bonded by conventional diffusion bonding
technique. It was reported that the maximum tensile strength
of diffusion bonded commercially pure Ti and 304SS with Cu
interlayer is 318 MPa which is about 30 MPa lower than that
of the present study [5]. The improvement in bonding strength
can be attributed to the retardation of the excessive growth of
the IMCs formed at the Ti/Cu interface. However, it should be
mentioned that although the bonding strength can be improved
to a certain extent by alleviating the effect of IMCs via
impulse pressuring diffusion bonding, the bonding strength is
still limited owing to the brittle IMCs. For further improving
the bonding characteristics, a complete eliminating of the
brittle interfacial metallic compounds may be required.
3 Conclusions
1) By IPDB in combination of Cu interlayer, the diffusion
bonding of commercially pure Ti to 1Cr18Ni9 SS can be
achieved within duration of only 120 s.
2) The Cu interlayer can effectively block the interdiffusion
and reaction between Ti and SS. The joints are characterized
by the presence of Ti-Cu IMCs formed at the Ti/Cu interface,
the remnant Cu interlayer and the solid solution of Cu in SS at
the Cu/SS interface.
3) Maximum bonding strength of 346 MPa can be achieved
when the joints are bonded for 120 s. Upon tensile loading, the

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joints fracture along the Ti-Cu IMC layer in a brittle manner.
4) The detrimental effect of Ti-Cu IMCs on the bonding
strength can be alleviated to a certain extent, but, can not be
completely eliminated by adopting IPDB.
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