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International Journal of Sexual Health


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Attitudes Toward Gay Men and Lesbians and Their


Relationship with Gender Role Beliefs in a Sample of
Chilean University Students
a a a b
Manuel Cárdenas , Jaime Barrientos , Fabiola Gómez & Dolores Frías-Navarro
a
Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
b
Departamento de Metodología y Ciencias del Comportamiento, Facultad de Psicología,
Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Accepted author version posted online: 22 Jun 2012.Published online: 17 Sep 2012.

To cite this article: Manuel Cárdenas , Jaime Barrientos , Fabiola Gómez & Dolores Frías-Navarro (2012) Attitudes Toward Gay
Men and Lesbians and Their Relationship with Gender Role Beliefs in a Sample of Chilean University Students, International
Journal of Sexual Health, 24:3, 226-236, DOI: 10.1080/19317611.2012.700687

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2012.700687

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International Journal of Sexual Health, 24:226–236, 2012
Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1931-7611 print / 1931-762X online


DOI: 10.1080/19317611.2012.700687

ATTITUDES TOWARD GAY MEN AND LESBIANS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP


WITH GENDER ROLE BELIEFS IN A SAMPLE OF CHILEAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Manuel Cárdenas1, Jaime Barrientos1, Fabiola Gómez1, Dolores Frı́as-Navarro2


1
Escuela de Psicologı́a, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
2
Departamento de Metodologı́a y Ciencias del Comportamiento, Facultad de Psicologı́a,
Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

ABSTRACT. This paper analyzes the relation between gender role beliefs and prejudice toward
gay men and lesbians in Chile. Participants were Chilean university students (N = 283). Results
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indicate that men are more prejudiced than women and religious people are more prejudiced
than non-religious people. On the other hand, gender role beliefs mediate sex differences in
prejudice. The participants’ more traditional gender role beliefs hold more negative attitudes
toward gay men and lesbians. Men are more prejudiced than women, particularly in their
attitudes toward gay men. In addition, sex differences in attitudes toward lesbians and gay
men are mediated by gender role beliefs.

KEYWORDS. Gender role beliefs, prejudice, attitudes, gay men, lesbians

Sociocultural changes on a global basis the need to adapt existing norms and beliefs
have led to a substantial change in the values in relation to sexuality. Despite these global
of Western society, favoring greater individu- changes, highly negative attitudes toward gay
alism and equity in gender status and rela- men and lesbians are still observed in many
tions (Barrientos & Páez, 2006; Bozon, 2001; countries, with the perpetuation of stereotypes
Connell, 2002; Haavio-Manila, Kontula, & that view homosexuality as “wrong” or “anti-
Rotkirch, 2002; Inglehart, 1997; Inglehart & natural” behavior (Herek, 2000). This is the
Baker, 2000; Weeks, 1986). Additionally, in case in Chile, where heterosexuals’ attitudes to-
most Western societies, these changes have led ward gay men and lesbians are still negative
to more favorable attitudes toward premari- (Barrientos & Cárdenas, 2012; Cárdenas
tal relations, abortion, and homosexuality; they & Barrientos, 2008a). This suggests that
have also resulted in an increase in secular val- the conditions in which prejudice is ex-
ues, with many people setting aside loyalties to pressed may vary widely across cultures, be-
established religious institutions. However, in cause attitudes and beliefs are profoundly
so-called “developing countries,” such as Mex- shaped by the individual’s sociocultural con-
ico and Chile, although economic development text (Nierman, Thompson, Bryan, & Mahaffey,
has facilitated women’s access to more and bet- 2007).
ter educational opportunities, these changes are Previous studies have shown the impor-
less noticeable (Inglehart & Baker, 2000). tance of beliefs that characterize an individual’s
Such changes are giving more opportunities world view and their consequences for attitudes
for sexual exploration and are bringing about toward gay men and lesbians (Nierman et al.,

Received 4 October 2011; revised 19 May 2012; accepted 3 June 2012.


This article was supported by Project Fondecyt 1110423 (“Homophobia and psychosocial effects in the quality of life in gay men
and lesbians: Towards a comprehensive model”).
Address correspondence to Jaime Barrientos, Escuela de Psicologı́a, Universidad Católica del Norte, Avenida Angamos 0610,
Antofagasta, Chile. E-mail: jbarrien@ucn.cl

226
M. CÁRDENAS ET AL. 227

2007). This would be especially applicable to whereby the macho man is considered strong,
beliefs about gender roles and religiosity. active, independent, and as having a great deal
Latin America and Chile have shown the of sexual experience. He is also supposed to
great importance of social context, social fac- respect, be kind to, and protect women. The
tors, and the Catholic Church in sexuality, gen- complement to “machismo” is “marianismo,”
der relations, and masculinity (Barrientos & which refers to women’s submission to men,
Páez, 2000; Viveros, 2001). For example, in causing a double standard in which a woman’s
Chile, as in many other countries, one of the condition is either a good mother and wife or a
most relevant changes in the last few years was bad woman who is sexually available—a whore
the gradual separation of the Catholic Church (Cianelli et al., 2008). Associated with this lat-
from the control of moral rules. However, the ter idea are the concepts of virginity, chastity,
influence of the church on sexuality and gen- honor, and shame (Salyers, 1998). According to
der issues is still important, particularly regard- a recent study, Chileans endorse a strict division
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ing divorce, abortion, AIDS, artificial contracep- of labor (Servicio Nacional de la Mujer, 2002).
tion, the morning-after pill, homosexuality, and Chileans reduce female presence to private and
surgical sterilization (Schiappacasse, Vidal, domestic matters, and they support masculine
Casas, Dides, & Diaz, 2003). authority in family decisions. In addition, there
In Latin American cultures, strict gender role is evidence of strong acceptance of statements
expectations push men to distance themselves giving priority to mother and wife roles over
from anything associated with femininity, while paid work. Chileans also demand higher sexual
more flexibility in the female gender role allows morals from women and a delicate and passive
women to express greater acceptance of both kind of social behavior with respect to men.
gay men and lesbians. Consequently, men may Also, the relationships between religiosity
feel persuaded to display anti-gay men preju- and prejudice may be especially problematic in
dice to assert their own masculinity. Same-sex the case of attitudes toward gay men and les-
relations are intimidating for a male-dominated bians. Studies have generally revealed that reli-
culture in which traditional gender role dis- gious involvement is positively correlated to var-
tinctions are used for rationalizing patriarchy. ious forms of prejudice (Whitley, 2008). Thus,
Therefore, the rigidity of gender identity should it seems that although most religions proscribe
be more pronounced in traditionally patriarchal some forms of prejudice such as racial preju-
societies. The gender role belief system pro- dice, at the same time, they allow other forms
vides a viable explanation for sex differences of prejudice, such as prejudice against peo-
in attitudes toward homosexual people: Men ple who are perceived as violating the religious
and women differ in their attitudes toward gay value system. Gay men and lesbians fall into that
men and lesbians. Heterosexual men’s attitudes category for many religious groups, suggesting
toward gay men tend be more negative than that people who are more religious are likely to
they are toward lesbians, while women display have more negative attitudes toward gay men
similar attitudes toward gay men and lesbians and lesbians. Many religious people interpret
(Herek, 2000, 2002). homosexuality as opposite to their value system
Additionally, in Chile, the patriarchal tra- and therefore accept prejudice against gay men
dition seems to be predominant, character- and lesbians. People with more unfavorable at-
ized by a “machista” culture of male dominion titudes toward gay men and lesbians are also
and rigid definition of gender. While machismo the most religious (Gentry, 1987; Herek, 1988;
can be taken to mean many different things Morrison & Morrison, 2002).
(Nierman et al., 2007), in Chile, it refers to the In Chile, unfortunately, empirical research
social and privileged dominion that men exert on heterosexuals’ (general population or con-
over women in the different aspects of social life venience samples) attitudes towards gay men
(Cianelli, Ferrer, & McElmurry, 2008; Salyers, and lesbians is scarce (Barrientos & Cárdenas,
1998). Machista culture in Chile includes ideas 2012). Most studies in the region have been
228 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SEXUAL HEALTH

carried out in Mexico and Brazil (Altair & graduate convenience samples has found that
Caetano, 2007; Carrara & Vianna, 2006; Ortiz- heterosexuals’ attitudes with respect to homo-
Hernández & Garcı́a, 2005; Ortiz-Hernández sexuals are still negative. But there is scarce in-
& Granados, 2003), but there are some re- formation about mediating variables in these
cent studies in Chile about attitudes toward ho- negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians.
mosexuality in samples of university students Negative attitudes can be predicted from vari-
(Cárdenas & Barrientos, 2008a; Nierman et al., ous sociodemographic variables, including sex
2007). In the study by Cárdenas and Barri- and religiosity, and other sociocultural variables
entos (2008a), attitudes toward gay men and such as gender roles. Given the early stage of
lesbians are affected by the respondent’s sex. this work in Chile, the attitudes and beliefs of
Women showed more tolerant attitudes to- university students are analyzed.
ward homosexual people (gay men and les- Therefore, the objective of this study is to
bians) compared with men. This study indicated examine how gender role beliefs mediate the
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that religious people showed the most nega- relationships between participants’ sex and re-
tive attitudes—the same as was found in other ligiosity and their attitudes toward gay men and
studies (Gentry, 1987; Herek, 1988; Morrison lesbians using a sample of Chilean university
& Morrison, 2002). The study by Nierman et al., students.
which uses the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Two models in which gender role beliefs
Gay Men Scale (ATLG) to compare the United mediate the relationships between participants’
States and Chile, showed the importance of sex and religiosity and their attitudes toward gay
gender roles and their relation to homophobia. men and lesbians are proposed and tested.
Thus, people who transgress expectations as- The first basic hypothesis of these models
sociated with gender roles are more negatively is that there are sex differences in attitudes to-
evaluated than those who do not. ward gay men and lesbians in Chile. Thus, it
In regards to homophobia levels in Chile, was predicted that men would hold more neg-
several studies reveal that there are still hostile ative attitudes toward gay men than women
attitudes toward homosexual people, a fact that would. Previous studies show that Chile seems
may result in high levels of discrimination and to be a highly patriarchal society (Nierman et al.,
victimization toward this group. For instance, 2007). Thus, sex differences in attitudes toward
according to the Questionnaire on Sexual Be- gay men and lesbians could be explained by
havior in the Southern Cone, only 5% of the different gender role beliefs.
general population approves of men or women The second basic hypothesis is that religious
having sexual relations with members of their differences in attitudes toward gay men and les-
own sex (Barrientos & Páez, 2000). Data col- bians in Chile are due to the role played by re-
lected by the World Values Survey (2011) in ligiosity in the regulation of Chilean social and
the general population provide more informa- sexual life (Barrientos & Páez, 2000). Thus, we
tion on this issue. According to this survey, there also predicted that religious people have more
has been a change in attitudes toward homo- negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians
sexuality in Chile, although homophobia still than compared with nonreligious people, be-
exists. This survey also reveals that women and cause such religiosity prescribe gender roles and
younger people are more tolerant, while it is sanction their transgression.
reported that religious people are more intoler- In accordance with a third hypothesis, we
ant than those who are not religious (Barrientos predict an effect of the interaction between re-
& Cárdenas, 2010). Catholics are the most in- ligiosity and sex.
tolerant (particularly those who most strongly Finally, the fourth hypothesis is that men’s
identify with their religious beliefs). and women’s traditional beliefs on gender roles
To summarize, research on attitudes toward are a fundamental predictor for attitudes to-
gay men and lesbians in Chile using samples ward gay men and lesbians, because they vary
from both the general population and under- according to participants’ sex and the demands
M. CÁRDENAS ET AL. 229

of the individual’s religiosity in relation to issues Barrientos, 2008a). Attitudes Toward Gay Men
such as homosexuality. Therefore, it was pre- subscale (ATG) and Attitudes Toward Lesbians
dicted that people with more traditional gender subscale (ATL) reliability was satisfactory (α =
role beliefs would show more negative attitudes .89 and α = .86, respectively). High scores on
toward gay men and lesbians compared with this scale indicate more negative attitudes to-
people with more flexible gender role beliefs. ward homosexual people.

Gender role beliefs


METHOD Gender role beliefs were measured with
Participants the Gender Ideology Scale (Moya, Navas, &
Gómez, 1991). This scale consists of 12 Likert-
The convenience undergraduate sam- type items with 5 response alternatives rang-
ple consisted of 283 participants—108 men
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ing from 1 (completely in disagreement) to 5


(38.2%) and 175 women (61.8%)—whose ages (completely in agreement). The scale has ac-
ranged between 18 and 47 years old (M = ceptable reliability (α = .80). High scores on
20.05 years, SD = 2.74). The participants were this scale show conformity with traditional gen-
university students from psychology (57%) and der roles and traditional sexism.
engineering (43%). Only heterosexual partici-
pants were included in the study.
Procedure
Students were recruited as volunteers and
Measures did not receive any payment or incentive. The
Sociodemographic measures questionnaire was administered in the class-
Questions included sex (man or woman) room. The survey included a description of the
and sexual orientation (Which of the follow- study objective and possible risks, and partic-
ing categories do you identify with? Response ipants were given permission to finish at any
options: gay, lesbian, bisexual, heterosexual). time without negative outcomes. To be in-
Two questions about religiosity were included: cluded, participants had to sign an “informed
First was a question about whether the sub- consent” letter explaining the study objectives
ject considers himself/herself a religious person, and guaranteeing response anonymity and con-
with response options of yes and no. Second, fidentiality. The ethical criteria of the National
a measure (four-item scale) of the relevance of Commission for Scientific and Technological
religious matters in life was included. The ques- Research (CONICYT) were applied. The study
tion allows us to distinguish religious people was supported by the ethics committee of the
from others, while the measure is used to avoid Catholic University of the North (Chile). Once
dummy (dichotomic) variables in mediational they had agreed to participate in the study, par-
analysis. ticipants completed a paper-and-pencil ques-
tionnaire individually.

Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men


Scale RESULTS
Attitudes toward homosexual people were First, a factorial analysis of the variance
measured with the ATLG Scale (Herek, (General Lineal Model) was made introducing
1984). This scale consists of 20 Likert-type factors such as sex (heterosexual male or fe-
items including 5 alternatives ranging from male) and religiosity (religious vs non-religious)
1 (completely in disagreement) to 5 (com- and attitudes towards gay men and lesbians
pletely in agreement). The adapted version as the dependent variable (two different
for the Chilean sample was used (Cárdenas & analyses).
230 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SEXUAL HEALTH

Results indicate that men hold more nega- A factorial ANOVA (General Lineal Model)
tive attitudes toward homosexuality compared procedure was performed to compare the atti-
with women. The response mean for ATL was tudes of heterosexual male and female students
1.99 (SD = 0.81) among men and 1.60 (SD = toward gay men and lesbians and the attitudes
0.74) among women; for ATG, it was 2.75 of students who declare themselves as religious
(SD = 0.99) among men and 2.10 (SD = 0.80) and those who self-reported as nonreligious, so
among women. Differences were statistically as to detect both main effects and the interac-
significant for both ATL, F(1, 278) = 22.10, p tion between these variables.
< .001, partial eta-squared = .075, and ATG, Men displayed more traditional attitudes to-
F(1, 278) = 43.84, p < .001, partial eta-squared ward gender roles compared with women (M
= .138. = 2.35, SD = 0.69 and M = 1.88, SD =
In addition, students who self-reported as 0.59, respectively), with these differences being
religious expressed more negative attitudes to- statistically significant, F(1, 278) = 41.66, p <
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ward homosexual people compared with those .001, partial eta-squared = .132. In addition,
who did not self-report as religious. In the group students who declared themselves as religious
of students who reported themselves as reli- showed more traditional attitudes toward gen-
gious, the means for ATL and ATG were 1.89 der roles (M = 2.16, SD = 0.65) compared with
(SD = 0.83) and 2.46 (SD = 0.93), respectively. those who declared themselves as nonreligious
For those who did not report themselves as re- (M = 1.95, SD = 0.68). Differences were statis-
ligious, the mean for ATL was 1.60 (SD = 0.72) tically significant, F(1, 278) = 10.21, p < .005,
and for ATG was 2.22 (SD = 0.94). Differences partial eta-squared = .036.
were statistically significant for ATL, F(1, 278) = The interaction between sex and religiosity
12.11, p < .005, partial eta-squared = .042, was not statistically significant, F(1, 278) = 1.12,
and ATG, F(1, 278) = 7.21, p < .05, partial p > .05, partial eta-squared = .004.
eta-squared = .026. A mediational analysis, in which the models
The interaction between the variables of sex in Figures 1 and 2 were estimated via AMOS
and religiosity was not statistically significant for 16.0 (Arbuckle, 2007; Byrne, 2001), was car-
ATL, F(1, 278) = 0.072, p > .05, partial eta- ried out. Both models show fit indexes that
squared = .00, or for ATG, F(1, 278) = 0.091, can be considered excellent: General Fit In-
p > .05, partial eta-squared = .00. dex (GFI) and Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index
The next step was to examine the role (AGFI) greater than .90 and Comparative Fit In-
played by gender role beliefs in explaining atti- dex (CFI) and Normed Fit Index (NFI) greater
tudes toward gay men and lesbians, which, in than .90. The only slightly high value is for Root
turn, would depend on sex and religiosity. Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA),

FIGURE 1. Mediational model of the relationships from sex and religiosity to attitudes toward lesbians through gender role beliefs.
M. CÁRDENAS ET AL. 231

FIGURE 2. Mediational model of the relationships from sex and religiosity to attitudes toward gay men through gender role beliefs.
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for which values lower than .08 would be ex- addition of this direct path improves all the fit
pected. Model 2 fit indexes are very good and indicators of the tested model.
are even a little better than those found for The model in Figure 2 was tested for the ef-
Model 1. fects of sex and religiosity on ATG (dependent
It was predicted that gender role beliefs measure), with gender role beliefs being me-
would mediate the relationships between stu- diators. Standardized coefficients were signifi-
dents’ sex and religiosity and attitudes toward cant, thus showing the existence of significant
gay men and lesbians. The analysis was made relations of both sex and religiosity with gender
separately for the ATL and ATG subscales. The role beliefs. Overall model fit: X 2(N = 258) =
model in Figure 1 was estimated with ATL as the 11.37, CFI = .95, RSMEA = .13, GFI = .98,
dependent measure and without the direct ef- AGFI = .90, NFI = .94. The significance level
fects of participants’ sex and religiosity on ATL. for the path was p < .005.
A standardized path and significance levels are Unlike the previous case, the addition of a
shown in Figure 1. Clearly, there are signifi- direct path between religiosity and ATG does
cant relations of both students’ sex and religios- not improve the model fit indexes, thus sug-
ity with gender role beliefs. Overall model fit: gesting mediation by gender role beliefs. How-
X 2(N = 258) = 10.48, CFI = .94, RSMEA = ever, the opposite of what happened in Model
.12, GFI = .98, AGFI = .90, NFI = .93. The 1 in relation to ATL occurs, because the addi-
significance level for the path was p < .005. tion of a direct path from the sex variable to
The relation between sex and ATL is par- the ATG variable (dotted line in Figure 2) im-
tially mediated by gender role beliefs, because proves all the model fit indexes (though there
the addition of a direct path to the model from are no significant changes in X 2). Values for the
students’ sex to ATL does not produce signifi- overall model fit are: X 2(N = 253) = 4.77, CFI
cant changes in X 2. = .98, RSMEA = .11, GFI = .99, AGFI = .91,
On the other hand, the addition of a di- NFI = .98. The significance level for the path is
rect path from religiosity to ATL (dotted line in p = .029.
Figure 1) produces significant changes in the fit
indicators of the model. The fit of this model
was good: X 2(N = 258) = 2.43, CFI = .99, DISCUSSION
RSMEA = .07, GFI = .99, AGFI = .95, NFI =
.99. The significance level for the path was p > A law has recently been passed in Chile
.05. That is, this model suggests a direct effect of sanctioning discrimination, but research on dis-
religiosity on prejudice toward lesbians, a prej- crimination against gay men and lesbians has
udice not totally mediated by gender roles. The only recently begun in this country.
232 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SEXUAL HEALTH

This study of university students provides ward gay men. In a society like that of Chile,
some support for the notion that religiosity and which is considered to have a strong patriar-
gender role conformity mediate negative atti- chal tendency, men feel considerable pressure
tudes toward gay men and lesbians. Although to assert their own masculinity by condemning
it was carried out with a particular population and keeping a distance from gay men, over and
(undergraduate students), it has allowed an ex- above behavior dictated by traditional gender
ploration of the topic and the formulation of role beliefs.
some hypotheses that will hopefully be applica- Concerning attitudes toward lesbians, gen-
ble to the general population. der role beliefs mediate the influence of stu-
As expected, male students’ attitudes to- dents’ sex; however, religiosity has a direct
ward homosexuals are more negative than are effect on these attitudes. In cultures such as
those of female students. This is the case for Chile’s, the Catholic religion tends to have stan-
both the ATLG total scale analysis and for the dards for women in which a woman’s status
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cases of lesbians (ATL subscale) and gay men is either a good mother and wife or a bad
(ATG subscale) separately. These data suggest woman, sexually available, a whore (“marian-
that heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians ism”). Women are seen as naturally inferior to
differ from their attitudes toward gay men in men and receive a submissive and dependent
overall intensity, but probably not in valence, role in marital life in which they are subjugated
and the difference in intensity probably results by their husband, which sometimes even ex-
from the fact that heterosexual men’s attitudes tends to legal conceptions. Associated with mar-
toward gay men are consistently more hostile ianism are the concepts of virginity, chastity,
than are their attitudes toward lesbians. This honor, and shame (Salyers, 1998), and such a
finding reproduces results obtained in previous culture therefore condemns and harshly pun-
research with similar samples (Kite & Whitley, ishes any deviation from this pattern.
1996). In Chile, where the Catholic Church has
Similar results were found comparing reli- been described as strongly conservative, les-
gious and nonreligious students’ responses; that bians directly question the need to repro-
is, religious people show significantly more neg- duce the traditional gender role model. Other
ative attitudes toward homosexuals, either gay studies (Barrientos & Cárdenas, 2012) show
men or lesbians. This result confirmed that es- that lesbians are more strongly rejected when
pecially conservative Christian religious beliefs the “upward questioning” of the social power
(as found in Chile) constitute a major source of structure becomes evident (they claim equal-
oppression and discrimination for the gay men, ity of rights), being evaluated in this case even
lesbian, and bisexual population (Harris, Cook, more poorly than gay men (whose “down-
& Kashubeck-West, 2008). The hypothesis con- ward questioning” results in their being con-
cerning the interaction between sex and reli- sidered as degraded men because they re-
giosity is not consistent with our findings and nounce their inherent rights within a “machista”
must be rejected. society).
Although the mediation effect of gender The results indicate differences in students’
role beliefs was confirmed, this effect shows attitudes toward gay men and lesbians because,
clearly differentiated patterns for attitudes to- as the mediational analysis shows, the sex vari-
ward gay men and lesbians, respectively, so this able plays a notable role in evaluations of gay
article can contribute to knowledge about sex- men, while the religiosity variable plays a cru-
ual customs and attitudes from a cultural per- cial role in the evaluation of lesbians. In both
spective and show how attitudes and beliefs cases, gender role beliefs play a determining
are shaped by culture. Thus, when attitudes to- role in attitudes toward homosexual people, but
ward gay men are evaluated, gender role beliefs for each case, there is a variable that becomes
mediate the influence of religiosity, but not of autonomous and has a direct influence on at-
sex, the latter directly influencing attitudes to- titudes toward gay men and lesbians. When
M. CÁRDENAS ET AL. 233

evaluating gay men, being a man or a woman self-report measures and in explicit measures
has a direct influence, mediated by gender role of attitudes (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Nis-
expectations. On the other hand, when eval- bett & Wilson, 1977; Petty & Wegener, 1998;
uating lesbians, religiosity becomes fundamen- Rosenberg, 1969; Tedeschi, Schlenker, &
tal, over and above the role expectations for Bonoma, 1971). Due to the limitations of these
women in our society. self-report and explicit measures, further stud-
Although the importance of gender role be- ies should be carried out to adapt indirect (non-
liefs was confirmed in evaluations of homosex- reactive) measures, allowing access to people’s
ual people, future studies will need to clarify the internal states and attitudes but without directly
different pattern resulting when gay men and asking for them. In spite of these limitations,
lesbians are evaluated separately. In the mean- however, the present study contributes useful
time, we could work on the assumption that information on the variables that mediate neg-
what is at risk when evaluating gay men is the ative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians in
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patriarchal hierarchical order and male hege- people who openly express such attitudes. Fu-
mony. Questioning the social structure would ture studies must also verify whether these me-
involve questioning gender roles. What would diating variables also affect attitudes when they
be at risk when evaluating lesbians would be are evaluated through indirect measures.
the belief system, religiosity being particularly Another limitation is the undergraduate
important. convenience sample used, which seriously lim-
Finally, this study evaluates the effects of its the generalizability of findings, even though
the religiosity variable, which was not included research on this issue is in its early stages in
by Nierman et al. (2007). They used a model Chile.
in which the predicting variables were sex and Therefore, the data reported here should
nationality. We state that religiosity is a fun- be viewed as preliminary. As pointed out by
damental variable in the case of Chile. This is Grigoropoulos (2010), research on attitudes to-
supported by the results: That is, gender roles ward sexual minorities has often relied on con-
are connected to religiosity because it includes venience samples recruited on college cam-
implicit and explicit indications about people’s puses, as did this study. However, such samples
sexual behavior. are inherently restricted with regard to variables
The study has several limitations. Future such as age, educational level, and social class,
studies should measure new and subtler forms which are important variables related to sex-
of prejudice, based on societal pressures to ual attitudes (Herek, 2000). Sexual prejudice is
not express such attitudes openly due to so- usually correlated with educational level, be-
cial desirability considerations. For example, a cause previous research has found that neg-
recent study used the Implicit Association Test ative attitudes and beliefs regarding gay men
among Chilean university students (Cárdenas & and lesbians are associated with lower levels
Barrientos, 2008b) to explore attitudes toward of education (Herek, 1994). In this study, the
gay men and lesbians. That study reported that range of this key variable was restricted because
women, who in studies on explicit attitudes ap- of the undergraduate student sample (Herek,
pear less prejudicial, do not differ from men 2000). Therefore, the present findings may not
when their attitudes are evaluated indirectly, generalize to populations with less educational
using an implicit measure. This, according to attainment than the sample used here. Fur-
the authors, reveals how forms of expression thermore, this sample differs from the general
of prejudice have changed in Chile from be- population in other important respects. Com-
ing open and hostile to being more elaborate pared with older adults, for example, college
and subtle, at least for the group of women students are likely to have less crystallized at-
in the study, who showed lower levels of ex- titudes, a less well-formed sense of self, better
plicit prejudice. In addition, the questionnaire cognitive skills, stronger tendencies to comply
analyzed reflects common problems found in with authority, and more unstable peer-group
234 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SEXUAL HEALTH

relationships (Sears, 1986). Moreover, under- Barrientos, J., & Cárdenas, M. (2012). A con-
graduate and graduate students express more firmatory factor analysis of the Spanish
positive attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, language version of the Attitudes Toward Les-
and more years of education provide a route bians and Gay Men (ATLG) measure. Univer-
to the elimination of negative attitudes toward sitas Psychologica, 11(2), 561–568.
gay men and lesbians. In any case, the available Barrientos, J., & Páez, D. (2000). Identi-
evidence also indicates that people with higher dad homo-bisexual en Chile [Home-bisexual
educational levels tend to express lower levels identity in Chile]. In Comisión Nacional del
of blatant prejudice (Hello, Scheepers, & Gijs- SIDA & Agence Nationale de Recherches
berts, 2002; Selznick & Steinberg, 1969; Vogt, sur le SIDA (Eds.), Estudio nacional de com-
1997; Wagner & Zick, 1995). In spite of these portamiento sexual: Primeros resultados [Na-
limitations, the present study contributes use- tional study of sexual behavior: First results]
ful information on the variables that mediate (pp. 123–129). Santiago, Chile: Ministerio de
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negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians Salud.


among undergraduates who openly express Barrientos, J., & Páez, D. (2006). Psy-
such attitudes. Future studies should use data chological variables of sexual satisfac-
from national probability samples, given the low tion in Chile. Journal of Sex and Mari-
potential for generalization of the findings from tal Therapy, 32(5), 351–368. doi:10.1080/
this undergraduate sample. 00926230600834695
This study, then, provides a model of poten- Bozon, M. (2001). Sexuality, gender and
tial causal pathways and offers a preliminary ex- the couple: A socio–historical perspective.
planation of how gender role beliefs connected The Annual Review of Sex Research, 32,
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tudes toward gay men and lesbians in countries Byrne, B. (2001). Structural equation model-
like Chile, where Catholic precepts are still very ing with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications
important for most citizens. and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Cárdenas, M., & Barrientos, J. (2008a).
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