Theoretical Framework

This chapter presents the related literature, theories, and studies from books, journals,

magazines, worldwide web, and unpublished materials arranged logically that provide valuable

understandings and use as a foundation of this study.

Relevant Laws and Theories.

Wave Shaping. Timing circuits networks composed of resistors, capacitors and inductors

called linear network and they do not change the waveform of a sine wave when it is transmitted

through them. On the other hand, when non-sinusoidal waveforms are applied to the input of

such networks the output signal may have very little resembles with the input waveform. The

action of a linear network in producing a waveform at its output different from its input is called

linear wave shaping. The wave shaping is used to perform functions such as holding the

waveform to a particular DC level, generating one wave form the other, limiting the voltage level

of the waveform of some presenting value and suppressing all other voltage levels in excess of

the present level and cutting-off the positive and negative portions of the input waveform.

Ohm’s Law. One volt can push one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance.

The relationship between these three factors is perhaps the most important con cept in

electronics.

The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance. The amount of steady current through

a large number of materials is directly proportional to the potential difference, or voltage, across

the materials. Thus, if the voltage V (in units of volts) between two ends of a wire made from
one of these materials is tripled, the current I (amperes) also triples; and the quotient V/I remains

constant. The quotient V/I for a given piece of material is called its resistance, R, measured in

units named ohms. The resistance of materials for which Ohm’s law is valid does not change

over enormous ranges of voltage and current. Ohm’s law may be expressed mathematically as

V/I = R. That the resistance, or the ratio of voltage to current, for all or part of an electric circuit

at a fixed temperature is generally constant had been established by 1827 as a result of the

investigations of the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm.

Kirchhoff’s Laws. Kirchhoff's current law and voltage law, defined by Gustav

Kirchhoff, describe the relation of values of currents that flow through a junction point and

voltages in an electrical circuit loop, in an electrical circuit.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law. states that the sum of all currents that enter an electrical

circuit junction is 0. The currents enter the junction have positive sign and the currents that leave

the junction have a negative sign. Another way to look at this law is that the sum of currents that

enter a junction is equal to the sum of currents that leave the junction.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. As charge carriers flowing through a circuit pass through a

component, they either gain or lose electrical energy, depending upon the component.

Microscopically, this is due to the fact that work is done on them by the electric forces inside the

circuit components. The negative of the work done by these electric forces on a unit of charge

which passes through a component is called the potential difference, or voltage, across the

component. In most circuits which you'll meet, it turns out that the work done by the electric

forces around any closed loop in the circuit must be zero. This means that the sum of all potential

differences across the component involved in the loop must be zero.

 Semiconductor Theory. Electrons in an isolated atom can only have discrete energy

levels, but when atoms are brought together as in crystalline solids, these degenerate energy

levels will split into many separated levels due to the atomic interaction. Because the levels are

so closely separated, they may be treated as a continuous band of allowed energy states. The two

highest energy bands are the valence band and the conduction band. These bands are separated

by a region which designates energies that the electrons in the solid cannot possess. This region

is called the forbidden gap, or bandgap. This is the energy difference between the maximum

valence band energy and the minimum conduction band energy.

In semiconductors, the gap is small enough that it can be bridged by some sort of

excitation - perhaps from the Sun in the case of photovoltaic cells. The gap is essentially some

size "in-between" that of a conductor or insulator. In this model, a finite number of electrons are

able to reach the conduction band and conduct small amounts of electricity. The excitation of this

electron also allows additional conduction processes to occur as a result of the electron hole left

behind. An electron from an atom close by can occupy this space, creating a chain reaction of

holes and electron movement that creates current. A small amount of doping material can

drastically increase the conductivity of this material.

Amplitude Modulation Principles. Modulation can also be defined as the process of

modifying characteristic of one signal accordance with some characteristic of another signal. In

most cases, the information signal is normally used to modify a higher-frequency signal known

as the carrier. In AM, the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine wave. In

other words, the instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating signal. (Frenzel, Louis 1995,

Communication Electronics, p. 19)

Frequency Modulation Principles. As it turns out, varying the phase shift of a carrier

produces FM where the carrier amplitude remains constant, while the carrier frequency is

changed by the modulating signal. As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier

frequency will shift in proportion. As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier

frequency increases. If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency

decreases. (Frenzel, Louis 1995, Communication Electronics, p. 69)

Oscilloscope and Theory. The primary purpose of an oscilloscope is to plot in real time

an electric signal. Before the advent of cheap solid state electronics, the main component of an

oscilloscope was a Cathode Ray Tube or CRT. You are already familiar with a CRT because it is

what creates the image on an ordinary TV set. Since solid state electronics are affordable now,

we are able to use digital oscilloscopes with Liquid Crystal Displays or LCDs.

The oscilloscope's primary function is to provide a graph of a signal's voltage over time.

This is useful for measuring such things as clock frequencies, duty cycles of pulse-width-

modulated signals, propagation delay, or signal rise and fall times. It can also alert you to the

presence of glitches in your logic or bouncing switches.

Understanding some concepts about waves and how to measure them on an oscilloscope

is important. The y-axis represents the voltage and the x-axis is time. The period, T, of the signal

is given by the product of the horizontal sweep speed, s.s, and the distance x, that is, T = (s.s)(x).

The voltage at any point in time can be found by taking the product of the vertical deflection, y,

and the amplification in volts/div, a. You thus obtain V = ay and δV = aδy + yδa. The accuracy
of the vertical deflection on the oscilloscope is +3%, and the horizontal sweep is +4%; for

instance: δ s.s = (.04)(s.s). To find the frequency of a sinusoidal signal, you can use the relation

f = 1/T. The corresponding uncertainty in the frequency is given by |δf| = |δT| / T where δT =

(s.s.)(δx) + (δs.s.)(x).

Related Literature

LJ CREATE. Established in 1979 by Larry Rowe, who is successful in a local

competition for businesses and wins a factory for one year. LJ Create provides award-winning,

world-class active learning solutions for technical education for over 35 years. They create

complete systems combining digital cloud content and tailor-made hardware kits that deliver

innovative, inspiring learning in science, technology and engineering.

From basic electronics through complex systems, the electronics strand of their

engineering program gives students the skills and confidence to build and study circuits in detail.

Comprehensive study materials provide a blended mix of theory, guided practical activities, and

assessments to allow students to gain a deep understanding of this area of engineering.

A Smart Lab from LJ Create combines innovative hardware with an online LMS and

lesson libraries. In this laboratory, students learn the necessary cognitive and practical skills for

many technician occupations involving electrical or electronic systems.

The typical Electronics Lab configuration includes resources such as Electronics Study

Trainer, which provides the basis for a practical resource that introduces students to core

electronics and electronic systems through a wide range of practical activities. The Study Trainer

allows the range of experiment cards to be connected for the practical study of electronics. These
boards can also be used in conjunction with our optional cloud based software, which offers

online practical electronics tasks as well as interactive theory presentations, investigations, and

assessments, which link directly to the practical activities carried out using this resource. The

Study Trainer includes input, process, and output devices required for the various circuit

investigations. Faults can also be inserted into the experiment cards via the Motherboard,

enabling students to investigate electronic faultfinding techniques. Other resources are included

such as Circuit Card Set, Electronic Circuits Consumable Pack, Instrumentation Pack, Circuit

Soldering Station and Tools.

The relevance of this in the current study is it provides electronic engineering programs

that is composed of hands-on tasks which will engage the students in learning wide range of

electronic subjects, including DC and AC circuits, electrical networks, and semiconductors. The

program also includes hands-on practice of soldering and desoldering skills.

Digital Control of Power Electronics. A training workshop that aims to offer electronic

design services which provide you with access to the best digital controlled power electronic

systems available. The course was presented and led by Dr. Hamish Laird, Principal Engineer at

ELMG Digital Power. An extremely well-regarded teacher, engineer, researcher and public

speaker. Hamish works in developing digitally controlled power converters and controllers for

converters. He is the author of seventeen academic papers on digital power electronics and

power quality and has taught previous digital power courses at Camarillo. Over the four-day

course, split into morning and afternoon sessions, participants will be provided with targeted

training on digital power electronics control covering the detail of both digital control and power

electronics and how they go together. They will gain the ability to close a digital power
converter feedback loop in a stable fashion by following repeatable easily understood steps, as

well as techniques to understand what the effect digital control’s limited bandwidth, processing

power, number of bits and dynamic range have in digital power electronic control. Engineers

who attend the course will gain in-depth knowledge of the interaction of power electronics and

digital control; this includes sampling and aliasing in the context of fixed and variable frequency

switching power converters. There will be take away methods and steps to solve design issues

such as one sample noise, precision limits in filters and controllers, non-linearity, quantization

and other digital effects.

The ELMG deals with the fundamentals of digital power electronics which is a

significant matter in understanding the solid theory of the subject. By applying the knowledge in

a practical way, the course will also help the trainees to operate in actual operations. Hence,

understanding the techniques and concepts in digital control and power electronics.

Training Services Association. TSA specializes in hands-on training with a wide variety

of workshops including electrical workshop. Bill Cogley is the Founder and Director of Training

Services Association, which he developed in 1979. The workshop focuses on how to perform the

most common types of electrical repairs that are encountered in Building Maintenance. It also

addresses how to understand the electrical circuits in a building, and how to truly be safe while

working on these circuits. It is designed to provide a safe and controlled environment for

students to practice in, while gaining new skills and knowledge. The hands-on experience

offered in this workshop will help participants develop new skills and build confidence so that

they can return to their agencies/facilities ready to begin performing electrical repairs and

trouble-shooting electrical power outages. Any necessary tools will be provided for use during
the workshop, and a detailed workbook will be included for each student to take with him or her

and use later as an on-the-job reference.

The hands-on workshop of TSA is related to the current study in terms of fundamental

concepts of electricity. The workshop teaches the participants on how to troubleshoot and service

different electrical systems that will provide necessary skills for handling practical operations.

Alexan School of Technology. Founded by the people behind Alexan, one of the

Philippines' pioneering and leading electronics retail leaders. Alexan School of Technology was

established in 2005 to assist the industry in teaching engineers and technicians through excellent

training resources and intensive hands-on experiences during the entire learning process. The

school is committed to provide continued efforts and extensive research to seek and develop

better areas of learning that will equip students with in-depth educational background as well as

timely trends and innovations in their respective fields of study.

Participants will be learning theories through hands-on application aided with today’s

industries’ commonly used test and measuring instruments. Students will individually perform

the experiments. This training includes basic electricity and electronics topics needed to

understand electronics concepts. Topics include electron theory, electrical and electronic

components, its symbols and its functions, fundamentals of ohm’s law, series circuits, parallel

circuits, component identification and testing, passive and active devices, power supply,

soldering and the use of meters and oscilloscope.

This is related to the current study because it teaches the participants to apply the theories

and principles on actual experiments. The training will provide in-depth knowledge in

electronics that will help the participants to comprehend the subject clearly.
 MFI Polytechnic Institute Inc. An education service provider of career-oriented and

technology-related programs for more than 40 years. Designed to support the career goals of

individuals at every stage of their lives, our programs are focused on technologies, which are

essential building blocks of future innovation in automation and controls, automotive,

electronics, computer and information technology, electrical, refrigeration, and metal trades.

From being an investment holding company in 1973, MFI evolved into its true purpose as

a fully operating educational institution that provides technical skills education and training to

Filipinos, the industry, and to those in need. MFI implements its purpose through its current

programs: Senior High School, Bachelor’s Degree, Short Courses, Customized Training and

Skills Assessment Services.

MFI offers electrical technology courses in practical electronics which deals with the

fundamental concepts of electricity and electronic components. It also includes topics on

essential instruments used in electronic measurements and troubleshooting. Laboratory activities

are provided to verify and practice learned principles. Upon completion of the course, the

participants must be able to: 1. Identify electronic symbol, analyze schematic diagram and

perform wiring and connecting circuit. 2. Use of test and instruments such as Volt-Ohm-

Milliammeter (VOM) for measuring voltage, electric current, resistance 3. Identify and test

electronic components according to its function and operation for both passive and active

devices. 4. Use oscilloscope and signal generator for troubleshooting and signal analysis. 5.

Perform soldering and de-soldering technique for Through-Hole Technology and Surface-Mount

Technology 6. Perform electronics safety procedures and laboratory management.

 This is related to the current study because the course also provides laboratory activities

to practice the students in learning the principles of practical electronics which will help the

participants perform hands-on activities.

Relevant Studies

Integrated Electrical Wiring Installation Panel Trainer. According to this research

conducted by Dela Cruz (2012), due to the extreme problems placed on electrical students and

trainees nowadays, there is a need to update training systems. Giving students and trainees the

ability to work on their own and in professional manner is one of the key aims of any training.

The new aspects involved in electrical career and the change in orientation gives more weight to

the practical side of training. Combining new teaching media and experiment systems also

played important role. Self-guided learning via project work-based on authentic practice gives

the best foundation for teaching practical skills that will stay with students throughout their

careers.

According to Mendoza (2011), shortage of instructional materials, device and equipment

affects quality of education in technology. Many schools, colleges and universities offering

technology courses face problems like lack of tools, equipment and other facilities required in

the teaching-learning process. As such, it is difficult to both the students and the instructors to

develop the desired attitude and skills.

The relationship of this research to the current study is the development of a trainer that

will also provide hands-on activities for the students to accelerate the learning assimilation of

knowledge and skills.

 Relationship Between Learning in The Engineering Laboratory and Student

Evaluations. This research conducted by Nikolic, Suesse, Goldfinch, and McCarthy (2015), is

built upon previous research that developed an instrument to measure the learning objectives of

the laboratory across the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains with research that

investigated student evaluations of sessional laboratory demonstrators, laboratory experiments

and facilities. This research highlighted the importance of laboratory work in engineering

education, and the need to improve our understanding of how learning occurs in the laboratory.

The study found that the student evaluation of the laboratory experiments was influenced

by the perceived learning gain in both the cognitive (analytical skills only) and psychomotor

domains. It also showed the relationship and importance of developing laboratory experiments

and assessments to enhance learning.

The relevance of this research to the current study is, it shows that laboratory experiments

can improve the knowledge of the students, especially those involving actual operations.

Affordable Experiential Learning System for Electric Circuits Laboratory.

According to the study conducted by Greco, Bullock, and Reasoner (2016), the electric circuits

laboratory provides the foundation for design and analysis of all electronic circuits. Students

must become proficient with the standard circuits and electronic laboratory measurement

procedures and techniques in order to be successful in their subsequent courses. Studies have

shown that students who worked individually on lab assignments achieved a higher level of

proficiency with the laboratory instrumentation than students who worked in teams of two or

more. An enhancement to a low cost self-contained portable laboratory system has been
developed which provides a user-friendly interface allowing students to easily analyze circuits

both within and outside the laboratory.

The instructional engineering laboratories provide students with fundamental experiential

knowledge, skills and techniques to analyze electrical systems. In an introductory electric circuits

laboratory, students learn how to utilize laboratory equipment to make current, voltage and

power measurements in both the time and frequency domains. It is essential for every student to

master these techniques which they will then utilize and expand upon in subsequent courses.

Portable, self-contained laboratory systems have been developed for students to individually

engage in lab assignments either within or outside of a laboratory facility5-11. An affordable and

student-friendly laboratory trainer, based on an enhancement to a readily available system10,

was developed for use in courses at our institution.

The relevance of this study to the research is it justifies that the laboratory experiments

involving actual operations is the foundation of the students for enhancing their skills and

knowledge to become proficient in their respective courses.

Hands-on Learning of Commercial Electrical Wiring Practices for Electrical

Engineering Students Through Two-University Cooperative Effort. According to a study

conducted by Hess, Peterson, Elmore, and Mundy (2013), many electrical engineering students

go through their entire program of study without encountering the basic practices required by the

National Electrical Code 1 & 2. When such topics are taught, they lend themselves strongly to

learning by doing; it is difficult to understand without a dominant hands-on component in the

instruction. Hardware for training is available through vendors of education products, but the

products and the training can be quite expensive. The paper will describe such an alternative
developed through cooperation between two universities, the United States Air Force Academy

and the University of Idaho.

The alternative consists of two types of trainer units: student units, intended for hands-on

wiring practice and discovery, and a comprehensive “instructor” unit consisting of all of the

elements of the student units, designed for demonstration and reference.

Students in Electrical Engineering often lack the opportunity to study even the

elementary practical aspects of the National Electrical Code. These are best learned in a hands-

on environment. Incumbent commercial hardware for teaching this exists, but it can be quite

expensive. In this paper, a relatively inexpensive ($150 a set) alternative is presented. It consists

of four student units, which students wire themselves in the laboratory, and an instructor unit,

used for demonstration and examples. Successful teaching with these units included a lesson or

two on the proper wiring techniques and circuits and a lesson on safety. In the laboratory, after a

final lesson on safety, students learned by doing. Observations and feedback at one university led

to improvements or, at least, mitigation of difficulties. To use the units, safety methods were

specially developed to maintain control at all times and to enforce safe practices. Innovative

hardware and procedures for testing, storage, and display was also invented. Assessments

seemed to indicate a significant improvement in understanding, in hands-on skills in wiring

circuitry, and in enthusiasm at both universities.

The relevance of this to the current study is the development of a hands-on training

hardware for electrical engineering students. The study shows the effects of teaching the students

in hands-on environment will lead to successful outcome especially in electrical wiring practices.
 Effectiveness of Simulation versus Hands-on Labs: A Case Study for Teaching an

Electronics Course. According to a study conducted by Taher and Khan (2015), engineering is

the art of applying scientific and mathematical principles, experience, judgment, and common

sense to make things that benefit people.3It is the process of producing a technical product or

system to meet a specific need in a society.

Engineering is based on practice gained in labs during the undergraduate education;

however, the cost of building undergraduate labs in an engineering program may be a few orders

of magnitude higher than turning a regular PC into a virtual lab with the addition of a card or

two. Consequently, engineering faculties are constantly faced with the dilemma of establishing a

balance between virtual and real labs to address cost problems while graduating sophisticated

engineers with enough practice. One advantage of virtual experimentation and computer

simulation is that engineers are better equipped to understand and use mathematical expressions

as well as graphics effectively.

In spite of the advantages of simulations, hands-on labs remain tremendously important

in the technology curriculum, which is based on Dewey’s experiential learning theory. The basic

premise of this theory is that students learn as a result of doing or experiencing things in the

world, and learning occurs when mental activity is suffused with physical activity.5 The

professional success of a technologist is directly related to her/his ability to transfer knowledge

gained in the academic environment to real-world situations. Acquisition of manipulative skills

is only possible through the use of real instruments and real experimental data. Therefore, to

enhance student learning, the technology curriculum must integrate the effective characteristics

of both computer simulations and hands-on lab activities.

 The study used a sample consisting of the 24 freshman enrolled in an 8-week technical

course at a leading private university. Two groups were used; one was taught using simulation

and hands-on instructional strategy and the other was exposed to hands-on instruction only. The

findings reveal that simulation by itself is not very effective in promoting student learning.

However, simulation becomes effective in promoting student learning when used in conjunction

with hands-on approach i.e. hybrid or combinational instructional strategy.

The study is related to the current study because it shows that simulation-based teaching

labs should be followed by hands-on lab experiment to be effective. Thus, it proves that hands-

on lab experiment is really an effective approach in promoting student learning.