Summary Prelims - Formation Evaluation Prospect
The upper and lower mantle. Seismic data
Geology - the study of the Earth, including the
materials that it is made of, the physical and chemical
changes that occur on its surface and in its interior,
and the history of the planet and its life forms.
COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
Crust
P waves travel faster in oceanic crust (7 km/s)
than in continental crust (6 km/s)— these speeds are
about the same as those through basalt/gabbro and
granite/gneiss, respectively. This suggests that
oceanic crust is mostly basaltic and that continental
crust is mostly sialic, meaning the rocks, such as
granite, contain high amounts of aluminum and silica.
Oceanic crustal rocks, such as gabbros and basalts,
are high in magnesium and silica (sometimes
called sima).
The seismic data also show that the thickness of
the continental crust ranges from 30 to 50 kilometers
(18−30 miles) and that of the oceanic crust from
about 5 to 8 kilometers (3−5 miles). Continental crust
is thickest under mountain ranges, where it bulges
downward into the mantle, forming a mountain
root. Geophysical data also show that continental
crust would “float” on oceanic crust because
continental crust is less dense (continental crust, 2.7
g/cm 3; oceanic crust, 3.0 g/cm 3).
Mohorovicic Discontinuity
The Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho, the first
major boundary of the earth's interior, separates the
crust from the underlying mantle. It is named for
Yugoslavian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic, who
in 1909 presented the first evidence for the layered
internal structure of the earth. The Moho occurs at a
depth that ranges from 5 to 50 kilometers (3−30 miles)
from the surface.
Mantle
suggest that most of the mantle is composed of solid
rock. P waves travel at an average of about 8
kilometers per second through the mantle,
suggesting it is composed of ultramafic rocks such as
peridotite. The behavior of P waves indicates the
mantle can be divided into two parts: the upper and
lower mantle. The upper mantle begins at a depth of
from 5 to 50 kilometers (3−30 miles) and extends to a
depth of approximately 670 kilometers (400 miles)
from the surface; the lower mantle extends from a
depth of about 670 kilometers (400 miles) to about
2,900 kilometers (1,740 miles).
Lithosphere - Crust + Upper Mantle; This brittle
exterior shell of the earth ranges in thickness from
about 75 kilometers beneath oceans to about 175
kilometers beneath continental masses (45−105
miles). The maximum depth of the lithosphere from
the surface is thought to be no more than 200
kilometers (120 miles).
Athenosphere - also called the low‐ velocity zone, is
about 200 kilometers (120 miles) thick. The rocks in
the asthenosphere are thought to be partially melted
and hotter and more plastic than those in the
lithosphere. If this is the case, the asthenosphere
could be the weaker surface on which the crustal
plates move and a possible source for the generation
of magma.
Core
Made up of:
Outer Core - The outer core, about 2,200 km
(1,367 miles) thick, is mostly composed of liquid iron
and nickel. The NiFe alloy of the outer core is very
hot, between 4,500° and 5,500°(8,132° and 9,932°
F). The liquid metal of the outer core has very
low viscosity, meaning it is easily deformed
and malleable. It is the site of violent convection.
The churning metal of the outer core creates and
sustains Earth’s magnetic field. The hottest part of
the core is actually the Bullen discontinuity, where
temperatures reach 6,000°C (10,800°F)—as hot as
the surface of the sun.
Inner Core - The inner core is a hot, dense ball of
(mostly) iron. It has a radius of about 1,220
kilometers (758 miles). Temperature in the inner core
is about 5,200° Celsius (9,392°F). The pressure is
nearly 3.6 million atmosphere (atm). The
temperature of the inner core is far above the melting
point of iron. However, unlike the outer core, the
inner core is not liquid or even molten. The inner
core’s intense pressure—the entire rest of the planet
and its atmosphere—prevents the iron from melting.
The pressure and density are simply too great for the
iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Because of this are planes of weak bonds in the crystal. Some
unusual set of circumstances, some geophysicists minerals, such as mica and graphite, have one set of
prefer to interpret the inner core not as a solid, but as parallel cleavage planes
a plasma behaving as a solid.

Streak - the color of a fine powder of a mineral

Plate Tectonics
Luster - the manner in which a mineral reflects light
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer
shell is divided into several plates that glide over the
mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The
plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared
to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called the
lithosphere, which is 100 km (60 miles) thick.
Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate
tectonics is the modern version of continental drift, a
theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in
1912. There are nine major plates, according
to World Atlas. These plates are named after the
landforms found on them. The nine major plates are
North American, Pacific, Eurasian, African,
Indo-Australian, Australian, Indian, South American
and Antarctic. The largest plate is the Pacific Plate at
39,768,522 square miles (103,000,000 square
kilometers). Most of it is located under the ocean. It is
moving northwest at a speed of around 2.75 inches
(7 cm) per year.

Plate Boundaries - the zones where tectonic plates

meet and interact. Igneous Rocks - they form from the cooling of
magma deep inside the earth. They often have
large crystals (you can see then with the naked
Divergent Boundary - two plates move apart, or eye); 20% of all rocks
separate
Metamorphic Rocks - they are formed through the
change (metamorphosis) of igneous and
Covergent Boundary - two plates move toward each sedimentary rocks. They can form both
other underground and at the surface; 14% of all rocks

Sedimentary Rocks - they are formed through the

Transform Bondary - they slide horizontally past each
other
Subduction Zone - a long, narrow belt where a
lithospheric plate is sinking into the mantle
Mineral - naturally occurring inorganic solid with a
characteristic chemical composition and a crystalline
structure.
solidification of sediment. They can be based off
of organic remains (such as limestone), or just
form from the cementing of other rocks; 66% of all
rocks
Petrophysics - the study of rock properties and
their interactions with fluids (gases, liquid
hydrocarbons, and aqueous solutions).

Fracture - pattern in which a mineral breaks other

than along planes of cleavage. Many minerals
fracture into characteristic shapes. Conchoidal
fracture creates smooth, curved surfaces.

Hardness - the resistance of a mineral to scratching

Cleavage - Cleavage is the tendency of some

minerals to break along flat surfaces. The surfaces