SOIL MECHANICS 1

Chapter 2

CHAPTER TWO

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

2.1. INTRODUCTION:

- Physical properties are those properties of soils, which serve as convenient criteria for distinguishing
different soil types. These are the properties of that have a direct bearing on the behavior of soil masses.

The physical properties are properties like, color, textures, structures, specific gravity, relative density, consistency,
consistency limits, porosity, Bulk density, void ratio etc.

The mechanical properties of soils are properties such as compressibility consolidation particle size etc.

Index properties: These are the properties of soil, which indicates the engineering properties of soils such as
permeability, compressibility and shear strength. The testes, which are performed for determination of index
properties, are called classification tests. The main index properties for coarse grained soils are particle size and
relative density. The index properties for fine-grained soils are consistency limits and consistency of the soils.

Particles size: The size of the particles that constitute soils may vary from boulders to very fine grain fractions.
These different soil aggregates can be separated in to different fraction. The process of separating the soils
aggregates into different fractions is called mechanical analysis.

Relative density (Dr)

This is the most important index property of cohesion less soils. It is the index property showing the looseness or
denseness of sandy soil. It is expressed numerically as

e0  e
Dr  x100
e0  emin
Where e0 = void ratio of the soil in its loosest stable state
emin = void ratio (min) in the densest state
e = void ratio in the natural state.

The relative density of a soil gives a more clear idea of the denseness or looseness of the soil void ratio and
porosity. It indicates how it would behave under loadings. The following table shows the denseness of soils based
on the relative density.

Denseness Very Loose Medium Dense Very

loose dense dense
Dr % < 15 15 -35 35 -65 65 -85 85 -100

Consistency of fine-grained soils

Consistency is the physical state in which the soil exists. It is used to denote the degree of firmness of a soil. It is
described as soft, medium, stiff or hard.

AASTU 1
 SOIL MECHANICS 2
Chapter 2

Consistency Characteristics of soil

Very soft Fist can be pressed into soil

Soft Thumb can be pressed into soil
Medium Thumb can be pressed with pressure
Stiff Thumb can be pressed with great difficulty
Very stiff the soil can be readily indicated with thumbnail
Hard The soil can be indented with difficulty by thumb nail

Consistency Limits

It was observed that fine-grained soils can exists in four states. These are the liquid, plastic, semi- solid and solid
state depending on the water contents of the soil. The water contents at which the soil changes from one state to the
other state are called consistency limits or Atterberg's Limits.

Volume of
Soil

Plastic state Liquid state

Semi-Solid
Solid state

SL PL LL
Water Content

Fig Different states of soil

The soil containing large amount of water is in a liquid state. It can flow like liquids. As the water content of the soil
decreases, the soil ceases to behave as a liquid. The water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to
the plastic state is called liquid limit (LL). When the water content is decreased further, the soils stops behaving as a
plastic. It then cracks and cannot be molded in any shape. The water content at which the soil changes from the
plastic state to semi -solid state is known as plastic limit (PL). With further decrease in water content, the volume of
the soil decreases up to some limit of then no appreciable change in volume will be observed. Then the soil is said
to have reached the solid state. The water content at which the soil changes from the semi -solid state to the solid
state is known as shrinkage limit (SL).

Void Ratio (e): is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

Vv
i.e. e =
Vs

It is expressed as decimal.

Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil.

Vv
i.e n = x 100
Vt

it is expressed as %. The value of the porosity cannot be more than 100 %. Porosity shows the volume percentage of
voids out of total volume

AASTU 2
SOIL MECHANICS 3
Chapter 2

Relationship b/n void ratio and porosity

Vv 1 Vt Vv  Vs Vv Vs e 1
n        1  1/ e 
Vt n Vv Vv Vv Vv e

1 1 e e
   n =
n e 1 e

 e = n (1+e) = n +en
n
 n = e- en  n = e (1-n)  e
(1  n)

Water Content (W) : is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids.

Ww
i.e w = x 100
Ws
It is expressed as percentage

Generally fine- grained soils such as clays have more water content that that of coarse -grained soils such as sands.

Bulk density ( b): - is defined as the ratio of the total mass of soil to the total volume of soil mass

Mt
i.e b =
Vt
It is also known as wet bulk density. Expressed in kg/m3

Dry density ( d) : is the mass of solids per unit total volume of soil.

Ms
i.e d =
Vt

The larger the value of the dry density the more dense in the soil & indicates compact condition.

Saturated mass density ( sat) : This is the bulk density of the soil in fully saturated condition.

M sat
i.e sat =
Vt

Generally sat > Pb >d

Density of solids ( s) is the ratio of the mass of solids to the volume of solids

i.e s = Ms/Vs. It is also called actual specific gravity.

Submerged density ( SUb): - is the submerged mass of soil per unit total volume.

Sub = Sat - W

Degree of saturation (S): is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids

AASTU 3
SOIL MECHANICS 4
Chapter 2

Vw
i.e S = x 100
Vv
It is expressed as percentage. The degree of saturation will be zero for absolutely dry soil and 100 % for fully
saturated soil mass.

Specific gravity of solids (Gs)

- The specific gravity of solids is the ratio of mass of a given volume of solids to the mass of an equal
volume of water.
S
Thus, G = where S = mass density of solids
W
W = mass density of water

Coarse - grained soils generally have smaller specific gravity than fine - grained soils.

Specific gravity for some soils

Soil type Value of Gs

Gravel 2.65 - 2.68
Sand 2.65 -2.68
Silty sands 2.66 - 2.70
Silt 2.66 - 2.70
Inorganic clays 2.68 - 2.80
Organic soils Below 2.00 (variable)

2.2. WEIGHT –VOLUME RELATIONSHIP:

The soil consists of two parts naming solid and voids. Solid part contains solid particles while voids consist of water
or air completely, when it is saturated or dry. When a soil mass is not fully saturated voids consist of both air and
water.
Let’s take a soil skeleton of volume V and cross-sectional area as unity.

Fig. General Three Phase Diagram

AASTU 4
SOIL MECHANICS 5
Chapter 2

Fig Three phase diagram in terms of void ratio, e

For convenience the volume of solids is assumed to be unity

Vv e
- Then porosity, n = 
Vt 1 e

Vw ew
- Degree of saturation, S =   Vw  S .e
Vv e

Thus Va = Vt - Vw = e - Se = e (1-S)

Mt Ms  Mw G w .Vs   w .Vw G. w   w .Se

b    
Vt 1 e 1 e 1 e

W (G  Se)
 b 
1 e

Ms G. w
e  
Vt 1 e

For fully saturated soil mass, the degree of saturation is 100 %  S  1

W (G  Se)  (G  e)
From  b    Sat  W
1 e 1 e

W (G  e)
Submerged density,  Sub   Sat  W   W
1 e

  Sub 
 G  1 W
1 e
The above equations can be written in terms of weight units.

Weight g .xmass
  Unit weight    g    g
Volume Volume

Wt  (G  Se)
 Bulk unit weight,  b   W
Vt 1 e

weight of solids Ws G. W

Dry unit weight =  U   
Total volume Vt 1 e

WSat  (G  e)
Saturated unit weight,  Sat   W
Vt 1 e

AASTU 5
SOIL MECHANICS 6
Chapter 2

(G  1) W
Submerged unit weight =  Sat   W 
1 e

Fig, Three phase diagram in terms of porosity,n .

Assume the total volume of the soil as unit.

Vv Vv
Thus, porosity =   Vv  n  Vv
Vt 1

Volume of solids = Vt - Vv = (1-n)

Vv n
- Void ratio, e = 
Vs 1  n

Mt Ms  Mw GW .Vs  W Vw
Wet bulk density, b   
Vt Vt Vt

GW (1  n)  W Sn
1

 b   G (1  n)  Sn W

Ms
Dry bulk density,  d   GW (1  n)
Vt

M Sat GW (1  n)  nW

Saturated mass density  Sat  
Vt 1

  Sat   G (1  n)  n W

Submerged mass density,  Sub   Sat  W   G (1  n)  n W  W

= W  G (1  n)  n  1  W  G (1  n)  ( n  1)

The above relationships can also be written in weight units substituting unit weight () in place of mass density ( 
)

The relationship b/n the void ratio and the water content can be derived from the three phase diagram expressed in
terms of void ratio, e.
wG
e 
S

AASTU 6
SOIL MECHANICS 7
Chapter 2

Mass of water Se  w Se
By definition water content, w =   Or,
Mass of solids GW G

Mass density in terms of water content:

We derived that b 
 G  Se W , substituting Se = WG and e =
wG
1 e S

 b   G  wG  GW (1  w)
b  or  b       (i )
1  ( wG / s 1  ( wG / s )

GW (1  w)
For saturated soil, S = 1.0   Sat       (ii )
1  wG
W .G W G
Dry mass density,  d   d         (iii )
1 e 1  ( wG / s )

From (i) and (iii), we have

 d  b / 1  w

( w  1) Gw (G  1) W
 Sub   Sat  W   W 
1  wG 1  wG

The above relationships can also be written in equivalent weight units by substituting ( ) in the place of (  )

(1  w) Gw
Example  b  and so on.
1  ( wG / s )

The following relationships are very important

n
1. e 
n 1
e
2. n 
1 e
(G  Se) w
3. b 
1 e
Gw
4. d 
1 e
(G  e) w
5.  Sat 
1 e
AASTU 7
SOIL MECHANICS 8
Chapter 2

(G  1) w
6.  Sub 
1 e
wG
7. e 
S
d
8.  d 
1 w

Examples

(1) 2 kg of wet soil has a volume of 1.10 liters. The soil was put in an over and dried to a constant mass of
1.78 kg. Determine the water content density, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, bulk density &
saturated density.
Solution:-
a) Mass of water = Mt - Ms = 2kg - 1.78 kg = 0.22 kg

Mass of water 0.22 kg

Thus water content, w = x100  x100  12.40 %
Mass of solids 1.78 kg

Ms 1.78 kg
b) Dry density,  d   1618.18 kg / m3
Vt 0.0011 m3
Vv Ms Ms 1.78 kg
c) Void ratio, e = , Vs     0.000672 m3
Vs S wG 1000 x 2.65

Vv = Vt - Vs = 1.1 x 10-3 - 0.000672 = 0.000428 m3

Vv 0.000428 m 3
e   0.64
Vs 0.000672 m 3

Vv 0.000428 m3
d) Porosity, n = x100  x100  38.91%
Vt 1.10 x10  3

e 0.64
or n =   39 %  38.91%
1  e 1  0.64

Vw 0.22 kg
e) Degree of saturation, S = , volume of water 
Vv 1000
0.00022 m3

0.00022
 S  x100  51.40 %
0.000428
Mt 2 kg
Wet bulk density,  b 
3
f)  3
 1818.18 kg / m
Vt 1.1 x10

AASTU 8
SOIL MECHANICS 9
Chapter 2

M Sat
g)  Sat  , Msat  Ms  Mw  w x Va
Vt
Va = Vv - Vw = 0.000428 m3 - 0.00022 m3
= 0.000208 m3

= Msat = 1.78 kg + 0.22 kg + (0.000208) x 100 = 2.208 kg

2.208 kg
 
3
Sat   2007.27 kg / m
1.1 x10 2 m 3

(2) The mass of a soil in a mould is 1.90 kg. The water content of the soil is 15 %. Volume of the mould =
0.95 liters. Determine the dry density, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation.
Solution,
Mt 1.90 kg
Bulk density,  b    2000 kg / m3
Vt 0.95 x10  3

b 2000 2000
We know that d     1739.13 kg / m3
1  w 1  0.15 1.15

Gw Gw 2.67 x1000

We also know that  d   1 e    1.535
1 e d 1739.13

 e = 1.535 –1 = 0.535

wG 0.15 x 2.67
 S    74.86 %
e 0.535

(3) A 20.88 N wet soil has a volume of 1.05 liters. The soil was put in a n over and dried to a constant weight
of 18.11n. Determine the, water content dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, bulk
unit weight & saturated unit weight.

Solution Assume G = 2.68

(1) Weight of water = 20.86 N – 18.11 N = 2.77N

Ww 2.77 N
Water content, w =  x100  15.29 %
Ws 18.11 N

ws 18.11 N 17.25 KN
(2)  d   3 3
 17247.62 N / m3 
Vt 1.05 x10 m m3

G w 6.68 x9810
(3)  d   17247.62   1  e  1.524
1 e 1 e
 e  0.524

e 0.524
(4) Porosity, n =  x100  34.38 %
1 e 1  0.524
Wt 20.88 N
(5)  b    19885.71 N/m3 =19.885 KN/m3
Vt 1.05 x10  3 m3

AASTU 9
SOIL MECHANICS 10
Chapter 2

 w (G  Se) 9810 ( 2.68  S x0.524)

but b   19885.71 
1 e 1  0.524

(2.680  5245) 9.81

 19885.71 
1.524

26290.80 + 5140.445 = 30305.82

4015.02
 5140.44 S  4015.02  S   0.78  78 %
5140.02

(6) Bulk unit weight,  b = 19885.71 N/m3 = 19.885 KN/m3

(G  e) w ( 2.68 0.524) x9810
(7)  Sat   = 20624.17 N/m3
1 e 1  0.524
= 20.624 KN/m3

  Sat   b   d
 = 20.824 KN/m3 ? 19.885 KN/m3 > 17.25 KN/m3

Determination of water content (w)

The water content or moisture content of the soil is the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of the solids.

The quantity of the soil to be taken for water content determination depends on the soil type and the particle size.

- For soils having particles size less than 2 mm greater than 0.075 mm a sample of 100 to 200 g is sufficient,
where as for soils (clayey soils) having a particle size less than 2mm, greater than 0.075 mm a sample of
100 to 200 g is sufficient, where as for soils (clayey soils) having a particle size less than 0.075mm, the
soil sample is usually 10 to 20g.

Procedure

1) Take a container with a lid, clean the container. Dry it and weigh it. Then determine its mass putting on the
balance with its lid. Its mass is designated as (Mc)
2) Place the wet sample of soil in the container and close it with lid. Determine the mass of the container and
soil together (Msc)

AASTU 10
SOIL MECHANICS 11
Chapter 2

3) Remove the lid and place it under the container

Then place the container with wet soil sample in an oven maintained at a temp, of 110 0 C ± 50 C. Let the sample dry
for 24 hours.

(4) When the soil has dried fully, remove the container from the oven. Replace the lid on the container and let the
soil sample cool at room temp.

- Then, determine the mass of the container with lid and dry soil (Mdsc)

(5) Then determine the moisture content using

 Msc  Mdsc 
W 
 Mdsc  Mc  x100
 

Example: Assume that the mass of container and wet soil Msc = 40.22 g. Mass of container and dry soil, Mdsc =
38.12 g and mass of container dry = 17.89 g

40.22 g  38.12 g x100 2.10 g

Then w = x100  x100  10.37 %
38.12 g  17.88 g 20.24 g

Determination of Specific gravity of solids

Procedure

(1) Clean and dry a container called pycnometer. Tightly screw its cap. Take the
mass of empty pycnometer, (Mp)

(2) Place the soil sample into the pycnometer. Add distilled water to fill the pycnometer about 3/4 th full.
Remove the air form the sample by boiling it for 10 minutes. The mass of soil is 200 – 300 g
(3) Completely fill the pycnometer with distilled water clean its extermal surface and dry it with clean cloth.

- Determine the mass of the pycnometer filled with soil and water (Mpws)

(4) Empty the pycnometer, wash it and refill it only with distilled water. Determine the mass of the
pycnometer and water (Mpw)
(5) Then determine the specific gravity G from the relation,

AASTU 11
SOIL MECHANICS 12
Chapter 2

K .Ms
G
Ms  Mpw  Mpws

Where Ms = mass of the dry soil sample it is determined at the end of the test by evaporating the water of the soil in
an oven for 24 hours.

Mpw = mass of pycnometer filled with water

Mpws = mass of pycnometer filled with soil and water

K = correction factor for temp. (from tables)

Example Let Mp = 16.80 gm, Mpw = 115.15 gm, Mpws = 124.80 gm

Assume that the room temp, is 280 C 15.2 gm

For 280 c, K = 0.9980

K .Ms 0.9980 x15.52 gm

 G  
Ms  Mpw  Mpws 15.52  115 .15 gm 124.80 gm

15.48896
  2.64
5.87

Determination of the Mass density

The mass density can be determined in the laboratory by filling the soil in a container of known volume and by
determining the mass of soil in the container by weighing.

mass of soil in the container

b 
Volume of the container

The volume of the container can be determined by measuring the interval dimension of the container.

Then, volume = Area of cross – section x height of container

- Alternatively the volume of the container can be determined by filling the container with water and finding
out mass of water.

Mass of water
Volume of container
Density of water

AASTU 12
SOIL MECHANICS 13
Chapter 2

If the unit weight of the soil is required, instead of the mass of the container, its weight is measured and the bulk
unit weight can be determined.

weight of soil in the container

b
volume of the container

Example: A soil specimen was collected and filled in a container having a diameter of 4 cm and a height of 6 cm.

- The mass of the container = 25.68 gm

- The mass of container and soil sample = 168.66 gm
- Find the bulk density of the soil

Solution Volume = Area x height

 d 2 
=   xh
 4 

x (0.04) 2
= x 0.06 = 0.0000754 m3
4

Mass of soil sample = 168.66 gm – 25.68 gm = 142.98 x 10-3 kg.

Mass of the sample 142.98 x 103 kg 1896.3 kg

Thus  b   3

Volume of the container 0.0000754m m3

2.3. INDEX PROPERTIES:

Soils are classified based on their index properties.

The tests carried out inorder to classify a soil are termed as classification tests.
The numerical results obtained on the basis of such tests are termed as index properties.
*Soil Grain properties.
*Soil Aggregate Properties.

Soil Grain Properties:-

Which are dependent on the individual grains of the soil and are independent of the manner of soil formation
Properties can be obtained from disturbed sample
Eg:-Minerlogical composition, sp.gravity of sample size and shape of grains, void ratios,etc…

Soil Aggregate Properties:-

Which are dependent on the soil mass as a whole. Or Represent the collective behavior of soil.
Properties can be obtained from undisturbed in situ tests.

AASTU 13
 SOIL MECHANICS 14
Chapter 2

2.3.1. Mechanical Analysis (particles size Analysis)

This is a means of separation of soils into different fractions based on the particle size. It is an important index
property of coarse – grained soils (gravel and sand). The mechanical analysis of soils is done using sieve analysis
and the results are graphically shown on a particles size distribution curve

A) Sieve Analysis:-

To perform sieve analysis, the soil is sieved through a set of sieves having different sizes of opening. Each sieve has
a designation or No, which defines the sizes of the openings of mesh. The sieves commonly used are 75 mm, 37.5
mm, 19 mm, 9.5 mm, No 4 (4.75mm) No 8 (2.36mm), No 10 (2 mm), No 16 (1.18 mm), No 30 (0.06mm), No 40
(0.425 mm) No, 100 (0.150 mm)

Preparation of Sample

The soil is exposed to air first so that it dries. Mix the soil thoroughly. Then the required amount of soil sample is
taken for sieve analysis. For smaller size particles, the quantity of samples required is less and vice versa. The no of
sieves usually used are from 6 to 8 sieves.

Procedure

A) Hand Sieving

1) The entire mass of the soil is first weighed. The moil of known mass is then taken in the largest
sieve opening.
2) Sieve the soil sample by shaking with your hands till the soil stops passing through the sieve.
Determine the mass of the soil retained on the sieve.
3) The soil which has passived through the first sieve is then sieved through the sieve of the next
smaller size. Take also the mass of the soil retained on this sieve.
4) The process is repeated and the mass of the soil retained in different sieves is noted. The sieving
should be done in a decreasing order of sieve sizes

B) Machine Sieving

1) Arrange the sieves of appropriate opening sizes in a decreasing order of sizes of mesh and at the
bottom put the pan which don not have openings.
2) Place the sieves on a sieve shaker and start the machine sieve it for about 10 – 15 minutes after
putting a soil of known mass on the largest size sieve.
3) Remove the sieves from the shaker and determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve and pan.

Example: - Sieve analysis observation

Total mass of dry soil taken = 220.40 g

The mass of soil retained in different sieves is as follows

Sieve No 4 10 20 40 100 200 Pan

Sieve size (mm) 4.75 2.00 0.85 0.150 0.075
Mass retained 24.5 22.4 58.9 76.6 18.80 10.2 9.00
(g)

AASTU 14
SOIL MECHANICS 15
Chapter 2

The calculations from the sieve analysis observations are as follows

S.No Sieve No Sieve size (mm) Mass retained % age retained cumulative % age
retained
1 4 4.75 24.50 11.10 11.10
2 10 2.00 22.40 10.2 21.30
3 20 0.85 58.90 26.7 48.0
4 40 0.425 76.60 34.8 82.80
5 100 0.150 18.80 8.50 91.30
6 200 0.075 10.20 4.60 95.30
7 Pan Nil 9.00 4.10 100.0

Percentage passing

The percentage passing is the percentage of the total mass of the soil passing through a particular sieve. It is
determined by first determining the masses of the soil retained on all sieves having larger mesh sizes and on the
sieve considered and subtracting it from the total mass of the soil used in the analysis. Then this mass is expressed
as a percentage of the total mass of the soil. The percentage passing can simply be determined by subtracting the
cumulative percentage retained from 100

 % age passing any sieve = 100 – cumulative % age retained. For the above example the % age
passing is as follows

S.No Sieve No Sieve size Mass passing % age Cum % age % age passing (100 –
(g) passing retained cu % retained)
1 4 4.75 195.90 88.90 11.10 88.90
2 10 2.00 173.50 78.70 21.30 78.70
3 20 0.85 114.60 52.00 48.0 52.00
4 40 0.425 38.00 17.20 82.80 17.20
5 100 0.150 19.20 8.70 91.30 8.70
6 200 0.075 9.00 4.10 95.90 4.10
7 Pan Nil 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00

Particle – size distribution curve

The main purpose of sieve analysis is to plot the particle size distribution curve. From this curve it is possible to
find out whether the soil is wells graded (having particles of various sizes), or poorly – graded (having particles of
almost uniform size),

Particle size distribution curve is a plot of the percentage passing each sieve on arithmetic scale as ordinate and the
sieve size opening (particles size) on log scale as abeissa. All the points are connected with a smooth curve

AASTU 15
SOIL MECHANICS 16
Chapter 2

Fig particles size distribution curve

D10 = Sieve size corresponding to 10 % finer (passing)

D30 = Sieve size corresponding to 30 % finer (passing)
D60 = Sieve size corresponding to 60 % finer (passing)

The sieve size corresponding to 10 % finer (D10) is also called as effective size.

Uniformity coefficient (Cu) :- is the ratio of D60 to D10

D60
 Cu 
D10

Coefficient of curvature (Cc):- is defined as follows

( D30 ) 2
Cc 
D60 xD10

Types of soils based on particle size distn curve

1) Well graded soils : - In these types of soils there are particles of various sizes and they are well
distributed. The particles size distribution curve for these soils have. S – shape.

2) Poorly – graded soil (Uniform soils)

These soils have their particles almost having uniform sizes. The shape of the particles size distribution
curve is almost vertical.

3) Gap – graded soils : - In these soils, the particles of a certain grain size are

AASTU 16
 SOIL MECHANICS 17
Chapter 2

missing. The particle size distribution curve has got an almost horizontal portion.

Fig poorly, well and gap – graded soils

Criteria for classification

1) Soils, which have a Cu less than 2, are termed as uniform soils.

2) Sands which have Cu > 6 are well – graded soils, Cc = 1 to 3

For gravels, if Cu > 4 the soils is well – graded soils, Cc = 1 to 3

Example: - Sieve analysis of a soil having a mass of 900 g is done and the following observations have been
made.

Sieve size (mm) 20 10 4.75 2.0 1.0 0.60 0.425 0.212 0.150 0.075 Pan
Mass retained 35 40 80 150 150 140 115 55 35 25 75
(gms)

Draw the particles size distribution curve for this soil

AASTU 17
 SOIL MECHANICS 18
Chapter 2

The calculation for determination of % age finer is as follows

Sieve size (mm) 20 10 4.75 2.0 1.0 0.60 0.425 0.212 0.150 0.075 Pan
Mass retained % age 35 40 80 150 150 140 115 55 35 25 75
retained cum % retained 3.89 4.44 8.89 16.67 16.67 15.56 12.78 6.11 3.89 2.78 8.32
% age passing (100 – 3.89 8.33 17.22 33.89 50.56 66.12 78.90 85.01 88.90 91.68 100.00
cum % retained) 96.11 9.67 82.78 66.11 49.44 33.88 21.10 14.99 11.10 8.32 0.00

From the above plot the effective size (D10), D30 and D60 can be determined.

D60 1.55
Uniformity coefficient (Cu) =  13.48
D10 0.115

Coefficient of curvature (Cc) =

 D30  2 
(0.53) 2
= 1.58
D60 x D10 1.55 x 0.115

So based on the classification criteria of soils into poorly graded and well – graded soils,

Cu = 13.48 > 4 or 6  Thus, the soil is a well

Cc = 1.58  1 < 1.58 < 3 graded soil.

2.3.2. Classification of soils

Significance
Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into different groups. Soils in the same group have similar properties & behavior. Since there is a
wide variety of a soil covering the surface of earth; it is more convenient to study the properties of the soil in the group instead of each individual
soil.

- Most of the soil classification systems are based on the particle size distribution (index property of cohesionless soils) and Atterbeg’s limits
(index property of cohesive soils). This classification however provides only some idea about the soils. But for complete knowledge of the soils,
other tests such as shear strength; permeability, compressibility etc are required.

AASTU 18
SOIL MECHANICS 19
Chapter 2

A) Unified soil classification system (USC) (Casagrande method)

This system of soil classification utilizes symbols for classification of soils. The various symbols are the following.

G = gravel W = well - graded Secondary

S = sand primary P = poorly graded symbols
M = Silt symbols M = Non – plastic fines
C = clay C = Plastic fines
O = organic L = Low plasticity
Pt = peat H = High plasticity

Two symbols are normally used for classification.

Fig. Unified soil classification system (USC)

Example SW = well – graded sand

GP = poorly – graded gravel
CH = high plasticity clay

In this classification system ,the soils are classified into 14 groups based on the particle size analysis and plasticity
characteristics of the soil and one more soil type called peat.

Total = 14 + 1 =15 soil groups

AASTU 19
SOIL MECHANICS 20
Chapter 2

According to this classification soils are broadly classified as coarse- grained soils and fine – grained soils

1) Coarse – grained soils – If more than 50 % of soil sample is retained on sieve No 200 (0.075 mm).
2) Fine – grained soils: If more than 50 % of the sample passes sieve No 200 (0.075 mm)

The coarse –grained soils are further subdivided into gravel and sand.

Gravel (G): If 50 % or more of coarse fraction is retained on sieve N o 4 (4.75 mm). There are four groups of soil
here.

Sand (S): If less than 50 % of coarse fraction is retained on sieve N o 4 (4.75 mm). Here also we have four groups
of soils.

Fine –grained soils are also further divided into soils of low compressibility (L) and soil of high compressibility (H)

Soils of low compressibility (L): If the liquid limit is 50 % or less. There are three soils groups in this division.

Soils of high compressibility (H): If the liquid limit is more than 50 %. There are also three groups in this division.

The fine – grained soils can be exactly determined using the plasticity chart. This chart has the plasticity index as
ordinate and the liquid limit as abscissa. These is a line called A – line whose equation is given by

Ip = 0.73 (LL – 20) where IP = plasticity index

LL = liquid limit

Plasticity index (Ip): is the difference b/n the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic limit (PL)

 IP = LL – PL

From the plasticity chart, it is possible to determine the exact type of the soil based on the position at which a soil
falls in the plasticity chart.

The classification of soils based on USC system has been shown in the tabular form above.

B) AASHTO Soil Classification System

AASHTO = American Association of state Highway and Transportation official.

This method also uses the particle sizes and the plasticity characteristics of the soil for classification. The soils in
this system are classified into 7 groups named as A–1, A–2 - --- A- 7. The soils in group A – 1 and A – 7 are divided
into 2 categories each and the soils in A –2 are divided into four categories.

This soil classification system is commonly used for classification of soils for highways. For classification

AASTU 20
SOIL MECHANICS 21
Chapter 2

1) Particles size analysis is done

2) The Atterberg’s limits and plasticity index are determined.

Then, the table for classification is entered from the extreme left column and compared whether it fulfils the criteria
in that column. If not then move to the next column and continue to the last column.

- Generally the lower the soil group no, the more it is suitable for highways as a sub – grade material.

The classification as per AASHTO is given in the table.

Particles- size classification system:

In this system the soils are classified only according to the particle size. If the particle size is known, the soil
can be classified.

1) Prof. G. Gilboy method

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

Size Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Size
0.002 mm 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.20 0.6 2.00 mm (particle
size)
2) USBR Classification

AASTU 21
SOIL MECHANICS 22
Chapter 2

Clay Silt Sand size Fine Gravel

Size Size Very fine Fine Medium Coarse Gravel size
0.005 mm 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.00 mm

Particle size classification system are not accurate, b/se they don not consider the grading of the soil, the plasticity
characteristics and the Atterberg’s limits.

C) Textural classification system

This classification system uses an equilateral triangle, which is divided into zones indicating the type of soils in
each zone. Then the soil can be classified by determining the zone in which the soil lies.

- Texture is the relative proportion of sands silt and clay

- Loam soil is a soil containing sand silt and clay in almost equal proportion.

Fig. Textural soil classification

Example1: Classify the following A and B soils according to AASH TO classification

% age passing Soil A Soil B

No 4 40 69
No 10 30 54
No 40 22 46
No 100 20 41
No 200 15 36

LL 35 39

PL 22 27

AASTU 22
SOIL MECHANICS 23
Chapter 2

IP 13 12

Solution
Soil A

1) % age passing No 200 (0.075 mm) sieve = 15 % The soil is classified as granular material, because the %
age passing No 200 sieve = 15 % < 35 %. There fore the soil can be A1 , A- 2 or A –3
2) Liquid limit (LL) = 35 %. From the specification laid on liquid limit, the soil can be A – 2 – 4 or A – 2
–6
3) Plasticity index = PL – LL = 13 = 35 – 22. Therefore the soil type is A – 2 – 6 according to AASHTO.

Soil B

1) Percentage passing No 200 = 36 %. It is silt – clay material as 36 % >35%. It can be A –4, A –5, A – 6
or A – 7
2) Plasticity index, IP = 12, It can be A – 6 or A – 7
3) Liquid limit (LL) = 39 %. The soil is A – 6

Example 2: Classify the following soil according to USC

Sieve No % passing % retained

4 76.50 100 – 76.50 = 23.50
40 40.80 59.20
200 15.20 84.80

LL = 30 % PL = 12 % Ip = 30 –12 =18 %
Solution

1) % passing No 200 (0.075 mm) = 15.2 %, % retained = 84.8 % 84.80 % > 50 %. The soil is coarse – grained soil
2) Soil retained on No 4 (4.75) = 23.50 % The coarse fraction is the mass of the soil retained on No 200 = 84.80 % /2 =
42.40 %
soil retained on No 4 = 23.50 % < 42.4 %
 The soil is thus sand.
3) There are four soil groups in sand fraction
% passing No 200 = 15.20 % > 12 %. Thus the soil is either silty sands (SM) or
clayey sands (SC)
4) A line, Ip = 0.73 (LL –20) , substituting LL = 30

Ip = 0.73 (30 – 20) = 7.30.

But the plasticity index of the soil is 18 %

Thus, the soil lies above A – line in plasticity chart. The soil is clayey sand (SC).

AASTU 23
SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 2 24

ASTM SIEVE SIZES

200 140 100 70 50 40 30 20 16 12 8 6 4 " 3
/8" " “ " 1" 1 " 2"
B.S. SIEVE SIZES
300 200 150 100 72 52 36 25 18 14 10 7 1/8" /16"
3
" 3
/8" " “ " 1" 1 " 2"

100
90
80
Percent Finer

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.002 0.006
0.01 0.02
0.1 0.2
0.06 0.6
1 2 6
10 20 60

Equivalent Particle Size (mm)

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Stone or
Clay Silt Sand Gravel Boulder

AASTU 24
 SOIL MECHANICS 25
Chapter 2

2.4. Plasticity characteristics of soils

Plasticity of a soil is its ability to under go deformation without cracking or fracturing. A lastic soil, when it is
wet, can be molded into various shapes plasticity is an important property of cohesive soils (clayey) soils. This
plasticity in clays is due to the presence of clay minerals. The clay particles have – ve charges on the surface. The
water molecules are attracted towards the clay surface. The phenomenon is called adsorption of water and the water
so attracted is called as adsorbed water.
The clay particles are then separated from each other this layer of adsorbed water. This allows the particles to
slip over one another and the soil is deformed. As the water content of the soil decreases, the plasticity is also
reduced and the soil becomes finally non- plastic when it is dry.

Consistency of clayey soils and Atterberg’s Limits

The consistency of soil is the physical state in which it exists. A Swedish Engineer’ Atterberg’ mentioned that fine –
grained soils can exists in four states.

i) Liquid limit (ii) plastic limit (iii) Semi – solid state (iv) solid state

The state in which the soil exists depends on water content.

The water contents at which a soil changes from one state to another are known as consistency limits (Atterberg’s
limits)

Volume of
Soil

Plastic state Liquid state

Semi-Soild
Solid state

SL PL LL
Fig. States of soil Water Content

(i) Liquid Limit: - A soil with high water content in a liquid state and can flow like a liquid. As the
moisture content is reduced, the soil ceases to flow and becomes plastic. The soil is then said to be in a
plastic state.

- The water content at which the soil changes from liquid state to plastic state is called liquid limit
(LL)

(ii) Plastic limit: - The soil in the plastic state can be moulded into various shapes. As the water content is
reduced, the soil stops behaving as a plastic and changes ultimately to a semi –solid state.

- The water content at which the soil changes from the plastic state to semi- solid state is called
plastic limit (PL).

The numerical difference b/n LL and PL is known as plasticity index (IP). It shows the rages of the water content on
which the soil is plastic,

Thus, IP = LL – PL

AASTU 25
SOIL MECHANICS 26
Chapter 2

(iii) Shrinkage Limit

When the water content is reduced below the plastic limit, it attains a semi – solid state. Then the soil cracks when
moulded. When the water content is further reduced, the volume of the is observed. Then the soil is said to have
reached solid state.

- The water content at which the soil changes from the semi –solid state to solid state is called
shrinkage limit (SL)
- Below the shrinkage limit the soil does not remain saturated. Thus, the soil in the solid state is
not fully saturated. Thus, the shrinkage limit is also defined as the lowest water content at which
the soil is fully saturated.

Determination of Liquid Limit in the Laboratory:

Liquid limit can be determined in laboratory by casagrande’s apparatus. The apparatus consists of a brass cup which
drops through a height of 1 cm by the rise and fall mechanism operated by turning the handle.

The air-dried soil, which passes through sieve N o 40 (0.425 mm) is taken in a brass cup for the test. About 100 gm
of the soil is required for test.

Procedure

1) Place the dry soil sample in an evaporating dish and thoroughly mix with 15 to 20 ml
of distilled water. Adding increments of water from 1 to 3 ml, kneed the soil and form a uniform paste.
2) Place some of the paste formed in the brass cup, level the paste and trim it to a
maximum depth of 1 cm.
3) Divide the soil sample in the cup by firm strokes of the sides of the grooving tool. The
no of strokes may be up to 6. Each stroke penetrates a little deeper than the previous and the last stroke leaves
the bottom of the cap clean.
4) Lift and drop the cup by turning the handle at the rate of 2 rev/ sec (rpm) until the two
heaves of the soil sample (paste) come in contact at the bottom along a distance of ½ “ 9inch) = 1.3 cm. 
Record the no of drops required to close the groove.
5) Remove a slice of soil near the closed paste and determine the water content.
6) Transfer the soil in the cup to the evaporating dish. Add some extra water to the soil
and repeat the experiment. Determine the no of drops required to close the groove for this test also. Determine
the water content of the sample. Repeat the experiment by adding more water each time. At least 3 to 4 trials
are required.
7) Plot a graph b/n water content (%) as ordinate (arithmetic scale) and n o of blows as
abscises (log scale). Approximately a straight line is obtained and is called a flow curve. From the plot, the
water content corresponding to 25 drops is determined. This water content is the liquid limit of the soil (LL).

In one step the LL can be determined as follows.

n
 N 
LL = WV  
 25 

Where WN = water content of the soil when groove closes in N blows

n = 0.092 for LL < 50 % ( N =15 –35)
n = 0.120 for LL > 50 % (N = 20 –30)

Example
Trial No 1 2 3 4
No of blows 38 27 20 13

AASTU 26
SOIL MECHANICS 27
Chapter 2

Water content 47.5 % 49.5 % 51.9 % 53.9 %

Determination of plastic limit (PL) :

Procedure

1) An air – dried soil sample is taken and sieved through 0.425 mm sieve. Take about 15 gm of the soil a dish
and mix it with distilled water till it becomes plastic. Take about 8 gm of the paste for plastic limit test.
2) Squeeze the soil paste in one hand and form a ball of soil of ellipsoidal shape.
3) Roll the ball with fingers on a glass plate. Apply sufficient pressure of the fingers to roll the ball into a
thread of uniform diameter. The rate of rolling is kept b/n 80 to 90 strokes /min.
4) When the diameter of the thread becomes 3 mm, break the thread into pieces and again squeeze it and roll
it. Repeat the squeezing and rolling until the soil can no longer be rolled into a thread of uniform diameter
of 3 mm. The plastic limit is then the water content at which the soil begins to crumble when rolled to a
thread of 3 mm diameter.
5) Gather the portion of the crumbled soil together and determine the water content as usual. This water
content is then the plastic limit of the soil (PL)

Determination of Shrinkage limit in laboratory: -

Shrinkage limit is the smallest water content at which the soil is saturated. It is also defined as the maximum water content at
which a reduction of water content will not cause a decrease in the volume of the soil.

Procedure

1) Sieve the soil through sieve No 40 (0.425 mm). Take about 50 gm of soil and add water to form a paste. The water content is kept
slightly higher than liquid limit (LL)
2) Take a shrinkage dish and cover it with thin film of petroleum jelly or any other grease so that the soil will not stick to the dish. Take
the mass of the dish coated with the grease. (Md)
3) Place the soil specimen in the center of the shrinkage dish so that the dish is 1/3 rd full. Tap the dish so that the soil sample spreads
evenly to the edges of the dish. Repeat this procedure by filling the dish to 2/3 rd & finally to the full volume so that the dish
completely filled & some excess soil stands above the edges of the dish. Make sure that no air bubbles are entrapped in the soil.

- Strike off the excess soil with a straight edge. Then wipe off all soil adhering to the outside of dish. – Take the mass of wet
soil & shrinkage dish (M1)
4) Allow the soil sample to dry first in air till its colour turns from dark to light. Then place the dish in an oven at 1100 C for 24 hours.
Determine the mass of the oven dried soil & dish (M2).
5) Determine the volume of shrinkage dish (V). This is done by tilling the dish with mercury (water). The volume of the dish is
determined by pouring the mercury (water) into a graduated cylinder. This volume is equal to the volume of wet, soil (V.)
6) The volume of the dry soil (v0) is then determined by immersing the dry soil pat in a glass cup full of mercury or water. Fill the cup
with mercury or water & pat on the surface of mercury or water. Force it down using the prongs in the glass plate. Make sure that no
air bubbles are entrapped.

The dry soil pat will displace some mercury (water) from the cup which spills into the large evaporating dish. The volume of the dry soil pat (v 0)
is the volume of the mercury or water displaced by the dry soil pat & can be determined by pouring the displaced mercury or water displaced in a
graduated cylinder.

AASTU 27
SOIL MECHANICS 28
Chapter 2

Figure- I : shows the case when the water content is more then the shrinkage limit. (Total volume of wet soil = V)

Figure – II : shows the water content at shrinkage limit. Any reduction in moisture content beyond that limit will
not cause a decrease in the volume & air enters the voids.

This volume equals the volume of dry soil pat (V0).

Figure III : Shows the oven dried soil (All voids filled with air).

7. Mass of water in wet soil = Mt – Ms

- Loss of mass of water from stage I to stage II = (V-V0) W

- Mass of water in stage II = (Mt – Ms) – (V- V0) W

 Then shrinkage limit (SL) = water content in stage II.

 SL = Mass of water in stage II * 500
Mass of solids

 SL 
 (Mt  Ms) (V  V0 )  w  100
Ms
Where Mt = mass of wet soil sample
Ms = mass of the solids (mass of dry soil)
V = Volume of wet soil
Vo = volume of dry soil
W = mass density of water.

Plasticity Index (IP) is the range of the water content over which the soil remains in the plastic state. It is simply
the numerical difference b/n the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL)

 IP = LL – PL

Liquidity Index (Ie) : - This is defined as follows.

Wn  PL
Ie = x100
IP

Where Wn = water content of the soil in natural condition.

PL = water content at plastic limit (PL)

Liquidity index indicates the nearness of its water content to its liquid limit. When the soil is at its liquid limit, liquidity index (Ie) = 100 % .
Ie = 0 indicates that the soil is at its plastic limit (PL).

AASTU 28
SOIL MECHANICS 29
Chapter 2

Consistency Index (Ic) : - is defined as follows.

LL  Wn
Ic = x100
IP
- This indicates the nearness of the water content of the soil to its plastic limit (PL). Ic = 0 indicates that the soil is at its
liquid limit. IP = 100 % shows that the soil is at its plastic limit and is relatively firm. Ip greater than 100 % shows that
the water content than PL and the soil is in semi- solid state where as IP les than 0 indicates that the soil is in liquid state.

Uses of Consistency Limits

1) The main use of the consistency limit is in the classification of soils. For classification of fine – grained soils (clay and silt)
the plasticity chart based on plasticity index & liquid limit is used

2) The consistency limits give some idea about shear strength of soil.
3) As the particle size decreases, both the liquid and plastic limits increase. But the liquid limit increases at a faster rate.
The net effect is that the plasticity index (IP) increases. Thus IP is greater for clays than silty soils. Therefore plasticity
index (IP) is a measure of fineness of the particles.
4) The liquid limit gives some idea bout the compressibility (deformation under load) of the soil. The compressibility of
the soil increase with an increase in liquid limit
5) Sandy soils are non – plastic soils. These soils change from the liquid state to the semi – solid state abruptly. Generally,
soils having LL less than 20 % are sands.
6) The consistency limits can be used to determine the amount and type of clay in a soil.

Example 1. A soil has a liquid limit of 30 % and a plastic limit of 20 %. The natural water content of the soil is 24 %, find the
liquidity index and the consistency index of the soil? What is the state of the soil in its natural condition?
Solution IP = LL – PL = 30 – 20 = 10 %
Wn  PL 24  20 4
I x100   x100  40 %
IP 10 10

LL  Wn
Ie  x 100
IP

30  24 6
 x100  x100  60 %
10 10

I  Ie  40 %  60 % 100 % . (Necessary condition)

AASTU 29
SOIL MECHANICS 30
Chapter 2

LL > Wn > PL  Since the natural water content of the soil is b/n LL and PL the state of the soil is in plastic state.

Example2: - The following index properties have been observed for two soils A and B. Determine which
of the soils have more clay particles and compressibility and say about the state of the natural soil.

Index property Soil A Soil B

Liquid limit 60 40
Plastic limit 25 20
Natural water content 35 18

Solution: Ip (for soil A) = LL – PL = 60 – 25 = 35 %

Ip (for soil B) = LL – PL = 40 20 = 20 %

Since the IP for soil A is greater than that for soil B, soil A has more clay particles.

 Liquid limit is a measure of the compressibility of the soil. The more the Ll, the more will be
compressibility of soil A has more liquid limit than soil B, thus soil A is more compressible
(deformed) under the action of a load.

For soil A : LL > Wn > PL =  60 >35 >25

There fore, the state of the natural soil is in plastic state

LL  Wn
For soil B: consistency index (Ic) = x100
IP

 40  18  22
=   x100  x 100 = 110 %
 20  20

So Ic = 110 > 100 %  This shows that the water content of the soil is less than PL and the state of the soil is semi
solid state.

AASTU 30
SOIL MECHANICS 31
Chapter 2

AASTU 31