Aircraft Performance and Flight

Mechanics

Takeoff and Landing

Takeoff Performance ground

roll
airborne but before it
clears an obstacle of
height h*
V=0 (s=0)
V=Vstall s = sg + s a
V=Vmcg (min control speed on the ground)
V=Vmca (min control speed in the air 50ft
(w/o landing gear in contact with ground))
V=V1 decision speed (or critical engine
failure speed)
– balance speed length VLO
V=VR (takeoff rotation speed) L W VMU
VR
V=VMU (min unstick speed, ground V1
clearance) α αcl tail Vmca
V=VLO=1.1 Vstall (s=sg) (lift off speed) Vmcg
Vstall

h*

s=sg s=sa

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 Takeoff Speed and FAR 25
requirements
Speed Description FAR 25
Requirement

Vs stall speed in takeoff configuration -

Vmc minimum control speed with one engine inoperative (OEI) -
V1 OEI decision speed = or > Vmc
Vr rotation speed 5% > Vmc
Vmu minimum unstick speed for safe flight = or > Vs
Vlof liftoff speed 10% > Vmu
5% > Vmu
(OEI)
V2 takeoff climb speed at 35 ft 20% > Vs
10% > Vmc

Aircraft Takeoff Weight Takeoff Speed

Examples Boeing 737 100,000 lb 150 mph
of Takeoff 45,360 kg 250 km/h
Speeds 130 kts
Boeing 757 240,000 lb 160 mph
108,860 kg 260 km/h
140 kts
Airbus A320 155,000 lb 170 mph
70,305 kg 275 km/h
150 kts
Airbus A340 571,000 lb 180 mph
259,000 kg 290 km/h
155 kts
Boeing 747 800,000 lb 180 mph
362,870 kg 290 km/h
155 kts
Concorde 400,000 lb 225 mph
181,435 kg 360 km/h
195 kts

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 The critical engine speed defines the point on the runway at which the
distance needed to stop is exactly the same as the that required to
reach takeoff speed. The resulting total takeoff distance is
correspondingly known as the balanced field length.

Definition of critical engine-failure speed and balanced field length

EOM Airplane During Takeoff

This equation gives instantaneous forces during the acceleration

dV R ≡ µ r (W − L )
F = T − D − R = T − D − µr (W − L ) = m
dt
rolling
const reciprocating friction
P = V∞T T=
V∞ engine/propeller coeff.

T = const turbojet

T = k1* − k *2V∞ + k *3V∞2 turbofan

W = const Weight

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 EOM Airplane During Takeoff
– Both L and D vary with V
1 1
L= ρ ∞V∞2 SCL D= ρ∞V∞2 SCD
2 2
CD = CD 0 + ∆CD 0 + ( k1 + Gk3 ) CL2 Drag Polar k2 = 0 Wave Drag

W m
∆CD 0 = K uc m −0.219 W /S [N/m2] max mass aircraft [kg]
S
K uc = 5.81 ⋅10 −5 ; K uc = 3.16 ⋅10−5
zero flap; max flap down

– “Ground Effect”
(16h / b )
2
CDi (in ground effect)
=G G=
1 + (16h / b )
2
CDi (out-of-ground effect)
h = height of wing above the ground, b = wingspan

EOM Airplane During Takeoff

1 limited and determined by
L= ρ ∞V∞2 SCL CL ≤ 0.1 features of the geometric design
2 configuration of the airplane
rolling along the ground

dV∞
F = T − D − R = T − D − µ r (W − L ) = m
r
dt

V∞ ( t = 0 ) = 0;V∞ ( t = t LO ) = VLO = 1.1VMU ≈ 1.1Vstall

V (t ) solved numerically
Ground Roll
Distance ds =
ds
dt = V∞ dt
dt
sg t LO tLO
ds = V∞ dt ssg = V∞ dt
0 0 0

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Average Forces Acting During Takeoff
Feff = T − [D + µr (W − L )]average ≈ CONSTANT

– Why consider “average” force during the takeoff roll?

- average 0.7 VLO

Takeoff Roll
We are no longer considering a “Statics”
problem
– Finite (even large) accelerations are present
– we apply Newton’s second law to any body initially
at rest,
V=0 V>0
Feff = constant
Feff = constant

s=0 s
t=0 t
dV F
F = ma = m dV = dt
dt m
– Integrating
V F t F Vm
dV = eff dt V = eff t OR t=
0 m 0 m Feff
s t t F F t Feff t 2
ds = Vdt = tdt = eff tdt s=
0 0 0 m m 0 m 2

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 Approximate Analysis Ground Roll
1 d (V∞ )
2
ds dt dV∞
ds = dt = V∞ dt = V∞ dV∞ ds = V∞ =
dt dV∞ ( dV∞ / dt ) 2 ( dV∞ / dt )
dV∞ 1 g
= (T − D − µr (W − L ) ) = (T − D − µr (W − L ) )
dt m W
VLO d (V∞2 ) VLO W d (V∞2 )
sg = = + NVLO
0
2 g ( KT − K AV∞2 ) 0 2 g (T − D − µ r (W − L ) )

T approx ~ constant , value at V = 0.7 VLO

KT = − µr
W
ρ∞ G
KA = − CD 0 + ∆CD 0 + k1 + C 2 − µr CL
2 (W / S ) π eAR L

N = 3 large aircraft; N = 1 small aircraft;

NVLO distance covered during rotation

Takeoff Roll
Lift-off distance for a jet airplane
– Using the average Force we have postulated
The sum
Feff = T − D + µ r (W − L ) average
Is fairly constant
Thrust is also fairly
constant
– Substituting into
D + µ r (W − L )
2
V 2m VLO W
s= sLO =
2 Feff 2 gFeff
2
VLO W
sLO = + NVLO
{
2 g T − D − µ r (W − L ) average }

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 Takeoff Roll
Lift-off distance (continued)
– Generally we use a safety margin at lift-off by 10%
2W
VLO = 1.1Vstall = 1.1
ρ∞ SCLmax
– Substituting into the expression for sLO
1.21(W / S ) 2 1 W
sLO = + 1.1N
{
g ρ ∞CLmax T / W − D / W + µr (1 − L / W ) average } ρ ∞ CLmax S

D + µ r (W − L ) average
≈ D + µ r (W − L ) 0.7VLO

– One method of estimating quickly the average drag and rolling

resistance force is to use 0.7VLO in calculating the aerodynamic forces

Takeoff Ground Roll Distance –

Simplified Equation
T >> D + µ r (W − L ) 0.7VLO

1.21(W / S )
sLO =
g ρ ∞CLmax {T / W }

T ∝ ρ∞ sLO ∝ 1/ ρ ∞2 hot days, low air density

cold days, high air density
sLO ∝ W 2
sLO at altitude is > sLO at sea level

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Distance While Airborne to Clear an
Obstacle
V∞2
V ≈ 1.15Vstall R=
g ( n − 1)
CL ≈ 0.9CL max
R
R-hOB

1 θOB
L 2 ∞ (
ρ S 1.15Vstall ) 0.9CL max
2

n= =
W W
1
ρ∞ S (1.15Vstall ) 0.9CL max
2
Flight
hOB
=2 = 1.19 Path
1
ρ∞ S (Vstall ) CL max
2

2
2
1.15Vstall 2
6.95Vstall sa
R= =
g (1.19 − 1) g V ≈ 1.1Vstall V ≈ 1.2Vstall
airborne but before it
R − hOB h ground
clears an obstacle of
cos θ OB = = 1 − OB roll
height h*
R R
sa = R sin θOB s = sg + sa

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 L = W cos θ a
Landing Performance D = T + W sin θ a
V∞ = Va V∞ = VTD L = W cos θ a
D L D −T D T
sin θ a = θa = −

Touch Down
θf W W W
T R
θa ≤ 3o
cos θ a ≈ 1 L ≈ W
R
hOB=50ft

1 T
W θa θa ≈ −
Flight L /W W
Path V∞ = VTD V∞ = 0
hf

sa sf sfr

Approach Flare Free Roll

Distance Distance Distance
Ground
sg Roll Distance

sa =
( 50 − h ) f h f = R − R cos θ f = R (1 − cos θ f ) = R (1 − cos θ a )
tan θ a
since θ f = θa

Landing Performance
V∞2
R=
g ( n − 1)

from Va = 1.3Vstall to VTD = 1.15Vstall commercial airplanes

from Va = 1.2Vstall to VTD = 1.1Vstall military airplanes

Vaverage = V flare = 1.23Vstall commercial airplanes

Vaverage = V flare = 1.15Vstall military airplanes
2
V flare
Load factor n = 1.2 R= Radius of turn
0.2 g

sa =
( 50 − h ) f
θa = θ f s f = s flare = R sin θ f
tan θ a

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 Landing data

The figure shows the landing data for two different flap angles for some
airplanes.
The FAR landing field length is defined as the actual demonstrated distance
from a 50 ft. height to a full stop increased by the factor 1/0.60, a 67% increase.

Landing Roll – Ground Roll

The landing roll is very similar to the takeoff ground roll,
except:
– Thrust = 0
(or near zero)
– The sign of the
acceleration is
negative
dV
− [D + µ r (W − L )]average = m
dt
– We seek an approximate
expression like
STO for landing
using an average
Force again

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Landing Roll

Following this logic

F ≈ −[D + µ r (W − L )]average ≈ −[D + µ r (W − L )]0.7V
T
– Notice that this assumption is less accurate for landing than
for takeoff
– Nonetheless, let’s do the integration again
0 F t F t2 V 2m
ds = dt sL = − or sL = −
sL m 0 m 2 2F

Landing Roll

Combining the previous expression for sL and using

the approximately constant retarding force
VTD2 W
sL ≈
2 g D + µ r (W − L ) 0.7VTD

– again, adding a safety factor (10% in this case) to touch

down at a speed above the stall speed
VTD ≥ 1.15Vstall commercial airplanes 2W
r Vstall =
VTD ≥ 1.10Vstall military airplanes ρ∞ SCL max

– Substituting into the expression above for sL

2.645W 2
sL ≈ (commercial airplane)
g ρ ∞ SCLmax D + µr (W − L ) 0.7VTD

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 Landing Roll
Landing roll can be reduced if a thrust reverser is installed
Thrust reverser: 40-50% max T for Jet airplane;
40% max T for Reciprocating engine/propeller; 60% max T for Turbofan
dV
−TR − D − µr (W − L ) = m where TR = Reverse Trust
dt
D can be increased with: Spoilers, speed brakes, drogue chutes

– If the thrust reverser produces constant thrust,

W2
sL ≈
g ρ ∞ SC Lmax { T+ D + µ r (W − L ) 0.7VT
}
– Lift and drag forces are calculated, accounting for ground effect as
we did for takeoff roll
1 1 C2
L= ρ ∞V∞2 SCL D= ρ ∞V∞2 S CD ,0 + G L
2 2 π eAR
(16h / b )
2

Where G=
1 + (16h / b )
2

Landing Roll - sg
dV
m <0
dt
m d (V∞2 )
ds =
2 −TR − D − µr (W − L )

W 0 d (V∞2 )
sg − s fr = ; s fr = NVTD N=1 (mil); 3 (comm)
2g VTD −TR − D − µr (W − L )

W VTD d (V∞2 ) WVTD2 1

sg = NVTD + = NVTD +
2g 0 TR + D + µr (W − L ) 2 g TR + D + µ r (W − L ) 0.7VTD

VTD ≥ 1.15Vstall = jVstall commercial airplanes 2W

Vstall =
VTD ≥ 1.10Vstall = jVstall military airplanes ρ∞ SCLmax

2 W 1 W /S 1
sg = jN + j2
ρ ∞ S CL max ρ ∞ gCL max TR / W + D / W + µr (1 − L / W ) 0.7VTD

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