Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The development of new technologies has introduced more new materials in the
field of prosthesis manufacturing as described in chapter one. Prostheses
themselves have improved immensely as designers try to come as close as
possible to natural limbs, both functionally and visually. Better quality and lower-
cost substitutes of currently used materials were examined for the artificial hu-
man limbs and an attempt has been made to cover a sufficiently wide scope of
world practice in the examined field.
Chapter two presents a review for Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs). The metal al-
loys, which can undergo substantial plastic deformation, and then be triggered
into returning to its original shape by heat application. Particular consideration is
given to a proliferation of diverse applications of SMAs in a variety of industries.
Further research directions for SMAs and their application areas are also identi-
fied.
In chapter three, suitable acid resistant materials have been selected for the
making of storage tanks. Additionally we have described the factors that might
affect tank efficiency and utilization. We have also presented methods providing
additional protection of metals. By analyzing the scientific investigations carried
out in the field of electrochemical corrosion and anodic protection of metals, we
have presented the experimental results of anodic protection of mild steel in di-
luted sulphuric acid.
Composite materials made by bonding individual long known and used or new
materials have been examined in the chapter four. The manufacturing proc-
esses used for the production of this constantly expanding and significant to
modern industry material group, involve both previously known and new produc-
tion techniques. The basic components of composite materials as the Thermo-
plastics and the Thermosets are involved in the application of materials belong-
ing to this vast group.
Finally, bridge structures which are widely spread in engineering practice, with a
variety of construction shapes and static arrangements defined by the purpose,
usage features, nature of applied loads and the building materials have been
analyzed in the fifth chapter. The materials used in practice to build such model
constructions and the design solutions suitability have been carefully examined
in this study. In many cases it is possible to consider them as a group of struc-
tures incorporating common calculation and design considerations, set up on
common technological grounds.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1:
NEW MATERIALS IN ARTIFICIAL LIMBS: CONTEMPORARY
MATERIALS IN ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, IN ORDER TO INCREASE
LIVING ADAPTABILITY FOR PEOPLE WITH PROSTHESES.___ 1
INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________ 1
CRITICAL LITERATURE SEARCH _________________________________ 2
DATA ANALYSIS _______________________________________________ 6
CRITICAL DISCUSSION_________________________________________ 16
Polyester Hydrate_____________________________________________ 17
Carbon Fibres________________________________________________ 18
Titanium ____________________________________________________ 19
Bioactive glass _______________________________________________ 19
Biomaterials _________________________________________________ 19
Genetics and Biotechnology_____________________________________ 20
CONCLUSIONS _______________________________________________ 21
UNDERSTANDING COMMONLY USED TERMS _____________________ 23
CHAPTER 2:
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS & THEIR APPLICATIONS________ 24
INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 24
REVIEW OF THE SMAS _________________________________________ 25
Definition of a Shape Memory Alloys ______________________________ 25
History _____________________________________________________ 26
Shape Memory Alloy Types _____________________________________ 26
Crystallography of the SMAs ___________________________________ 27
Thermomechanical Characteristics _______________________________ 28
Austenite and Martensite Phases _______________________________ 28
Shape Memory Effect (SME) __________________________________ 29
Pseudo-elasticity____________________________________________ 30
SMA’s Applications____________________________________________ 31
THE SMAS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ___________________________ 34
FURTHER WORK ______________________________________________ 36
CONCLUSIONS _______________________________________________ 37
REFERENCES ________________________________________________ 38
CHAPTER 3:
SELECTING ACID-RESISTANT MATERIALS _______________ 40
CHAPTER 4:
FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS____________ 59
INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 59
COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES. _____ 59
1
Plasticisers. _________________________________________________ 60
Fillers ______________________________________________________ 61
Stabilisers. __________________________________________________ 62
Antistatic agents ______________________________________________ 63
Some composite manufacturing techniques ________________________ 63
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS_______________ 64
INFLUENCE OF THE MATRIX (BASIC ELASTOMER) AND ADDITIVES ON
THE QUALITY OF THE COMPOSITE MATERIAL. ____________________ 64
Influence of the type of elastomer on the quality of the composite material. 64
Influence of additive (reinforcement) material _______________________ 65
Influence of fibre arrangement and quantity_________________________ 67
RESIN-FIBRE INTERFACE (COUPLING AGENTS) ___________________ 69
CONCLUSION_________________________________________________ 69
REFERENCE__________________________________________________ 70
CHAPTER 5:
MATERIALS & DESIGN FOR BRIDGE MODELLING ________ 71
INTRODUCTION _______________________________________________ 71
INITIAL DATA _________________________________________________ 71
Construction geometry _________________________________________ 72
Testing jig diagram ____________________________________________ 72
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS _______________________________________ 73
RAW MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS __________________ 74
Characteristics _______________________________________________ 74
Material tests ________________________________________________ 74
CONSTRUCTIONS _____________________________________________ 76
STRUCTURE SELECTION & MANUFACTURE_______________________ 88
ALTERNATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS ________________________________ 88
STRUCTURE SELECTION & MANUFACTURE_______________________ 97
REFERENCES ________________________________________________ 97
2
CHAPTER 1
NEW MATERIALS IN ARTIFICIAL LIMBS: CONTEMPORARY
MATERIALS IN ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, IN ORDER TO IN-
CREASE LIVING ADAPTABILITY FOR PEOPLE WITH
PROSTHESES.
INTRODUCTION
There is a strong interest in the use of new materials in artificial limbs that
would help increase possibilities for adaptability and higher-quality life
standard of one specific section of modern society - physically disabled
people.
The objectives of this work were to provide information about the intro-
duction of new materials in the field of manufacturing prostheses, various
ways of application of different types of materials as well as the effects
these have on the technical characteristics and cost of artificial limbs.
The development of products for the physically disabled has greatly im-
proved the quality of life for many, particularly those who need an artificial
limb. The loss of a limb can impose dramatic barriers to interacting within
our world but with the sophisticated products available, artificial limbs are
able to break through these barriers with remarkable impact on the lives
of their users.
The artificial leg developed initially in the world has been an exoskeleton,
which was more of a cosmetic replacement than a functional one. Though
these appear like natural limbs, they cannot provide normal gait to a per-
son and also comfort for usability.
The world has already directed its efforts to fabricate the endoskeleton
type of artificial limbs. The endoskeleton replicates the functionality of
bones for load bearing and involves proper mechanical joints for normal
gait.
The Literature search and review method was used in the present report
utilizing literature sources classified in the following types:
2
• BOOKS
Information books dealing with the use of new biomaterials for artificial limbs
manufacturing:
• JOURNALS
Information articles dealing with the use of new materials for artificial limbs
manufacturing such as carbon fiber, titanium:
Information articles dealing with the process of developing and use of Po-
rous Plastic to Prosthetic Sockets:
3
[9] Wu, Y., et al., "Scotchcast P.V.C. Interim Prosthesis for Below-
Knee Amputees," Bull. Prosthet. Res., 10(40), 1981.
[11] Rubin, C. and J.L. Byers, A Porous Flexible Insert for the Be-
low-Knee Prosthesis," Orthotics and Prosthetics, 27(3), 1993.
• WEB SITES
4
[17] “Thermoplastic composite for artificial limbs”
http://www.andhratoday.com/medicine/fro.htm
[22] Prosthetics
http://www.livingskin.com/products.htm
[26] The Wall Street Journal, August 14, 1998; “Hydraulics and
Computers Help Artificial Limbs Get 'Smarter'”.
http://www.limbsforlife.org/media-wsj.htm
[27] BIOENGENEERING
http://www.comptons.com/encyclopedia/ARTICLES/0000/00225792_A.
5
[29] NASA Builds Muscles; Tiny tools for space hold promise for the
disabled; Dan Cray; March 22, 1999 Vol. 153 No. 11
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,21477,00.html
DATA ANALYSIS
Inventors have tried to replicate what nature cannot replace. Prosthetics
have been used since at least 300 BC, when crude devices 'containing
metal plates hammered over a wooden ore, were attached to an ampu-
tated limb. For centuries, wood and leather were the only materials for
prosthetics for artificial limbs but today's physical therapist has a much
wider range encompassing advanced plastics and carbon fibre, which are
much stronger, lighter and more durable. [14] (Atul Mittal, Sangeeta Nan-
gia & Soumitra Biswas, 2000)
The majority of materials used today for artificial limbs and accessories
are non-porous plastics. The prescribers and manufacturers of artificial
limbs are primarily concerned with the
functional and structural characteristics of
prostheses, whereas the majority of users
express a decided preference for
improvement in the feeling of
compatibility and comfort when wearing
these artificial limbs. Perspiration and
body odor emanating from the socket in
contact with the skin present an acute
problem. [1] (Tetsuya, Watanabe,
Nakamura Brace Co., Ltd., 1998, Japan)
6
made of non-porous materials. [15] (Toshiro Nakamura, O.A. Eiji Hatano,
M.D.)
• Forming tests were tried with finer porosity material, but sin-
tered molded finer material was not as easily molded. Draw-
ing into socket shapes invariably caused the material to rup-
ture.
3. Ceramics: Costs incurred for the necessary metal molds and the
specialized engineering for molding were prohibitive.
7
The production of artificial limbs using porous material demands that po-
rous material also be employed for the inner socket. To satisfy this re-
quirement, the following materials were considered:
When this socket is dried at temperatures of 60° - 80°C, the water con-
tained in the plastic evaporates and the areas where water was contained
become cavities, resulting in the formation of a porous and permeable
socket.
The relationship between the amount of water added and the strength of
the material can be judged according to the increasing amount of water,
which reduces the strength of the material and results in a relative reduc-
tion in weight.
Some others new materials Proflex and Proflex with Silicone are extruded
Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) sheets. They are an inherently flexible, cush-
ioning material that is thermoformed to produce elastic suction sockets in
artificial limbs (Fig. 2). Proflex is semi-transparent. The
2% silicone additive in Proflex with Silicone improves
performance characteristics and gives the material a
whitish color.
8
Proflex with Silicone is nearly pure Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) sheet with
2% silicone (in an ethylene carrier) added. The addition of silicone has
the benefit of less surface tack for increased user comfort. Proflex with
Silicone also has a vinyl acetate concentration approaching 30% for the
preferred combination of stiffness and yield.
Proflex and Proflex with Silicone are available in three thicknesses [18]
(GE Polymershapes Cadillac & Commercial):
The socket made of polypropylene is patient specific and does not create
any problems like pressure sores even for diabetic patients. The FRP
tube connects the socket to the foot. The connectors between the socket
and tube and tube and the foot can be adjusted for angular alignment of
the limb. [14] (Atul Mittal, Sangeeta Nangia & Soumitra Biswas, 2000).
9
use of carbon-fibre reinforced plastics and microprocessor controls in ad-
vanced artificial lower limbs. The artificial limb named “Atlas” concept de-
veloped by Blatchford applies innovative materials and design to best use
the scarcest resource, that of skilled manpower. The company used a
technology, which is totally new in its field to produce highly functional ar-
tificial limbs quickly and at a reasonable cost.
Flex-Foot, Inc. designs and markets innovative lower limb prosthetic de-
vices for amputees of all ages and activity levels. All premium Flex-Foot
products are made from 100% carbon fiber, a
material used extensively in the aerospace in-
dustry for its superior strength and flexibility. [8]
("Life without Limitations“; “Flex-foot: active
living”; 10.2000). Mr. Van Phillips, who founded
Flex-Foot Inc., now based in Aliso Viejo, Calif,
produced a model artificial limbs named Flex-
Foot from the strong, but lightweight carbon-
fiber composite, used by the area's aerospace Figure 4
manufacturers. Flex-Foot is the J-shaped, ICELOCK Ratchet
which uses the energy from a person's step to TP 122 with Titanium
propel the next step. The Flex-Foot also has a Pyramid
flat spring at the toe and heel, which acts like a
diving board to put bounce into a person's walk. [26] (The Wall Street
Journal, August 14, 1998).
10
The company ÖSSUR has been also using carbon (Fig. 4) and titanium
(Fig. 5) as materials for manufacturing various prostheses component
parts. [20] (Anthropology and Prosthetics; http://www.ossur.com/).
Based in Reykjavik, Iceland, ÖSSUR has been at the forefront of re-
search and development in the field of prosthetics and techniques since
1971. Founded by Össur Kristinsson, the company operates through a
global network of sales outlets and agencies, offering a broad range of
customized products specifically designed to suit individual prosthetic
needs.
11
Description Category
Bonding Agent for Silicone Elastomers
Catalyst for Silicone Gel Elastomers
Cleaner for UltraPro™ Sprayer Cleaners
C-Orthocryl® Resin Lamination Resins
Cyamet Fast Set Adhesive Adhesives
Fast Curing Putty - Akemi Fillers
Finish Concentrate - Part A Lacquers
Hardener for Pedilen® Soft Foams Foam Resins
Isopropylalcohol Cleaners
Orthocryl® Extra Flexible Resin Lamination Resins
Orthocryl® Flexible Resin Lamination Resins
Orthocryl® Lacquer - Clear Lacquers
Orthocryl® Sealing Resin Adhesives/Lacquers/Lam. Resins
Special Adhesive for Textiles Adhesives
Otto Bock Epoxy Adhesive for Use with 636W19 Adhesives
Otto Bock Light Putty Fillers
Parting Agent for Orthocryl® Resins Parting Agents
Parting Agent HS Parting Agents
Pedilen Flexible Foam 150 Flexible Foams/Foam Resins
Pedilen Rigid Foam 200 Foam Resins/Rigid Foams
Pedilen Rigid Foam 300 Foam Resins/Rigid Foams
Pedilen® Duplicating Plastic Foam Resins
Pedilen® Flexible Foam 300 Foam Resins
Pedilen® Rigid Foam 450 Foam Resins
Pigment Paste - Tan Lamination Resins/Pigments
Pigment Paste - White Lamination Resins/Pigments
Pigment Paste - Yellow Lamination Resins/Pigments
Plastic Wood Fillers
Polyester Resin Resins
Sealing Resin Adhesive Gel Adhesives/Fillers
Silicone Heat Conduction Paste Adhesives
Special Adhesive for OrthoGel™ Liner Adhesives/Lacquers
Silicone Gel Elastomers
Socket Lacquer - Clear Lacquers
Solvent C Thinners
Thinner for Acrylic Resins Thinners
Special Cleaner for Cosmetic Gloves Cleaners
Special Lacquer - Colorless Lacquers
Spray Lacquer - Caucasian Lacquers
Spray Lacquer - Dark Brown Lacquers
Stabilizing Agent for Silicone Gel Elastomers
Teflon® Spray Lubricants/Parting Agents
12
that enable many people to walk and move more naturally and comforta-
bly than was ever dreamed possible. Advances in microelectronics allow
artificial arms and hands to be manipulated more naturally. Prostheses
have also improved in appearance. Modern artificial limbs incorporate fin-
gers and toes, and some even appear to have veins. [3] (Profio, A.E.
Biomedical Engineering Wiley, 1993).
Prosthetic devices now in use range from artificial limbs used to replace
diseased, missing, or malfunctioning limbs, to systems that duplicate the
function of critical body organs. Patients unable to walk due to disabling
diseases or injuries can very often return to normal when their hip and
knee joints are replaced with artificial joints. Most artificial joints are made
from metals such as titanium, which have high strength, low weight, and
good compatibility with body tissues. These devices are mechanically in-
serted into the adjacent, healthy bone and fixed in place using an ortho-
pedic bone cement called polymethylmethacrylate, or PMMA. Because
metals that rub against other metals eventually wear down and produce
hazardous splintered particles that may migrate throughout the body, bio-
engineers have developed polymers, such as polyethylene, that are less
likely to wear down. Metal surfaces are designed to articulate, or move,
against these polymer surfaces. Joints that bear little force, such as the
fingers, can be made entirely of polymeric materials.
[27] (BIOENGENEERING;
http://www.comptons.com/encyclopedia/ARTICLES/0000/00225792_A.).
13
late scientist-philosopher R. Buckminster Fuller. The nanotubes are long,
thin straws of carbon measured in billionths of a meter, possessing un-
usual strength as well as unusual electrical properties. When a charge is
introduced, the nanotubes’ molecular structure. They applied strips of the
Bucky paper to both sides of a length of double-sided adhesive tape,
hooked up electrical leads to each sheet and placed the laminated “mus-
cle” in a saline solution. Two sheets of carbon nanotubes are separated
by double-sided adhesive tape, then hooked up to a battery. The intro-
duction of a negative charge causes one side to expand more than the
other - and as a result the strip curls. That's how the "muscle" flexes.
When current was applied, both pieces of Bucky paper expanded - but
the negatively charged paper expanded more. As a result, the artificial
muscle flexed.
Bar-Cohen said he and his colleagues were working toward the day when
artificial muscles could win an arm-wrestling match against a flesh-and-
blood bicep - an age when people could buy muscles as easily as they
could buy bicycles or skateboards.
14
A more specific but very significant in its designed purpose is the applica-
tion of another new type of material in manufacturing prostheses for artifi-
cial limbs - bioactive glass, which has been studied by Dr Edouard Jallot.
[12] (Dr. Edouard Jallot and colleagues; “Journal of Physics D: Applied
Physics”. 18 October 2000).
Life expectancy increases with the health of the population, but this
means many people outlive their bones, teeth and mineralized tissue.
Replacement synthetic materials are sought after, but finding something
suitable is not straightforward. Tissue in the body can reject any foreign
material that is placed in contact with it, so extensive tests have to be
done before a material can be used in operations. In bony tissue, im-
plants need to be stable for a long time and firmly fixed to the bone, but
most implants used today suffer problems at the interface between the
material and the tissue.
15
made to resemble human skin by simulating the three dermal layers of
natural human skin.
The top or surface skin layer, the epidermis, holds the pores, wrinkles and
fingerprints. This layer also contains melanin, the pigment that creates
suntan and darker skin types. Like human skin, LIVINGSKIN®’s epider-
mal layer also contains pores and skin detail. The natural melanin is
simulated through custom applied pigments saturated within this silicone
skin layer.
Figure 8
The dermis is the middle layer of skin. This translucent layer consists of a
cloudy mesh of specialized skin cells. LIVINGSKIN®’s dermal layer is
also a mesh of translucent (silicone) cells that closely resemble nature’s
original.
The final and deepest skin layer, the subcutaneous layer, contains the fat
cells and blood which allow for much of the visible skin color. LIVING-
SKIN®’s subcutaneous layer is a custom pigmented silicone matrix of
varying colors painstakingly applied to match each individual.
CRITICAL DISCUSSION
Society's demand for a rapid and diverse succession of new, specialized
materials has resulted in a concentrated, systematic approach to materi-
als research and education. In the past, specialized materials were de-
veloped through a trial-and-error process. Today, the tools and expertise
of scientists are being combined with those of engineers, resulting in pro-
ductive cooperation in both applied and theoretical areas.
16
The search for new materials and the need to make better use of old
ones continues to broaden the field of materials science. The ability to
create the next generation of advanced materials--polymers, ceramics,
metals, semiconductors or superconductors - and advanced devices -
such as lasers, micromotors, or artificial limbs - requires the control of
materials and interfaces with atomic to macroscopic level understanding.
This is the domain of materials science.
As a result of the data analysis carried out so far on the basis of the data
collected using the Literature search and review method we can now pro-
ceed with the discussion on the use of some specific new materials and
their application in the manufacture of prostheses for artificial limbs.
Polyester Hydrate
Polyester hydrate sockets are
constructed of a fine, lightweight
material, which simulates the
texture of wood. These sockets
provide the amputated residual
limb with a totally clean, more
comfortable environment. The
exterior appearance, however,
may be slightly inferior and re-
quires considerable care in
controlling the hardening time.
In some cases, the socket may
require special reinforcement.
The development of polyester
hydrate sockets now makes it
possible for amputees to over-
come some of the discomforts
associated with wearing pros-
theses. Another benefit is the
low production cost which is Figure 9
possible using conventional
lamination methods.
17
product developed by Kayaku Nouilly Co., Ltd., permits the absorption of
water into the resin.
Carbon Fibres
The Industrial Revolution grew out of the development and use of steel,
the revolutionary material of the past. However, steel has many limitations
- weight, corrosion, fatigue, etc. Composite Materials Engineering is over-
coming many of these limitations.
A composite material is any material made up from two or more other ma-
terials, eg. carbon fibres in a plastic matrix or aramid fibres in rubber.
The carbon fibres is known for its high specific stiffness and strength,
given by carbon fibres. The material has an advantageous combination of
good mechanical properties and low weight.
The properties of the material vary depending on the content and orienta-
tion of the fibres.
It is used for very stiff and light structures within sport equipment, aero-
space, medical equipment (protheses) and prototyping.
The carbon fibres can be woven into mats, which can be pressed into 3-
dimensional shapes, and then plastic is added. The most used processes
are manual fibre molding, RTM, filament winding, pultrusion, and auto-
clave injection.
18
Titanium
With efforts to reduce basic problems such as friction between the pros-
thesis and the body; development of energy-storing parts that will receive
an impact and rebound; and use of titanium implants, which were pio-
neered in dentistry and will grow directly to bone, providing a stronger
prosthesis, the world of rehabilitation medicine is offering patients new
limbs that are not only lifelike, but perhaps will be an improvement on
what nature originally provided
Bioactive glass
Material called bioactive glass has been developed to promote an inti-
mate contact between bone and any foreign material or implant. Bioactive
glass, used to bond artificial limbs to bone, reacts when in the body for a
considerable length of time.
This material definitely has its future and will find wider application and
presence in the field of manufacturing prostheses for artificial limbs.
Biomaterials
Today's engineers are not only developing new polymers for the covering
of the limb. The use of computers has greatly advanced the field of pros-
thetics and orthotics. Sensors, bioelectrodes, and computers within these
devices are being used to develop new systems that will provide the user
with a feedback mechanism which tells the patient the type of surface un-
derfoot and the amount of pressure needed to sustain balance. Elec-
trodes are placed on the sole of the device with feedback wires running
up through the trunk to the residual limb. Sensors on the end of the limb
19
are stimulated by the electrodes, giving the person feedback. Myoelec-
trics involve the use of electromyogram signals (EMGs) from the brain for
muscle and device control. This allows for the apparatus and residual
limb to interface directly. When the muscles in the residual limb are con-
tracted, the device responds.
These new advances are opening new doors for disabled people, but en-
gineers have a greater goal ahead. The artificial limb does provide new
opportunities to those who have lost limbs. The next step in development
involves a completely bioartificial limb. Scientists and engineers are work-
ing together to develop new biomaterials that will work together as a
bioartificial limb. Artificial skin has is already being used in surgery and in
the treatment of burn victims. Scientists hope to use this concept as a
base for the protective covering of artificial limbs. Several graduate stu-
dents at MIT are working together on the development of artificial muscle.
Once the actual muscle is constructed, the students must create a detec-
tion and response system that mimics the nervous system within the
muscle. In addition, bioartificial bone is another aspect that is being con-
sidered. Once attached to the patient, scientists hope that the body will
accept the prosthesis as an extension of itself. Researchers believe that
the artificial limb will become a reality in the near future.
20
CONCLUSIONS
Artificial limbs have been used for hundreds of years, but new materials
and creative designs in the last few years have brought a surge of innova-
tion.
Old materials have gradually stepped back leaving the new brands
ahead.
21
What is the future?
22
Understanding Commonly Used Terms
23
CHAPTER 2
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS & THEIR APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents a review for Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), metal
alloys, which can undergo substantial plastic deformation, and then be
triggered into returning to its original shape by heat application. Since its
discovery, many researchers have been working on different aspects of
these alloys. Based on their studies some basic structural aspects are
emphasized in the present document that contribute to the complexity of
shape memory. This specific class of alloys is defined and their crystallo-
graphic structure and mechanisms causing its unique characteristics are
discussed. Particular consideration is given to a proliferation of diverse
applications of SMAs in a variety of industries. Finally, further research
directions for SMAs and their application areas are also identified.
The main learning objectives of this literature review are to generate and
define the structure of the main topics forming the integrity of the study:
carry out a literature review on the subject of the study; demonstrate abil-
ity to acquire, cumulate and select required information and distribute this
among the main topics; make a critical analysis and generate suggestions
for further work; provide for permanent link between used quotes and
studied theses, and relevant data sources used to acquire this informa-
tion.
Hodgson (1999) states that “Smart materials' are an innovation that has
revolutionized the world of engineering over the last few decades” (p.32)
[1]. The subject of this study is one of the most widely used of them -
Shape Memory Alloys that are able to undergo major deformation and
then, when triggered by heat, snap back to their original shape.
24
They are a unique class of metal alloys, which can be deformed severely
and afterwards recover their original shape after a thermomechanical cy-
cle (shape memory effect), or a stress cycle within some appropriate
temperature regimes (pseudo-elasticity). They exhibit peculiar thermome-
chanical, thermoelectrical, and thermochemical behavior under different
mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical working and environmental
conditions, according to a recent study (Khalil-Allafia et al., 2002, p.29)
[2]. The fields of SMAs application are very diverse ranging from every-
day consumer products to biomedical implants to space applications.
Hodgson (1999, p.43) identified SMAs of particular practical interest to be
the nickel-titanium alloys and copper-base alloys [1].
The extremely complex behavior along with the increased use of the
SMAs in innovative applications in many engineering and science fields
(Duerig et al., 1990 p.59) [3] results in a greater need for a better under-
standing of these materials. Therefore, there is a particular interest for
them aimed at further understanding the mechanisms that determine their
unique characteristics as well as expanding their field of application
(Graesser & Cozzarelli, 1994, p.95) [4].
The main aim and the objectives of the present study are hereby pursued
applying the research method of Literature Search & Review. Some limi-
tations to the scope of the study were required due to the rather wide field
of the subject’s area and it was therefore directed mainly to SMAs appli-
cations.
Finally, this work is based on the assumption that SMAs are an excep-
tionally promising and dynamically developing class of materials with in-
novative ideas for applications.
25
According to Hodgson (1999, p.57) the term Shape Memory Alloys is ap-
plied to that group of metallic materials that demonstrate the ability to re-
turn to some previously defined shape or size when subjected to the ap-
propriate thermal procedure. He reveals that these materials can be plas-
tically deformed at some relatively low temperature, and upon exposure
to some higher temperature will return to their shape prior to the deforma-
tion [1].
History
Discovered in the early 30's and industrially rediscovered in the late 60’s,
Shape Memory Alloys exhibit interesting characteristics due to a solid-
solid phase transition (Meunier, 1995) [7]. The first recorded observation
of the shape memory transformation was by Chang and Read in 1932.
They noted the reversibility of the transformation in AuCd by metal-
lographic observations and resistivity changes, and in 1951 the shape
memory effect (SME) was observed in a bent bar of AuCd. In 1938, the
transformation was seen in brass (CuZn). However, it was not until 1962,
when Buehler, a researcher at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in White
Oak, Maryland, and co-workers discovered the effect in equiatomic
nickel-titanium (NiTi), that research into both the metallurgy and potential
practical uses began in earnest Lagoudas (2001, pp 8667) [6]. Nickel-
titanium alloys have been found to be the most useful of all SMAs. The
generic name for the family of nickel-titanium alloys is Nitinol. (Kauffman
and Mayo, 1993, p.5) [8]. Within 10 years, a number of commercial prod-
ucts were on the market, and understanding of the effect was much ad-
vanced.
26
that exhibit shape changes and unusual elastic properties consequent to
deformation. Some of these alloy types and variants are shown in table 1
(Anson, 1999, pp746) [9].
Of all these systems, the NiTi alloys and a few of the copper-base alloys
have received the most development effort and commercial exploitation,
underlined by Lagoudas (Lagoudas et al., 2001, 8665) [6].
27
As a result, little macroscopic strain is generated. In the case of stress-
induced martensites, or when stressing a self-accommodating structure,
the variant that can transform and yield the greatest shape change in the
direction of the applied stress is stabilized and becomes dominant in the
configuration (Fig. 1c). This process creates a macroscopic strain, which
is recoverable as the crystal structure reverts to austenite during reverse
transformation. (Hodgson, 1999, p.57) [1].
Thermomechanical Characteristics
28
Shape Memory Effect (SME)
Through SME, material has the ability to memorize a very specific con-
figuration either in low-temperature range (martensite phase) or high-
temperature range (austenite phase). (Oksuka and Wayman, 1998, p.58)
[5].
29
perature change is shown schematically in Figure 3 (Rodriguez and
Brown, 1975, p 27) [10].
In Figure 4 Hodgson
(1988, p.87) shows
schematically the
shape memory effect:
at a temperature above
Ms, the specimen is
entirely in the austenite
phase. When cooling
to below Mf transfor-
mation, the specimen
progresses entirely to Figure 4
the martensite phase. Shape Memory Effect (Hodgson, 1988) [11].
Nevertheless the mac-
roscopic volume of the
specimen has not changed - a condition known as self-accommodation.
With small loads the specimen can be easily deformed, and the deformed
shape remains after removing the loads. Heating to above Af causes the
reverse transformation to occur and the specimen returns to its original
undistorted state [11].
Pseudo-elasticity
SMAs also display pseudo-elasticity that is a mechanical type of shape
memory. This effect is observed when alloys are strained just above their
transformation temperature. (Kauffman and Mayo, 1993, p7) [8].
30
appear extremely elastic, is known as pseudo-elasticity or super-
elasticity.
SMA’s Applications
There are several thousand patents
for devices utilizing the properties
of SMAs. Only a small percentage
of these inventions have become
successful products but the fields of
application are very diverse ranging
from everyday consumer products
to biomedical implants to space ap-
plications. “Nevertheless, the first
industrial application occurred in
1969 when SMA couplings joined Figure 5
hydraulic pipes in the F-14 aircraft” Different sizes of NiTinol tubes
recall Otsuka and Wayman (1998, (Anson, 1999) [9].
p.95) [5].
This application has been extended to the joining of many other types of
pipe, sometimes using a liner that is squeezed onto the pipes to make a
joint. Harrison and Hodgson (1975, p.517) describe one application,
where the cylindrical couplings are cooled to cryogenic temperatures to
produce the martensitic phase when they can be easily expanded to slide
over the pipes. On warming above the transformation temperature, the
coupling tries to contract to its original size but is constrained by the pipes
within. The stresses that result from this constraint are sufficient to create
a joint that can be superior to a weld [12].
31
In some applications, the shape memory component is designed to exert
force over a considerable range of motion, often for many cycles. Such an
application is the circuit-board edge connector made by Beta Phase Inc,
found by Krumme (1987, p.41) [13]. In this electrical connector system,
the SMA component is used to force open a spring when the connector is
heated. This allows force-free insertion or withdrawal of a circuit board in
the connector. Upon cooling, the NiTi actuator becomes weaker and the
spring easily deforms the actuator while it closes tightly on the circuit
board and forms the connections.
A number of products have been brought to market that use the pseudo-
elastic (or superelastic) property of these SMAs. Eyeglass frames that
use super-elastic NiTi to absorb large deformations without damaging the
32
frames are now marketed, and guide wires for steering catheters into
vessels in the body have been devel-
oped using NiTi wire, which resists per-
manent deformation if bent severely.
Arch wires for orthodontic correction us-
ing NiTi have been used for many years
to give large rapid movement of teeth
(Hodgson, 1999, p.151) [1].
Nitinol actuators as engine mounts and suspensions can also control vi-
bration. These actuators can be helpful in preventing the destruction of
such structures as buildings and bridges, described in Rogers (1995,
p.154) [15].
According to Stoeckel and Yu, (1997 : 11) 'The properties of the NiTi al-
loys, particularly, indicate their probable greater use in biomedical appli-
cations.' The material is extremely corrosion resistant, demonstrates ex-
cellent biocompatibility, can be fabricated into the very small sizes often
required, and has properties of elasticity and force delivery that allow
uses not possible any other way. Many biomedical applications use su-
per-elastic wires and tubes. These include catheters and guide wires for
steering catheters. Super-elastic arch wires for orthodontic correction
have proven particularly effective by producing large rapid movement of
teeth [17].
33
vena cava, where, due to the heat caused by blood flow, reverts to the
original blood-clot filtering configuration. The constriction of vessel re-
stricts blood flow, so that surgeons have to often resort to by-pass and
this can be avoided by the smart implant [1].
Lagoudas et al (2001) [6] give similar description of the two SMAs stable
phases: austenite and martensite, as well as of the phase transformation
which occurs between these two phases upon heating/cooling. Also dis-
cussed in this specific study are the two forms of the martensite: twinned
and detwinned.
34
(1975) [10] and also Lagoudas et al. (2001) [6], describe the mechanism
of the shape memory effect through austenite transformations to a ther-
moelastic martensite whose structure has many variants, typically
sheared platelets, while the austenite phase has only one possible orien-
tation. Thus, when heated, all the possible deformed structures of the
martensite phase must revert to this one orientation of the austenite
memory phase and the material recovers its original shape. Above men-
tioned researchers as well as Hodgson (1988) [11] use four characteristic
temperatures to define a thermoelastic martensitic transformation: Ms, Mf
, As and Af.
Kauffman & Mayo (1993) [8] and Hodgson (1988) [11] describe the other
basic property - pseudo-elasticity (or super-elasticity) as a mechanical
type of shape memory. It can be summerised from their research work
and also Meunier’s (1995) [7] that slightly above its transformation tem-
perature, martensite can be stress-induced. It then immediately strains
and exhibits the increasing strain at constant stress behavior. Upon
unloading, though, the material reverts to austenite at a lower stress, and
shape recovery occurs, not upon the application of heat but upon a reduc-
tion of stress and it is exactly this particular effect, which causes the ma-
terial to be extremely elastic and is defined by researchers as pseudo-
elasticity.
The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial
exploitation are the NiTi alloys and the copper-base alloys. The unusual
properties mentioned above are being applied to a wide variety of appli-
cations in a number of different fields and this is mentioned by almost all
authors considered in the literature review. Harrison and Hodgson (1975)
[12], Otsuka & Wayman (1998) [5] and Hodgson (1999) [1] describe the
uses of the constrained recovery event for joining and fastening purposes
and the development of tube and pipe couplings for aircraft, marine and
other applications.
However, from the literature review (Section 2.6) we must take into ac-
count the fact that established applications for shape memory alloys in-
clude domestic appliances: shower mixer valves, coffee makers, rice
cookers, deep fat fryers (Falcioni, 1992) [16], eyeglass frames and cellu-
lar phones (Hodgson, 1999) [1]; utility applications: safety shut off valves
for fuel lines in the event of fire and air conditioning systems (Barnes,
1999) [14]. The shape memory alloys can also contribute to the miniaturi-
zation of equipment and systems, decrease the number of parts required
and extend the life expectancy too due to the favorable fatigue properties
of the alloy.
35
Besides their super-elastic properties, SMAs have excellent fatigue and
corrosion resistance. As Stoeckel and Yu (1997) [17] realize, the largest
commercial successes of SMAs are in the field of bioengineering and
biomedical applications. Most successful is the use of orthodontic arch
wires (in contrast to similar stainless steel wires) which will gradually re-
turn to their shape exerting a small and nearly constant force on the mis-
aligned teeth. Hodgson (1999) [1] confirms the above and describes an-
other fast growing field of application: SMAs use as blood clot filter.
FURTHER WORK
The many uses and applications of shape memory alloys ensure a bright
future for SMAs. Future applications are envisioned to include engines in
cars and airplanes and electrical generators utilizing the mechanical en-
ergy resulting from the shape transformations. Nitinol with its shape
memory property is also envisioned for use as car frames, explained in
(Kauffman & Mayo, 1993 : 3) [8].
Some other directions for SMAs’ future yet are obvious. The cost of these
alloys has slowly decreased as use has increased, so uses that require
lower-cost alloys to be viable are being explored, as identified in Hodgson
(1999, p.234) [1]. Alloy development has yielded several ternary composi-
tions with properties improved over those obtained with binary material,
and alloys tailored to specific product needs are likely to multiply. The
medical industry has developed a number of products using NiTi alloys
because of their excellent biocompatibility and large pseudo-elasticity,
and many more of these applications are likely. Finally,as classified in
Falcioni (1992, p.114), the availability of small wire that is stable, is easily
heated by a small electrical current, and gives a large repeatable stroke
should lead to a new family of actuator devices. These devices can be in-
expensive, are reliable for thousands of cycles, and are expected to move
NiTi into the high-volume consumer marketplace [16].
36
CONCLUSIONS
This investigation has shown several important aspects that need to be
considered when looking at the nature and thermomechanical properties
of SMAs and their applications.
Shape Memory Alloys undergo a phase transformation in their crystal
structure when cooled from the stronger, high temperature form (aus-
tenite) to the weaker, low temperature form (martensite). This inherent
phase transformation is the basis for the two unique properties of
these alloys:
- Shape Memory Effect - the unique ability of shape memory alloys
to be severely deformed and then returned to their original shape
simply by heating them and
- Pseudo-elasticity - an almost rubber-like flexibility demonstrated by
shape memory alloys.
The most effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel - Tita-
nium), CuZnAl, and CuAlNi;
Some of the main advantages of SMAs include: bio-compatibility; di-
verse fields of application; good mechanical properties (strong, corro-
sion resistant);
SMAs are still relatively expensive to manufacture and machine com-
pared to other materials such as steel and aluminum;
SMAs are being used in a variety of applications. They have been
used for aerospace, medical, safety, domestic, and robotics applica-
tions. The largest commercial successes of SMAs are in the field of
bioengineering and biomedical applications;
The further investigations will be aimed at new fields of application of
currently existing SMAs and at developing new classes of SMAs in-
cluding Beta-Ti alloys and iron-base alloys.
37
REFERENCES
1. Hodgson, Darel (1999) Shape Memory Alloys. Harrison Alloys, Inc,
p.31-256.
2. Khalil-Allafia, J., Dlouhyb, A. and Eggeler, G. (2002). Ni4Ti3-
precipitation during aging of NiTi shape memory alloys and its influ-
ence on martensitic phase transformations. Institut für Werkstoffe,
Ruhr-University, Bochum: p.89.
3. Duerig, T.W., Melton, K. N., Stokel, D. and Wayman, C.M. (1990).
Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys. Butterworth-
Heinemann, Stoneham, MA: p. 65.
4. Graesser, E. J. and Cozzarelli, F. A. (1994). A proposed three-
dimensional constitutive model for shape memory alloys. J. Intell.
Mater. Systems Struct, p 37.
5. Otsuka, K. and Wayman, C. M., (1998). Shape Memory Materials.
Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 0-521-44487 X hardback.
6. Lagoudas, D.C., Qidwai, M.A., Entchev, P.B., and DeGiorgi, V.G.
(2001). Modeling of the Thermomechanical Behavior of Porous
Shape Memory Alloys. International Journal of Solids and Structures
Vol. 38, pp. 8653-8671.
7. [Meunier, Marc-Antoine (1995) Experimental characterization, ther-
momechanical modelisation and fatigue study of shape memory al-
loy pieces (SMA). Retrieved April 15, 2003, from
http://www.meca.polymtl.ca/SMA/publication_1/
8. Kauffman, G. and Mayo, I. (1993). Memory Metal. Chem Matters
Oct. 1993: p. 4-7.
9. Anson, Tony (1999). Shape Memory Alloys and their Commercial
Exploitation. Materials World, Vol. 7, No. 12, pp 745-747 December.
10. Rodriguez, C. and Brown, L. C. (1975). In Shape Memory Effect In
Alloys. J. Perkins, ed., Plenum Press, p 27.
11. Hodgson, D.E. (1988). Proceedings of Engineering Aspects of
Shape Memory Alloys. East Lansing, MI.
12. Harrison, J.D. and Hodgson, D.E. (1975). Shape Memory Effects in
Alloys. J. Perkins, Ed., Plenum Press, p 517
13. Krumme, J. F. (1987). Shape Memory Alloys. Connect. Technol., Vol
3 (No. 4), April: p 41
38
14. Barnes, Clive (1999). Shape Memory and Superelastic Alloys, Re-
trieved April 15, 2003, from
http://innovations.copper.org/1999/07/shape.html
15. Rogers, Craig (1995). "Intelligent Materials." Scientific American
Sept.: p 154-157.
16. Falcioni, John G. (1992). "Shape Memory Alloys”. Mechanical Engi-
neering Apr. 1992: p 114.
17. Stoeckel, Dieter and Weikang, Yu (1997). Superelastic Nickel-
Titanium Wires. Raychem Corporation, Menlo Park, CA: p.11.
39
CHAPTER 3
SELECTING ACID-RESISTANT MATERIALS
40
tigated and the nature and morphology of oxidized layers thus formed are
studied, on the other.
Also outstanding are V.Muller’s (1933) trials that subjected iron, zinc,
copper, etc. metal electrodes horizontally positioned in the electrolyte to
anodic polarization in diluted sulphuric acid solutions. The polarized light
studies have indicated that when there is no motion in the electrolyte hy-
drated sulphates of corresponding metals deposit on the surface of the
electrodes. Once these salts are formed metals transform into their pas-
sive state.
Anodic passivation of metals could also be carried out without the forma-
tion of the shielding solid products. If no anions are present in the electro-
lyte to precipitate the metal cations that have entered the solution and if
the potential of the electrode has been sufficiently diverted into the posi-
tive direction to allow for a reaction to take place, then a new phase of
metal oxide or hydroxide is directly deposited on the metal surface, which
changes the properties of the initial metal surface and the nature of the
anodic reaction. Under such conditions the metal stops to dissolve meas-
urably and transfers into passive state.
41
cepts according to which the passivation phenomenon is the result of a
number of changes taking place in the physical properties of the metal it-
self (for example, the change in the electron state of the metal and its
transformation into a specific, chemically inactive allotropic state). An-
other group of theoretical concepts links passivation to the formation of
protective oxide layers on the metal surface. The metal does not become
thermodynamically nobler during passivation but transfers into a stable
state thanks to the protective layers formed on its surface, which signifi-
cantly change the electrochemical properties of the metal-medium inter-
face. And if the discussions on the issue of the passive state of metals
still continue to be fierce they are mainly concentrated on the question:
what is the nature of these protective layers? Are these two-dimensional
layers of adsorbed oxygen that block the metal surface making it inactive
(the adsorption theory) or these are three-dimensional oxide layers, which
under the form of a separate phase cover the metal surface and purely
mechanically prevent it from the actions of the corrosive medium (the
phase theory) [3].
The current and voltage values could be measured using the power
source devices and a multimeter. We increase the voltage in 0.1V inter-
vals up to maximum 3.0V and we measure the current value for every
voltage increase. Before we take down its value we wait for the current to
stabilize. The current readings increase steadily up to the point where the
passive section is reached when it suddenly drops. When 3.0V is reached
we reduce the current through 0.1V intervals to see if there are some hys-
teresis effects. We repeat the experiment adding to the acid a small quan-
tity of concentrated brine solution. We plot the voltage variation in rela-
tion to current density logarithm and we analyze the results.
42
Figure 1 Experimental setup diagram
The opposite processes take place when current density reduces. For
voltage values of 1.75V electrode potential changes in the negative direc-
43
tion and anodic metal dissolving is resumed. In this process resumption
the diagram indicates a hysteresis, which could be explained by the fact
that the passive layer thus formed stays stable even at lower current den-
sities than those when the layer was formed. It takes some time to cover
the entire electrode with the oxide layer and this time would be smaller for
higher anode current densities.
Applications. The results show that this experiment could be used for pro-
viding anodic protection of metals against corrosion. An oxidized layer
covers metals when immersed into suitable oxidizing medium (oxidation)
or when used for a certain time as anodes in an electrolytic bath where
their surface is oxidized by the oxide deposited on the anode (anodizing).
High nickel and manganese steels feature extended areas of stable aus-
tenitic structure. When chrome-nickel steels are heated up to tempera-
tures of 490 – 900 degrees or when being cooled down slowly in this in-
terval chrome carbides are formed along the boundaries of the austenitic
grains. This results in grains of rich in chrome and poor in carbon cores.
As a result of this structural non-uniformity steel shows a tendency for in-
ter-crystal corrosion. To avoid this drawback chrome-nickel steels have to
be additionally alloyed using strong carbide-forming elements such as ti-
tanium and niobium.
44
The austenite structure of chrome-nickel and chrome-nickel-manganese
steels renders these materials some very essential properties, such as
non-magnetic characteristics, improved strength under high temperatures
and good weldability.
Steel brand σS σВ δ ψ аK
ISO DIN МРа МРа % % KJ/m2
X5CrNiMoCuNb18 18 1.4505 230 750 40 35 650
Low-cost steels (£ 1 per kg). Good quality carbon steel is intended for
the needs of all machine-building industry areas. Parts made of this steel
type are usually subjected to temperature and thermo-chemical treat-
ment. To meet variable and often stringent requirements in this industry
these steels contain basic components that compared to regular carbon
constructional steels have tighter limit deviations, smaller quantities of
45
harmful impurities, more uniform structure and higher non-metallic inclu-
sions purity [4].
The basic properties and main purpose of these steels are determined by
the carbon content. Low-carbon steels (C<0.25%) do not exhibit high
strength but have better plastic and ductile characteristics. These are
usually used for making parts involving bending, drawing, roughing,
stamping and welding.
46
Because the selected steel is not acid-resistant for the application that we
are going to use it we shall need to provide some additional protection of
the metal against corrosion in the aggressive medium. We could apply
passivation of the metal surface for the purpose (cover the metal with thin
oxidized layer) or use protection methods. The materials we selected ex-
hibit good plastic properties allowing the tank to be designed and made in
the most suitable and optimum cylindrical shape. Both steel brands fea-
ture good weldability, which allows for the tank to be made as a welded
construction guaranteeing its surface uniformity.
The construction of the tank should not have excessive reserves (for
strength, etc.). It should comply with the anticipated time for its service
life. Nowadays, service life times for such equipment have been greatly
reduced and the requirements for capabilities of operating in higher ca-
pacities, reliability, efficiency, convenience of operation, ease of mainte-
47
nance, etc. have increased. All these affect the selection for the metal
and tank wall thickness.
The tank should comply with the requirements for aesthetic industrial and
ergonomic design. A study of available constructions should be made to
help making the best decisions and introduce new solutions. The design
of the tank should comply with the requirements for transportation and
handling providing clamping locations and ensuring means for moving the
tank and draining and filling-in acid.
The tank should meet the reliability and handling safety requirements. A
warning should be provided on the outside to indicate its contents and
handling safety instructions should also be indicated.
48
zinc alloy protective coatings. Experiments have shown that these protec-
tive coatings are covered not so heavily with corrosive products and are
less frequently replaced or cleaned. The effectiveness of the protective
layer depends on the following factors:
1. The conductivity of the corrosive medium. Higher conductivity pro-
vides wider protection range. In this case protective coatings could
be placed at a larger distance one from another.
The means of its application. The protective coating should have a suit-
able shape and size and should be located at an easily accessible loca-
tion along the tank to allow cleaning and examination. The surface area of
the protective coating is within 20 –200 cm2 depending on particular re-
quirements and plate thickness is between 4 and 12 mm. Protective coat-
ing protection could also be applied in the cases when the metal con-
struction is covered with paint thus extending coating life.
The anode is the most significant element in the cathode protection. Ei-
ther steel or Cu, Al, Zn, etc. could be used for the anode. It is recom-
49
mended that the size of flat anodes (strips) is no smaller than 20mm deep
and 200mm wide. For this minimum thickness value anode durability of 2
to 4 years could be guaranteed. Anode positioning should be such that
the best possible current distribution is ensured. The distance between
the anode and the surface being protected is not of any particular impor-
tance to the corrosion protection but it is recommended that anodes are
positioned at a distance from this surface not larger than 0.25m. The an-
odes should be tightly secured and their contacts should be well insulated
from the corrosive medium. The anodes should be directly connected to
the positive pole of the current supply source. Anodes made of zinc or
magnesium or aluminum alloys are used for steel protections. Zinc an-
odes are manufactured with high metal purity and aluminum anodes are
made using 1-1.5% zinc alloys.
50
steels are capable of resisting the destructive chemical and electrochemi-
cal action of the environment. Acid resistant steels exhibit high corrosion
resistance against various aggressive mediums.
51
Relative elongation % δ = 40%
Relative transverse shrinkage % ψ = 35%
Impact strength aK = 590 KJ/m2
We are also submitting the chemical composition and the approximate
temperatures of forging and temperature treatment. The data is presented
underneath in the following table.
The basic properties and the main application of these steels are deter-
mined by the carbon content. Low-carbon steels (C<0.25%) do not have
significant strength but are plastic and ductile. These are mainly used for
making parts through bending, drawing, roughing, stamping and welding.
52
Compared to alloy steel carbon steel has the advantage of being the
cheapest good-quality steel but it features the following disadvantages
[7]:
it features low hardness penetration so it is only suitable for
small-diameter or small wall thickness parts;
it exhibits lower yield strength, fatigue limit, ductility and impact
strength for equal tensile strength;
the hardness and strength of hardened steel is rapidly reduced
with temperature
Technological properties
Temperature
Steel type Ductility in
Cutting proc- range for forg-
ISO Welding ability cold proc-
essing ing
essing
Deg C
C 25 Satisfactory Very good 800 -1300 Very good
Temperature Treatment
Hardening conditions HRC hard-
HRC hardness ness follow-
Steel type
Cooling envi- following hard- ing temper-
Temp deg C
ronment ening ing
200 deg C
С 25 900 - 920 water 34 - 40 32-36
As the type of steel we selected is not acid resistant we shall need to use
some additional protection of the metal against the corrosion in the ag-
gressive medium for the purpose of my application. We could passivate
53
the metal surface for the purpose (deposit an oxide layer) or apply the fol-
lowing protection techniques:
Anodic protection
Anodic protection is performed by covering the tank with another metal
having lower electrode potential than the tank metal thus performing the
role of a destroying anode. The additional metal should meet certain re-
quirements for this purpose: it should have sufficient negative potential, it
should be inexpensive, it should dissolve in electrolytic medium and it
should not form a protective layer over itself.
Cathode protection
For cathode protection the electrical current supplied from an external
source is used to achieve cathode polarization of the metal. The more
aggressive corrosive agents are the higher should be the value of the po-
larization current. One optimum polarization current density could be es-
tablished for every individual case to provide maximum complete metal
protection.
54
- the electrolyte should be in constant contact with the protected
surface and sufficiently deep;
- the surface to be protected should have simple geometrical
shape;
- the protection current required should be safe to the construction
and the servicing personnel.
Practical application: Steel or Cu, Al, Zn, could be used for the anode. It is
recommended that the size of flat anodes (strips) is not less than 20mm
in thickness and 200mm in width. For this minimum anode thickness an-
ode durability of 2 to 4 years is guaranteed. Anodes should be located
such that they ensure the best possible current distribution. The distance
between the anode and the protected surface is not of any particular im-
portance to corrosion protection but it is recommended that anodes are
positioned at more than 0.25 m from this surface and that they are se-
curely fastened and their contacts – well insulated from the corrosive me-
dium [8]. Anodes should be connected directly to the positive pole of the
current supply source. Anodes made of zinc and magnesium or aluminum
alloys are typically used for protecting steel. Zinc anodes are made with
high metal purity and aluminum anodes are made of aluminum alloyed
with 1-1.5% zinc.
55
against the action of alkali bases because steel dissolves in them too
slowly.
One of the factors that influence tank efficiency is its shape. We choose a
cylindrical shape that can easily be made by bending an entire sheet or
welding together several face-welded cylindrical rings. This shape avoids
the presence of sections subjected to internal stresses. Such sections in
these constructions corrode significantly faster. This is due to the fact that
as a result of the deformed (strained) grid tending to restore its initial state
the metal oxide deposits being formed are constantly being destroyed
and the metal this corrodes faster in this particular section. Automated or
semi-automated welding providing tough and uniform welding seams hav-
ing smooth surface should be applied to reduce stress. Face welding
seams should be applied and to increase fatigue strength we recommend
welding on both sides and avoiding accumulation of weld metal, as well
as avoiding mechanical finishing of the weld seam.
The certainty coefficient is not the same for the different machines and
equipment. It depends on the consequences that would result from an
eventual failure. But this does not imply that the tank should have exces-
sive reserves. Nowadays, the servicing times for such products have
been reduced and the requirements placed on the capability to operate in
higher capacities, better reliability and efficiency, operational convenience
and easy maintenance, have increased. That is why the construction of
the tank should be in compliance with the anticipated servicing time term
[9]. These requirements affect the selection of material and the tank wall
thickness value (2-3mm). The bottom of the cylindrical tank could be se-
lected to be flat and the recommended thickness would be around 5 mm.
All presently designed machines and equipment should meet the re-
quirements of modern industrial aesthetics and ergonomics, i.e. they
should have beautiful and perfect shape but still maintaining the function-
ality and operational convenience as well as providing easy and conven-
ient servicing and control. The tank should meet the reliability and han-
56
dling safety requirements. A warning should be provided on the outside to
indicate its contents and handling safety instructions should also be indi-
cated.
The tank made of 25 steel would not allow for storing hydrochloric acid
unless some additional protection is provided. In this case we could apply
cathode protection (electrochemical protection). We could cover the metal
construction with another metal exhibiting lower electrode potential so
that it can decompose (bond with chlorine ions). Such protective metal
could be aluminum alloyed with 5-10% zinc. Experiments have indicated
that these protective covers have lower degree of corrosion and cleaning
and replacing them is not so often.
REFERENCES
57
6. Tapsell, H. J. (1992) Symposium on High Temperature Steels and Al-
loys for Gas Turbines, McGraw-Hill, New York.
58
CHAPTER 4
FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
The development of industry and material sciences in recent years more
and more often involves the application of materials belonging to this vast
group. Composite materials are non-metal materials made by bonding to-
gether individual long known and used before or brand new materials [1].
The manufacturing processes used for the production of this constantly
expanding and significant to modern industry group of materials involve
both previously known and brand new production techniques.
59
appearance and performance of most plastic and elastic polymers can be
improved by the use of various additives:
Plasticisers.
These are added to polymeric materials to reduce their rigidity and brittle-
ness and improve their flow properties whilst being formed or molded [2]:
Primary plasticizers are used to neutralize partially the Van der Woal’s
forces between adjacent molecular chains by introducing monomers
whose polar groups neutralize those of the polymer groups and allow
greater mobility between adjacent polymer chains.
(a)
Polymer chains
(b)
Fig. 1
60
Secondary plasticizers may themselves be divided into two groups ac-
cording to the method of application [3]:
Te
60 n sile 600
s tr
Tensile strength [MPa]
en
50 gt 500
h
30 300
20 200
n
io
10 g at 100
n
Elo
0
Plasticiser % High
Fig. 2
Fillers
Fillers have a considerable influence on the properties of moldings pro-
duced of any given polymeric material. They improve the impact strength
61
and reduce shrinkage during molding [3]. Fillers are essential in thermo-
setting molding powders and may be present in quantities up to 80% by
weight. The selection of a filler is usually determined by the properties it
can impact to the plastic product and its cost also.
Some filler materials are: glass fibres, wood flour – calcium carbonate,
aluminum powder (high mechanical strength), shredded: paper, cloth;
Mica granules – good strength, combined with reasonable electrical insu-
lation properties.
60
50
er
led
fil
fill
Stress [MPa]
40
er Un
te
if ll
na
ur
rbo
30 flo
d-
ca
oo
um
20 W
lci
Ca
Fig. 1
10
0
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
Fig. 3
Stabilizers, colorants, etc. additives could also be used before the polym-
erization processes.
Stabilizers.
They are used to prevent the degradation of polymeric materials occur-
ring when they are exposed to heat, sunlight and weathering. Such deg-
radation is usually accompanied by color change, deterioration in me-
chanical properties, cracking and surface cracking [4]. The influence of
62
additives on the elasticity module (Young’s module) of a polyester resin is
illustrated in Figure 4:
e
3,0
nat
o
Flexural modulus [GPa]
arb
c
m
ciu ur
2,0 al flo
C d
oo
W
1,0
0
10 20 30 40 50 ................ 100% Filler
Fig. 4
Antistatic agents
Antistatic agents can sometimes be added to polymers to eliminate or re-
duce the static charge effect. These are included to increase surface
conductivity so that static charges can leak away.
63
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS
The properties of polymers can vary widely, but they all have the following
properties in common [5]:
The type of the basic material of the composite matrix greatly influences
the basic characteristics of the composite material. Listed underneath are
some of the elastomers being used (which are mainly required to feature
high ductility and toughness rather than high strength characteristics).
Buryl rubber, Nitrile rubber. These are used for tanks for cars and
aircrafts. Freon resistant;
64
Typical representatives of thermoplastic resins are [6]:
à Elongation ≈ 10÷800%;
Resol resin to which asbestos filler, etc. is added is also sometimes used
for the production of composite materials. High impact composite materi-
als include: polymerization type plastics with glass fiber or carbon fiber
reinforcement (phenolmormalaldehyde, epoxy and polyester resins with
fillers). Resin characteristics and quality significantly influence the quality
of the composite material.
Fiberglass, wooden scrapes, carbon fiber and textiles, cotton and woolen
fibers, paper and other cellulose products, nylon fibers, aluminum pow-
der, etc. The overall quality of the final composite material is defined by
the mechanical and other characteristics of these additives, as well as the
mixing technique used in molding the final product, the arrangement of
fibers in the matrix and the number of layers or method of bonding pre-
pregs.
For example, in “delta wood”, which features very good mechanical char-
acteristics and is usually used for making aircraft propellers and other
65
critical component parts, the arrangement between longitudinal and
transverse fibers is in the ratio of 10:1.
Here are some specific features of the manufacturing techniques used for
the production of the “Tufnol” type of composite material, which employs
phenolic and epoxy resins fortified by the addition of some of the fillers
mentioned above: Sheets of fibrous reinforcement materials are impreg-
nated with the resin and they are then laid up between highly polished
metal plates in hydraulic presses. The thickness of the finished sheet is
determined by the number of layers of impregnated reinforcement in the
laminate. Each layer of reinforcement is rotated through ninety degrees of
arc so as to ensure uniformity of mechanical properties. The laminates
are then heated under pressure until they become solid sheets, rods or
tubes.
Polyester resins are the most widely used for bonding fibres together, but
the epoxy resins are used where maximum strength is required and
higher cost can be justified.
Table 1 shows some example data of glass fibre based composite mate-
rials [9]:
66
Table 1
where:
As well as the direct influence of the fibre content on the tensile modulus
(flexural stiffness) and the tensile strength of a GRP composite, the
strength of the composite is also influenced by the orientation of the fibres
[9].
Parallel yarns. All the glass strands are laid parallel to each other to pro-
vide unidirectional reinforcement.
Woven cloth. Half the strands are laid at right angles to each other and
half and locked by weaving. This provides bi-directional reinforcement.
Chopped strand mat. Short strands of glass fibre are arranged in a to-
tally random manner to form an isotropic reinforcement, that is the rein-
forcement is equal in all directions. Chopped strand mat is used where
strength has to be combined with sharp curves and complex shapes.
67
vided by the total cross- sectional area as shown fig. 5 – Reinforced com-
posite:
Matrix
nxa
Reinforcement area fraction =
A
where: n = number of reinforcement
a = cross sectional area of
each reinforcement
A = total cross sectional area
of composite
Load
Fig. 5
68
RESIN-FIBRE INTERFACE (COUPLING AGENTS)
In order for the composite to function properly there must be a chemical
bond between the matrix and the re-inforcing fibres in order that the ap-
plied load (applied to the matrix) can be transferred to the fibres (which
are expected to do all the work [10]. However, the bond must not be too
strong since the toughness of the composite comes from such sources as
fibre pullout and fibre-matrix interfacial fracture. In 'fibre glass' the fibre is
inorganic while the matrix is organic and the two do not bond readily
unless the fibres are treated to modify their surface.
Silica (SiO2) is hygroscopic ie. it absorbs water onto its surface where the
water breaks down into hydoxyl (-OH) groups. It is impossible to avoid the
water especially as the surface modifier or ‘size' is applied in a water
based solvent. It should also be stressed that water reduces the strength
of SiO2 by a stress-corrosion-cracking mechanism [10]. The coupling
agent takes the form of a silane (R-SiX3) where R is an organic radical
that is compatible with the polymer matrix (it may even react with the ma-
trix polymer; for this reason styrene groups are favored for polyesters
while amine groups are preferred for epoxies) and X is a hydrolysable or-
ganic group such as an alcohol. The most common silane couplant is tri-
ethoxy-silane. Heat will force the elimination of water between the -OH
pairs at the hydrated silica surface and the silane as well as between the
adjacent silane molecules.
CONCLUSION
Advanced composites are being increasingly used as alternatives for
conventional materials primarily because of their high specific strength,
specific stiffness and tailorable properties.
69
REFERENCE
70
CHAPTER 5
MATERIALS & DESIGN FOR BRIDGE MODELLING
INTRODUCTION
Bridge structures are widely spread in engineering practice. There is a
wide variety of construction shapes and static arrangements mainly de-
fined by the purpose, usage features, nature of applied loads and also,
the materials used to build it. The general idea can be seen in every
bridge construction, and its crane supports [1].
INITIAL DATA
In this chapter we review a model case study in which designs and con-
struction of structures that extend over a short distance between two sup-
71
ports and can carry a centrally located load have been limited to the fol-
lowing: construction material - pasta; adhesive agent - glue; maximum
weight of structure - 50 g.
Construction geometry
L- min 300mm
H- max 80mm
W
G
50gms
72
- Loading structure diagram
1
2
1 – Body
2 – Pin
3 – Clamp
4 – Loading force
4 P P
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
It is necessary for the design to consider the requirements of the manu-
facturing and assembling technique implementing most advanced and ef-
ficient technological methods [3]. The designers aimed at rational repeti-
tion of elements of simple shapes. Particular efficiency is achieved
through the use of type-designs and design solutions, unification and
standardization of resources and the optimization of production it in-
volves.
The design load for the present case study is specified and so is the basic
material. The main objective is to achieve the best balance between the
construction own weight and its load carrying capacity, observing feasibil-
ity requirements [3], minimum labor consumption [4], and considering
specified limitations for maximum weight, types and ways of using raw
material, and approximate geometry. We can present the load on the con-
struction using the following simplified most general two-dimensional dia-
gram that we can use as a pattern. Where P is the load force and q is the
load distribution of its own weight [3].
q(N/m)
P(N)
73
RAW MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS
Characteristics
Pasta is available in shopping areas in a wide variety of section sizes and
not so many in length and composition. It represents a sort of pastry
made of a mixture of flour, water and salt and some brands may have
added eggs. The shape is achieved through injection by means of noz-
zles and followed by drying. It is intended for a much different purpose but
the variety in size makes it a suitable means for the present study.
The material can be compared in its properties, structure (filler and bind-
ing agent) and qualities to concrete. Alongside, several peculiarities in
structure it should be clarified, which explains the bending test results, we
have carried out with the elements. The product undergoes drying follow-
ing injection. In spite of its negligible section size, drying is not taking
place uniformly throughout the entire volume but starts from the surface
and moves towards the middle. This is causing internal stress leading to
the occurrence of micro cracks and structure unevenness [5]. From the
experimental data provided underneath, the breaking strength observed
for one and the same section area varied within fairly wide limits.
Material tests
Consistent with the above mentioned we have classified the material as
brittle with properties resembling cast iron, glass, and concrete [5]. Fol-
lowing discussion over the size and shape of pasta to be used for the de-
sign and construction of the artifice, we have come to the conclusion that
we should limit the range even at the risk of making a mistake. We have
adopted this approach with the aim to reduce the number of parameters
we can use to seek optimum results in other directions, as for example
various types of solutions, and construction geometry [6]. Finally, we de-
cided to use four types of elements having the following dimensions:
− a pipe having D= 2,8mm OD and d=1mm ID; length L≈260mm
and weight G=0.0075 gms/mm.
− A bar having height h=6mm; thickness b=1.2mm; length
L≈255mm and weight G=0.01gms/mm.
− A pipe having D=5mm OD; d=3.2mm ID; length L≈32mm; weight
G=0.012gms/mm.
− Vermicelli having D=1mm OD and weight G = 0.0011gms/mm.
74
The last two elements in the above list are to be used to make joints. We
had the idea to moisten vermicelli and thus use it for making ties and
winding ropes for suspended structures but we were not successful in
achieving the right technique. The material was very easy to break when
moistened and it was almost impossible to achieve the desired configura-
tion. Moreover, we could not manage to successfully dry the material fol-
lowing moistening and the element remained with a multiply increased
weight and worse mechanical characteristics [7]. After the measurement
made we found that the average material density was 1,390 kgs/dm3.
P=Po+iP1
Po=48gms
P1=25gms
π ⋅d3
Wy =
32
, m3[ ]
is the moment of axial resistance for circular sample cross section area.
σ=
8 Pl
π ⋅d 3 [
, N / m2 ]
75
The following results were measured from the tests carried out over 50
samples:
CONSTRUCTIONS
Possible alternatives implementing this layout can be numerous. Disre-
garding the specified limitations (the sizes of building elements and the
materials that should be used to make the sample product), we have
classified the possible alternatives considering their construction charac-
teristics in the following groups: Suspended constructions; Frameworks;
and Double-beam structures [8].
76
When loading frameworks with movable loads the strain in some of the
bars changes in sign which along with the high stress concentration in the
assemblies significantly reduces the range of their efficient application.
Therefore they are successfully used only for big apertures, low loads and
statically applied external load.
Alternatives:
− Option B 2-01
The construction represents a system of three supporting plane frame-
works of triangular shape mounted using horizontal and slope bars that fix
the frames in space in one compact 3-dimensional system. Additional
bars are implemented longitudinally in the free area between plane
frameworks that together with upper framework structure comprise the
supporting platform. The structure only comprises a single building ele-
ment, a pipe of D=2.8mm OD and d=1mm ID and the parts only differ in
length.
77
Option B 2-01
78
A 4435 mm building element is design specified for the construction and if
we assume a minimum weight of the adhesive, the weight of the structure
will be 33.5 g. Plane frameworks to which external loads are applied are
so constructed that their geometry would copy the diagram of the moment
of bending the maximum of which is in the centre of the aperture. The
load diagram can be presented in the following way [9]:
T - tension bars
C – compression bars
Considered in their actual application the basic provisions from the space
model will still be present because in the cross-sectional area where it is
most loaded, the construction is again configured as a framework at a
much smaller aperture. Thus, the external load will be distributed rela-
tively equally over the three longitudinal frameworks [10]. When making
the model it is necessary to keep to the exact geometric element parame-
ters, so that it can be made as close as possible to the design.
− Option B 2-02
As in the first option, the construction represents a system of three sup-
porting plane frameworks mounted using horizontal and slope bars that
fix the frames in space in one 3-dimensional system. Additional bars are
implemented longitudinally in the free area between plane frameworks
that together with upper framework structure comprise the supporting
platform. The structure comprises the same building element. A 4462 mm
building element is design specified for the construction and a theoretical
weight of 34.5 g. This option is easier to make as it comprises a smaller
number of parts.
79
B 2-02
пп
80
81
− Option B 2-03
The advantages and disadvantages of the third option are as for the first
two ones. Also similar is the construction layout and the section of the
elements. The specific feature here is that the weight of the structure is
much lower compared to the previous options. A 2856 mm material and
23 g are designed for it. The arc flange of the framework assumes a more
uniform distribution of strain and conditions are available for neutralization
of eventual dynamic loads through a spring action of the structure. Al-
though it is a framework construction it has properties of the suspended
constructions as well [9].
From a technological view point the bending of the arcs can be performed
by moistening of the element until softened, bending over a pattern and
subsequent good drying (in a microwave, for example).
Suspended constructions
− Option B 1-01
The basic difference that distinguishes suspended constructions from
other groups is that external load is reduced in the construction support-
ing elements to a tension strain. Ropes are often used as a material for
this structure [10]. In this context the material we are using is not the most
suitable one for such type of construction.
The use of thread as a building element in Option B 1-01 does not meet
the limitations defined in the assignment but I am giving it as an example
to illustrate the characteristic features of this construction concept. The
specific feature in this construction is that a platform is built between two
high and solid supports (columns). The platform is supported in its weak-
est section by means of relatively flexible elements that transmit the load
to the supports bend loaded as a restrained beam [10]. If the supports are
balanced by applying equivalent load in the opposite direction the torque
is then eliminated from them and they can uniformly take loads and work
only on stress. The efficient usage of material properties is a ground for
achieving efficiency of the construction. Another advantage is the fact the
dynamic loads are elastically born by the structure. A basic disadvantage
of this type of construction is that it is very complicated to make in real
conditions.
82
пп
B 1-01
83
− Option B 1-02
The following materials have been used for the specification of Option B
1-02:
The geometric characteristics of the section having 6 x 1.2 size are fea-
tured by having a high inertia Jx [10]
Jx=bxh3/3,
84
B
A A
85
A-A
B-B
B 1-02
− Option B 1-03
Option B 1-03 works using the same diagram. The materials used for it
are:
86
B
A A
87
A-A
B-B
B 1-03
STRUCTURE SELECTION & MANUFACTURE
The B 2-01 option has been chosen to be made due to the following rea-
sons: the characteristics of the construction type were fully specified as a
space framework; the construction is compact and allows for a complete
usage of material properties and characteristics; it is not impossible to
make when working more precise. In the same sense, this construction is
requiring a precise preparation and installation of components. Otherwise,
many of the advantages pointed out could become a mere good wish.
The process of making the unit has been as follows:
1. We have made all sizes of product components to a maximum
tolerance of +/-1mm from the nominal dimension. Precise tem-
plates later used for the assembly have been drawn on paper.
2. The working platform (the upper flange of the framework) has
been fixed using a template.
3. Next, we have mounted the components that form the cross sec-
tional framework (in the middle of the cross section). We have
performed the assembly holding the construction at 180 degrees
from the surface.
4. We have fixed the long beams of the three plane frameworks
and at the same time fixed them in the cross sectional area fol-
lowing which they formed a triangle.
5. The diagonal and vertical bars of the framework have been care-
fully fixed.
6. We left the model dry overnight and then easily bonded joint
points using an adhesive. The construction was carefully cleaned
and the excessive material has been removed.
ALTERNATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
Possible alternatives implementing this layout can be numerous. Disre-
garding the specified limitations (the sizes of building elements and the
materials that should be used to make the sample product), we have
classified the possible alternatives considering their construction charac-
teristics in the following groups [11]:
− Suspended constructions
− Frameworks
− Double-beam structures
88
beam structures. This classic structure it represents a working platform
build on two or more beams having a suitable section area, enough to
bear external loads (forces and moments) from the platform and transmit
these loads to the supports. We have specified one similar idea meaning
that we have two beams but the construction is from the space framework
type. Frameworks can have various configurations, for example space
systems made up of three or four plane trusses.
89
cross-sectional direction, the beams are applied a torque that in cer-
tain cases must be calculated.
f1 f2
Alternatives:
− Option B 3-01
The construction represents a system of a working platform mounted on
two support beams fixed in space by means of supporting units at the
points where it is to be positioned on the supports [11]. The system also
comprises connecting bars positioned along the entire length of the struc-
ture.
There are two support beams of identical design and having the shape of
a prism with a triangular section and made up of pipe elements with sec-
tion area of 2.8OD/1 ID. Their structure represents a space framework
comprising a top and bottom flange and diagonals where the ratio be-
tween height and aperture is~1/16. Counter positioned diagonals at an
angle of 60 degrees are connected on the side of the left and right hand
flats to the three bars that comprise the flanges of the bar structure. Hori-
zontal bars were used to fix the beam base flat.
Support units were mounted in both ends of the structure and are used to
strengthen the area where the structure is to be positioned over the two
supports. These comprise 5 bars glued together in one plane. The work-
ing platform comprises flat sections glued in specified intervals to support
the beams. These also help space fixing of support beams. To increase
the element length we have used connections comprising two shorter
bars glued in a triangle with the base bars and positioned on a separate
support beam at six points. The following components were used for the
construction:
90
Denotation Section Length (mm) Quantity (number)
B 3-01-01 Ф2.8/ф1 121.5 4
B 3-01-02 Ф2.8/ф1 75 2
B 3-01-03 Ф2.8/ф1 100 8
B 3-01-04 Ф2.8/ф1 125 4
B 3-01-05 Ф2.8/ф1 18 104
B 3-01-06 Ф2.8/ф1 67 10
B 3-01-07 Ф2.8/ф1 27 18
B 3-01-08 Ф2.8/ф1 25 24
B 3-01-09 6x1.2 67 13
91
A B
92
B-B C-C
B
A C
A-A
B 3-01
− Option B 3-02
The structure is similar to B 3-01. Support beams have the shape of a tri-
angular prism with support bars having circular section alongside and with
six diagonals each having a flat section on the two side flats. The ration
between height and aperture is ~ 1/8. As a disadvantage it is clearly seen
that the two support beams are insufficiently reliably fixed in space [12].
The structure’s weight is 41.9 g.
− Option B 3-03
The support beams have the shape of a rectangular prism in this option.
This can be described as comprising of two plane trusses having a round
section bar as the bottom flange and a rectangular section bar as the top
flange, each connected by means of six diagonals of the same rectangu-
lar section [12]. Plane trusses are fixed between them by means of bars
positioned across them. The working platform is additionally supported at
the positions of connections with the diagonals by means of two rectangu-
lar section bars. The rational feature of this construction is the fact that
the rectangular section elements used have better geometric characteris-
tics [12]. We have used the following components for this construction:
− Option B 3-04
This construction duplicates the general schematic of B 3-03, the basic
difference being that we have only used rectangular section elements as
support parts and round were only the components fixing the frameworks
transversely. The ratio between framework height and length is 1/8, as
specified in [13]. The following parts have been specified:
Denotation Section Length (mm) Quantity (number)
B 3-04-01 Ф2,8/ф1 58 22
B 3-04-02 6x1.2 106 12
B 3-04-03 6x1.2 255 4
B 3-04-04 6x1.2 51 24
B 3-04-05 6x1.2 50 16
The structure weight is 52.73 g.
93
94
B 3-02
95
B3-03
96
B 3-04
In view of reducing structure weight down to the maximum permissible
value, unnecessary elements can be eliminated from the construction
[14]. The height of the structure can also be optimized so that the weight
is achieved within the specified limits keeping its strength characteristics
[14].
The work in making the structure model has continued in the following or-
der: All sizes of components were made for the structure to maximum
precision. We divided the structure into separate assemblies and began
assembly mounting. The extension bars without the reinforcement were
made. We assembled the two support beams, by initially making one
plane truss and then forming the frame and finally gluing the diagonals
and horizontal beams of the framework. The reinforcement bars were
glued to the extensions. We have separately prepared the supports each
consisting of five bars glued one to another in one plane. We mounted the
two support beams on their supports precisely. We glued the working
platform, and following final adjustment - cleaning the structure was
ready.
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