Chapter 6

UTILIZATION OF FERROCHROME SLAG

Ferrochrome slag is found to possess good mechanical and engineering properties

and therefore can be suitably utilized as construction material particularly as concrete
aggregate material. But the waste slag contains appreciable amount of residual chromium
which has the potentiality of releasing hazardous chromium compounds to the environment.
This chapter analyses the technical suitability and the environmental compatibility of
Ferrochrome slag as concrete aggregate material.

6.1 Material Specification-Cement

In this research investigation, three different types of cements like Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) and blended cements like Portland Slag Cement (PSC) & Portland Pozollana
Cement (PPC) were utilized in cement immobilization experimental work and in concrete
manufacturing.

6.1.1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) -Specification

As per Indian Standard IS 269:1976 [52], OPC is manufactured by intimately mixing

together calcareous and argillaceous and/or other silica, alumina or iron oxide bearing
materials, burning them at a clinkering temperature and grinding the resultant clinker so as
to produce a cement capable of complying with this specification. No material is added after
burning other than gypsum (natural or chemical) or water or both, and not more than one
percent of air-entraining agents or other agents, which have proved not to be harmful.
Specification is given in Table 6.1

6.1.2 Portland Slag Cement (PSC)-Specification

As per Indian Standard IS 455:1995 [53], PSC is manufactured either by intimately

intergrinding a mixture of Portland cement clinker and granulated slag with addition of
gypsum (natural or chemical) or calcium sulphate, or by an intimate and uniform blending
of Portland cement and finely ground granulated slag, so that the resultant mixture produces
cement capable of complying with this specification. No material is added other than
gypsum (natural or chemical) or water or both. However, when gypsum is added in such
amounts so that the sulphur trioxide (SO3) in the cement produced does not exceed the
limits specified in Table 6.1. Besides, not more than one percent of air-entraining agents or
surfactants which have proved not to be harmful may be added. The slag constituent shall be
not less than 25 percent or more than 65 percent of the Portland slag cement.

6.1.3 Portland Pozollana Cement (PPC)-Specification

As per Indian Standard IS 1489:1991, Part 1 Fly ash based [54], PPC is
manufactured either by intimately intergrinding Portland cement clinker and fly ash or by
intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine fly ash. For blending of
Portland cement and fly ash, the method and equipment used is well accepted for achieving
a complete uniform and intimate blending. Gypsum (natural or chemical) may be added if
the Portland-pozzolana cement is made by intergrinding Portland cement clinker with fly
ash. The fly ash constituent shall not be less than 10 percent and not more than 25 percent
by mass of Portland-pozzolana cement. Specification of the different cements used is shown
in Table 6.1
Table 6.1 Specification of the different cements

Specification characteristics Requirement values

OPC PSC PPC
Ratio of lime to silica, alumina and 0.66-1.02 0.66-1.02 0.66-1.02
iron oxide
Ratio of alumina to iron oxide Not more than 0.66 Not more than 0.66 Not more than 0.66
Insoluble residues (%) Not more than 2 Not more than 4 Not more than 4
Magnesia (MgO) (%) Not more than 6 Not more than 8 Not more than 6
Sulfur content as SO3(%) 2.5-3 3 3
2
Fineness (m /kg) 225 225 225

6.2 Ferrochrome Slag as Concrete Aggregate material

Aggregates occupying nearly 70 to 75 percent volume of concrete are the inert

ingredients. It is now well recognised that the physical, chemical and thermal properties of
aggregates substantially influence the properties and performance of concrete. Proper
selection and use of aggregates are important considerations, both economically as well as
technically. All the aggregate properties of FeCr slag required for the concrete work were
determined as per the procedures outlined in Indian Standard IS 383-1997 [51].

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6.2.1 Specification for Coarse Aggregates for Concrete

Aggregates usually consist of naturally occurring (crushed or uncrushed) stones,

gravel and sand or combination thereof. They should be hard, strong, dense, durable, clear
and free from veins and adherent coating; and free from injurious amounts of disintegrated
pieces, alkali, vegetable matter and other deleterious substances. As far as possible, flaky,
scoriaceous and elongated pieces should be avoided. Aggregates shall not contain any
harmful material such as pyrites, coal, lignite, mica, shale or similar laminated material,
clay, alkali, soft fragments, sea shells and organic impurities in such quantity as to affect the
strength or durability of the concrete. Aggregates to be used for reinforced concrete shall not
contain any material liable to attack the steel reinforcement. Aggregates which are
chemically reactive with alkalies of cement are harmful as cracking of concrete may take
place. Aggregate Crushing Value, when determined in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part IV)-
1997 [56],shall not exceed 45 percent for aggregate used for concrete other than for wearing
surfaces, and 30 percent for concrete for wearing surfaces, such as runways, roads and
pavements. Aggregates Impact Value is determined in accordance with the method
specified in IS: 2386 in Part IV)-1997. The aggregate impact value shall not exceed 45
percent by weight for aggregates used for concrete other than for wearing surfaces and 30
percent by weight for concrete for wearing surfaces, such as runways, roads and pavements.
Aggregate Abrasion Value when tested in accordance with the method specified in IS:
2386 (Part IV) - 1997 using Los Angeles machine, shall not exceed the following values: (a)
For aggregates to be used in concrete for wearing surfaces: 30 percent (b) For aggregates to
be used another concrete: 50 percent

6.2.2 Specification for Fine Aggregates for Concrete

Size/Zoning of Fine Aggregates -The grading of fine aggregates, is determined as

described in IS: 2386 (Part I)-1997 [56] as Grading Zones I, II, III and IV. Where the
grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of sieves other than 600-
micron IS Sieve by a total amount not exceeding 5 percent, it shall be regarded as falling
within that grading zone. This tolerance shall not be applied to percentage passing the 600-
micron IS Sieve or to percentage passing any other sieve size on the coarse limit of Grading
Zone I or the finer limit of Grading Zone IV.

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6.2.3 Methods of Test for Aggregates: Aggregate Crushing Value

The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an

aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied compressive load. The standard aggregate
crushing test was done on 12.5-mm IS Sieve and retained on a 10-mm IS Sieve. The
cylinder of the test apparatus was put in position on the base-plate and the test sample added
in thirds, each third being subjected to 25 strokes from the tamping rod. The surface of the
aggregate was carefully levelled and the plunger inserted so that it rests horizontally on this
surface, care being taken to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder. The
apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position, was then placed between the platens
of the testing machine and loaded at as uniform a rate as possible so that the total load is
reached in 10 minutes. The total load was 40 tonnes. The load was released and the whole
of the material was removed from the cylinder and sieved on a 2.36-mm IS Sieve. The
fraction passing the sieve was weighed (Weight B). Aggregate Crushing Strength
Measuring Equipment is shown in Fig. 6.1
Aggregate crushing value in % = B/A*100
B = weight of fraction passing the appropriate sieve, and
A = weight of surface-dry sample.

Fig. 6.1 Aggregate Crushing Strength Measuring Equipment

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6.2.4 Methods of Test for Aggregates: Aggregate Impact Value

The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an

aggregate to sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to
a slow compressive load. The impact machine was kept at rest without wedging or packing
upon the level plate, block or floor, so that it was rigid and the hammer guide columns were
vertical. The cup was fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of
the test sample placed in it and compacted by a single tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping
rod. The hammer was raised until its lower face is 380 mm above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely on to the aggregate. The test sample was
subjected to a total of 15 such blows each being delivered at an interval of not less than one
second. The crushed aggregate was then removed from the cup and the whole of it sieved on
the 2.36-mm IS Sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute. The fraction
passing the sieve was weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (Weight B). The fraction retained on
the sieve was weighed (Weight C) and, if the total weight (B+C) is less than the initial
weight (Weight A) by more than one gram, the result shall be discarded and a fresh test
made. The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total sample weight in each test is
expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place. Aggregate
Impact testing machine is shown in Fig No 6.2
Aggregate impact value = B/A*100
Where B=Weight of fraction passing 2.36-mm IS Sieve, and
A = Initial weight of oven-dried sample.

Fig. 6.2 Aggregate Impact testing machine

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6.2.5 Methods of Test for Aggregates: Abrasion Resistance of Coarse Aggregates by
the Use of Los Angeles Machine

The Los Angeles abrasion testing machine, conforming in all its essential
characteristics to the design shown in Fig. 3.5 was used. The machine consists of a hollow
steel cylinder, closed at both ends, having an inside diameter of 700 mm and an inside
length of 500 mm. The cylinder is mounted on stub shafts attached to the ends of the
cylinders but not entering it, and is mounted in such, a manner that it may be rotated about
its axis in a horizontal position. Opening in the cylinder is provided for the introduction of
the test sample. The opening is closed dust-tight with a removable cover bolted in place.
The cover is so designed as to maintain the cylindrical contour of the interior surface unless
the shelf is so located that the charge will not fall on the cover, or come in contact with it
during the test. A removable steel shelf, projecting radially 88 mm into the cylinder and
extending its full length, is mounted along one element of the interior surface of the
cylinder. The shelf is such thickness and so mounted, by bolts or other approved means, as
to be firm and rigid. The position of the shelf is such that the distance from the shelf to the
opening, measured along the circumference of the cylinder in the direction of rotation, is not
less than 1,250 mm.The test sample and the abrasive charge was placed in the Los Angeles
abrasion testing machine and the machine was rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 rev/min. For
grading A, B, C and D, the machine was rotated for 500 revolutions; for grading E, F and G,
it was rotated for 1 000Revolutions. At the completion of the test, the material was
discharged from the machine and a preliminary separation of the sample was made on a
sieve coarser than the l-70-mm IS Sieve. The finer portion was sieved on a 1.70-mm IS
Sieve. The material coarser than the 1.70-mm IS Sieve was washed dried in an oven at 105
to 110°C to a substantially constant weight, and accurately weighed to the nearest gram.

Let the original weight of aggregate = W1 gm

Weight of aggregate retained on 1.70 mm IS sieve after the test = W2 gm

Loss in weight due to wear = (W1 – W2) gm

( )
Los Angeles abrasion value % = Percentage wear = 100

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 Fig 6.3 Abrasion Testing Machine.

6.2.6 Result Analysis: Aggregate properties of Ferrochrome slag

Air cooled lumped ferrochrome slag was found to be available in the desirable size
range of 8 to 20 mm and was found to posses good aggregate properties as shown in Table
No 6.2. Therefore lumped ferrochrome slag was considered as coarse aggregate in this
concrete mix design work.

Table 6.2 Properties of Ferrochrome Slag as coarse aggregate in concrete

Properties FeCr Natural IS Specification

Slag Stone
Ferrochrome Slag as coarse aggregate
Specific gravity 2.84 2.72
Abrasion resistance (%) 19.2 27.1 < 50%
Crushing strength (%) 25.1 31.9 < 45%
Impact strength (%) 23.2 26.5 < 45%
Size mm 8 to 20 6 to 20
Water absorption (%) 0.42 0.32

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 Water cooled granulated FeCr slag as available in industry was found to possess the
desirable properties as fine aggregate as per IS 383-1997. Therefore it was considered as
fine aggregate in concrete work. Properties of granulated ferrochrome slag are shown in
Table 6.3.

Table 6.3 Properties of Ferrochrome Slag as fine aggregate material in concrete work

Properties FeCr Slag Natural sand

Specific gravity 2.72 2.67

Fineness modulus 4.80 4.00
Grading Zone I Zone III

6.3 M-20 Concrete Mix Design with Ferrochrome Slag as Aggregate

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their

relative amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength,
durability, and workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design.
The proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of
concrete in two states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is
not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The compressive strength of
hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index of its other properties,
depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and aggregates;
batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The present Concrete M20 Mix
Design was formulated as per Indian Standard IS-10262-2009[55].

6.3.1 Design Stipulation

 Maximum size of the aggregate = 20mm

 Degree of quality control = Good
 Water cement ratio = 0.50
 Optimum Mix Design Proportion=1:1.68:3.17
 Characteristic Compressive strength at 28 days= 20 MPa
 Target Compressive strength at 28 days=27.6 MPa

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6.3.2 Experimental Method: Mixing, Casting and Curing

The required amount of all dry materials such as coarse aggregate, fine aggregate
and cement were weighed and placed in the concrete mixer and dry mixing was done for
one minute. Then the required amount of water was added during mixing to get the right
paste condition. Workability of the fresh concrete was measured by the slump test. Then the
specimens were cast in the suitable steel mould and were compacted using table vibrators.
Concrete cubes of size 150 x 150 x 150 mm were cast with FeCr slag and natural stone with
different proportions as coarse aggregate with a mix design ratio of 1:1.68:3.17 at water to
cement ratio of 0.5, using different types of cements like OPC, PSC and PPC. Similarly
concrete cubes were cast with FeCr slag and natural sand with different proportions as fine
aggregate with a similar mix design at water cement ratio of 0.5 using different types of
cements like OPC, PSC and PPC. The test specimens were stored in moist air for 24 hours
and then the specimens were cured under water for 28 days. Fresh concrete tests were
conducted immediately after mixing. After 28 days of curing specimens were taken for
testing of compressive strength. Concrete Cube Casting and Testing of Compressive
Strength are illustrated in Fig No 6.4 and 6.5.

Fig. 6.4 Concrete Cube Casting

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 Fig. 6.5- Testing of Compressive Strength

6.3.3 Concrete Specimen details

Concrete specimens with different % of ferrochrome slag and natural stone as coarse
aggregate with 0,20,40,60,80 and 100 % of slag substitution and natural sand as fine
aggregate were prepared with different types of cements like OPC,PPC and PSC. Similarly
Concrete specimens with different % of ferrochrome slag and natural sand as fine aggregate
with 0, 20,40,60,80 and 100 % of slag substitution and natural stone as coarse aggregate
were prepared with different types of cements. Three samples of each specimen were
prepared and tested to get the average value of test results. The specimen codes are shown in
Table. 6.4 and Table No 6.5.

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 Table 6.4 Concrete Specimens having FeCr slag as coarse aggregate

Specimen code Specimen description

OPFSCA0 Concrete specimen with 100% of natural stone as coarse aggregate
and natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
OPFSCA20 Concrete specimen with 20% of FeCr slag & 80% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
OPFSCA40 Concrete specimen with 40% of FeCr slag & 60% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
OPFSCA60 Concrete specimen with 60% of FeCr slag & 40% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
OPFSCA80 Concrete specimen with 80% of FeCr slag & 20% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
OPFSCA100 Concrete specimen with 100% of FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and
natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
PSFSCA0 Concrete specimen with 100% of natural stone as coarse aggregate
and natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
PSFSCA20 Concrete specimen with 20% of FeCr slag & 80% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
PSFSCA40 Concrete specimen with 40% of FeCr slag & 60% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
PSFSCA60 Concrete specimen with 60% of FeCr slag & 40% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
PSFSCA80 Concrete specimen with 80% of FeCr slag & 20% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
PSFSCA100 Concrete specimen with 100% of FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and
natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
PPFSCA0 Concrete specimen with 100% of Natural stone as coarse aggregate
and natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
PPFSCA20 Concrete specimen with 20% of FeCr slag & 80% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
PPFSCA40 Concrete specimen with 40% of FeCr slag & 60% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
PPFSCA60 Concrete specimen with 60% of FeCr slag & 40% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
PPFSCA80 Concrete specimen with 80% of FeCr slag & 20% of natural stone as
coarse aggregate and natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
PPFSCA100 Concrete specimen with 100% of FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and
natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC

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 Table 6.5 Concrete Specimens having FeCr slag as fine aggregate

Specimen code Specimen description

Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 100%
OPFSFA0
natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 20%
OPFSFA20
FeCr granulated slag & 80% natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
OPFSFA40 Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 40%
FeCr granulated slag & 60% natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 60%
OPFSFA60
FeCr granulated slag & 40% natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 80%
OPFSFA80
FeCr granulated slag & 20% natural sand as fine aggregate with OPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 100%
OPFSFA100
FeCr granulated slag as fine aggregate with OPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 100 %
PSFSFA0
natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 20 %
PSFSFA20
FeCr granulated slag & 80 % natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 40 %
PSFSFA40
FeCr granulated slag & 60 % natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 60%
PSFSFA60
FeCr slag & 40% natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 80%
PSFSFA80
FeCr granulated slag & 20% natural sand as fine aggregate with PSC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 100 %
PSFSFA100
FeCr granulated slag as fine aggregate with PSC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 100 %
PPFSFA0
natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 20%
PPFSFA20
FeCr granulated slag & 80% natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
Concrete specimen with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and 40%
PPFSFA40
FeCr granulated slag & 60% natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 60%
PPFSFA60
FeCr granulated slag & 40% natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 80%
PPFSFA80
FeCr granulated slag & 20% natural sand as fine aggregate with PPC
Concrete specimen with natural stone as coarse aggregate and 100%
PPFSFA100
FeCr granulated slag as fine aggregate with PPC

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6.3.4. Fresh concrete test results

Fresh concrete tests were carried out immediately after mixing to evaluate the
workability of the concrete products. Workability is the property of freshly mixed concrete
which determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,
consolidated and finished. From the Fresh concrete test of concretes having of ferrochrome
slag as aggregate, the slump values were found to be in the range of 40-48 mm and
compaction factors were found to be in between 0.88 to 0.92 indicating medium workability
for the concrete products.

6.3.5 Hardened concrete test results- Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is one of the most important and useful properties of concrete
and is most easily determined. It is used as a measure of overall quality of concrete and is an
indication of all other properties relating to deformation and durability. By definition, the
compressive strength of a material is that value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when
the material fails completely. The compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally
by means of a compressive test. (a uniaxial compressive load is applied Compressive
strength (fck in MPa) calculating formula. fck = P/B2 Where P is the maximum load applied in
Newton & B is the surface area of the specimen in mm2 where load is applied

The 7 & 28 days Compressive Strength (CS) results corresponding weights are presented in
Table 6.6. and is graphically shown in Fig. 6.6 and 6.7.

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 Table 6.6 Average value of Compressive Strength of Concrete specimens

Specimen code Weight of 7 days CS 28 days Specimen Weight of 7 days 28days

the cube (MPa) CS code the cube CS CS
(kg) (MPa) (kg) (MPa) (MPa)
OPFSCA0 8.50 23.6 30.7 OPFSFA0 8.50 23.8 30.5

OPFSCA20 8.52 24.5 31.4 OPFSFA20 8.44 22.7 29.4

OPFSCA40 8.55 25.4 32.2 OPFSFA40 8.25 22.8 29.6

OPFSCA60 8.58 25.9 33.7 OPFSFA60 8.22 22.5 29.8

OPFSCA80 8.62 28.1 35.6 OPFSFA80 7.95 23.0 30.1

OPFSCA100 8.68 29.7 37.2 OPFSFA100 7.88 22.9 30.0

PSFSCA0 8.51 20.2 30.2 PSFSFA0 8.51 20.2 30.2

PSFSCA20 8.51 20.3 30.8 PSFSFA20 8.45 19.8 29.9

PSFSCA40 8.52 21.0 32.3 PSFSFA40 8.38 19.8. 30.0

PSFSCA60 8.54 22.3 33.6 PSFSFA60 8.32 19.7 29.8

PSFSCA80 8.56 23.7 35.5 PSFSFA80 8.26 20.1 29.9

PSFSCA100 8.62 24.3 36.8 PSFSFA100 8.22 19.9 29.8

PPFSCA0 8.55 21.1 30.1 PPFSFA0 8.44 21.5 30.3

PPFSCA20 8.55 21.8 30.8 PPFSFA20 8.35 21.4 30.2

PPFSCA40 8.58 22.7 32.1 PPFSFA40 8.28 21.1 29.9

PPFSCA60 8.62 23.9 33.2 PPFSFA60 8.22 21.2 30.0

PPFSCA80 8.66 25.1 35.8 PPFSFA80 8.16 20.9 29.9

PPFSCA100 8.72 25.6 37.1 PPFSFA100 8.12 20.8 30.0

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Fig.6.6 28 days Compressive strength of concrete cubes with FeCr slag as Coarse Aggregate

Fig. 6.7 28 days Compressive strength of concrete cubes with FeCr slag as Fine Aggregate

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6.3.6 Result Analysis of Hardened concrete test

The analysis of compressive strength results of concrete with FeCr slag as aggregate
are presented in Table 6.7

Table No 6.7: Result analysis of compressive strength (CS)

Concrete Concrete with natural Concrete with % increase or Target

Specimen stone as coarse FeCr Slag as coarse decrease in CS strength
aggregate in MPa aggregate in MPa in MPa
With OPC 30.7 37.2 +21.1 27.6
With PSC 30.2 36.8 +21.8 27.6

With PPC 30.1 37.1 +23.2 27.6

Concrete Concrete with natural Concrete with FeCr % increase or
Specimen sand as fine aggregate Slag as fine decrease in CS
aggregate
With OPC 30.5 30.1 -1.3 27.6
With PSC 30.2 29.8 -1.3 27.6
With PPC 30.3 30.0 -1.0 27.6

From the result analysis of compressive strength of concrete specimens, it is found that

 The compressive strength increases with increase in substitution of ferrochrome slag

as coarse aggregate in place of natural stone.

 Concrete specimens with 100 % ferrochrome slag as coarse aggregate show a 20 to

23 % increase in compressive strength as compared to concretes with natural stone
as coarse aggregate with all types of cement. The values are appreciably higher than
target strength indicating the potential use of ferrochrome slag in high strength
concrete works [142].

 For concretes with ferrochrome slag as fine aggregate, there is no significant change
in CS as compared to concretes with natural sand as fine aggregate. Thus granulated
FeCr slag can be used as fine aggregate in place of sand in general purpose concrete
work.

 There is no significant change in the weight of the concrete with FeCr slag as
aggregate.

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6.4 Environmental Performance of concrete with FeCr Slag

Ferrochrome slag contains environmentally harmful chromium substances whose

leaching from the slag is likely to contaminate water environment. From the experimental
batch leaching studies of the slag samples, it is found that there is significant leaching of Cr
(VI) and total chromium from the unbound slag samples under regulatory TCLP test
conditions often exceeding regulatory discharge standard. Therefore there is a need for
environmental performance study of concrete with FeCr Slag as aggregate material. The
Kossan method MT001.1 [65] and EA NEN 7375:2004 [88] methods were adopted to
evaluate the release rate of chromium from concrete materials under mass transfer-
controlled release conditions. These conditions occur when the mode of water contact with
the solid material results in a flow around a structure with low permeability.

6.4.1. Experimental method: Tank Leaching Test

The objective of mass transfer rate tests is to measure the rate of Chromium release
from a monolithic material (e.g., solidified waste form or concrete matrix) or a compacted
granular material. Results of these tests are to estimate intrinsic mass transfer parameters
(e.g., observed diffusivities for Chromium) that are then used in conjunction with other
testing results and assessment models to estimate the chromium release from concrete
specimens. This method consists of tank leaching of continuously over concrete material
with leaching solution for periodic renewal of the leaching solution.

NEN 7375, the Dutch tank leaching test, was used to determine the leaching
characteristics of chromium components from FeCr slag. The purpose of this diffusion test
is to simulate the leaching of inorganic components from concrete materials under aerobic
conditions as a function of time over a period of 64 days. The test determines the nature and
properties of the material matrix under investigation by placing a complete sample in a
leaching fluid (demineralised, pH neutral water) and replenishing the eluate at specified
times. Cubes of 5-cm size were contacted with DI water using a liquid to surface area ratio
of 5 mL of DI water for every cm2 of exposed solid surface area. The concentrations of
chromium leached in the successive eluate fractions were measured. The pH value at which
leaching takes place was determined by the material itself. The concrete specimens were
immersed in distilled water at pH 6.68 and in TCLP extraction liquid acidified with acetic

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acid to pH 2.88 at a liquid/solid ratio of 4 in terms of volume. The leaching vessel was a
closed polypropylene plastic container. The leachant solution was replaced after a contact
period of 0.25, 1.0, 2.25, 4.0, 9.0, 16.0, 36.0, and 64.0 days. The leachate samples were
collected at designated intervals, filtered and then analysed for Hexavalent chromium and
total chromium content. The results of 64 days Tank Leaching Test were utilised in
modelling the chromium release behaviour from ferrochrome slag to analyse the processes
responsible for this leaching behaviour. The experimental arrangement of tank leaching test
is shown in Fig 6.8

Two days Short Tank Leaching Tests were also performed on concrete cube samples
having different percentage of sand and FeCr slag as coarse as well as fine aggregate with
normal distilled water at pH 6.68 and with TCLP extraction liquid at pH 2.88. The results of
Cr (VI) and total Cr concentrations are found to be in the range of 14 to 34 and 16 to 42 µg/l
respectively, which are well within the US EPA TCLP standards and Indian discharge
standards. While chromium in the form of Cr (III) as mostly available in slag samples is
well immobilized in all types of cement-concrete matrix, leachable Cr (VI) is not suitably
immobilized in concrete matrix with OPC and fly ash based PPC. But slag based PSC has
been found to be most effective in immobilizing both Cr (VI) and Cr (III). The results of
leachate pH, Cr (VI) and total Cr concentrations are presented in Table 6.8. The results are
compared with regulatory TCLP standard limits and permissible discharge standards
prescribed in India, for regulatory compliance requirement. The results are graphically
shown in Fig. 6.9 to Fig. 6.16.

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Fig. 6.8 Experimental Set up Tank Leaching Test for leaching from concrete
specimens.

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 Table 6.8: Chromium leaching results from concrete with Ferrochrome slag as aggregate
Specimen code Leachate Cr(VI) Total Cr Leachate Cr(VI) Total Cr
pH in µg/l in µg/l pH in µg/l in µg/l

US-EPA TCLP standard - 5000 - 5000

Indian discharge standard 100 2000 100 2000
TCLP analysis for FeCr slag 32 124 48 307
sample as coarse aggregate
TCLP analysis for FeCr slag 76 288 94 1238
sample as fine aggregate
Leachant pH 6.68 Leachant pH 2.88
OPFSCA0 10.93 21 25 8.50 25 28
OPFSCA20 10.95 21 24 8.44 27 29
OPFSCA40 11.12 23 28 8.25 28 32
OPFSCA60 11.05 24 27 8.22 30 34
OPFSCA80 10.95 25 28 7.95 28 35
OPFSCA100 10.96 23 32 7.88 29 35
PSFSCA0 10.05 12 16 7.89 14 16
PSFSCA20 10.04 15 18 7.90 15 18
PSFSCA40 10.02 14 17 7.92 14 17
PSFSCA60 10.05 15 18 7.94 16 18
PSFSCA80 10.08 16 18 7.92 18 20
PSFSCA100 10.06 16 18 7.91 17 20
PPFSCA0 10.32 22 30 8.22 24 26
PPFSCA20 10.31 20 23 8.35 24 25
PPFSCA40 10.36 21 24 8.28 24 26
PPFSCA60 10.35 22 25 8.22 25 28
PPFSCA80 10.37 23 25 8.26 26 29
OPFSFA0 10.98 30 32 8.52 35 38
OPFSFA20 11.00 31 34 8.54 34 38
OPFSFA40 11.08 32 34 8.55 36 39
OPFSFA60 11.00 33 35 8.52 37 40
OPFSFA80 10.98 32 35 8.55 38 42
OPFSFA100 11.02 34 36 8.54 37 42
PSFSFA0 10.12 15 18 7.68 16 18
PSFSFA20 10.14 16 18 7.72 20 22
PSFSFA40 10.16 17 19 7.75 19 21
PSFSFA60 10.14 19 22 7.76 19 22
PSFSFA80 10.12 18 21 7.74 20 23
PSFSFA100 10.15 19 22 7.75 20 24
PPFSFA0 10.45 28 31 7.98 32 35
PPFSFA20 10.45 28 32 7.95 33 35
PPFSFA40 10.48 30 33 7.97 34 36
PPFSFA60 10.48 29 32 7.95 33 32
PPFSFA80 10.46 30 33 7.98 34 37
PPFSFA100 10.47 30 34 7.96 34 38

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 Fig. 6.9 Cr (VI) leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate at pH 6.68

Fig.6.10 Total Cr leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate at pH 6.68

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Fig. 6.11 Cr (VI) leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate at pH 2.88

Fig. 6.12 TCr leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate at pH 2.88

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Fig. 6.13 Cr (VI) leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as fine aggregate at pH 6.68

Fig. 6.14 TCr leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as fine aggregate at pH 6.68

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 Fig. 6.15Cr (VI) leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as fine aggregate at pH 2.88

Fig. 6.16 TCr leaching from concrete with FeCr slag as fine aggregate at pH 2.88

6.4.2 Result analysis of Chromium leaching from Concrete with FeCr Slag

From the Tank Leaching tests results of Chromium leaching from Concrete with
FeCr Slag, the following inferences are obtained

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  The Chromium leaching study results from concrete samples with ferrochrome slag as
coarse as well as fine aggregate show very low level leaching well within the US EPA and
Indian regulatory discharge standard with respect to both Cr(VI) and total chromium.

 Chromium in the form of Cr (III) as mostly available in slag samples is well immobilized in
all types of cement-concrete matrix. The results are found to in well agreement with
previous work [46, 91, 92, 70, 141].

 Cr (VI) is not suitably immobilized in concrete matrix with ordinary Portland cement and fly
ash based Portland pozollana cement. But slag based Portland slag cement has been found to
be most effective in immobilizing Cr (VI) as well as Cr (III). The results are found to in well
agreement with previous work [2, 32, 61, 68].

6.4.3 Compliance to Building Material Decree (BMD)

The environmental burdening of soil and surface water by leaching of substances is
called immission. The Dutch Building Material Decree (BMD); 1995 [15] protocol sets
standards for inorganic substances in the building materials with regards to immission of
such substances in to soil and surface water. The 64 days tank leaching test results from
concrete specimens having 100% of substitution with FeCr slag as aggregate are found to be
very low as compared to Dutch BMD 1995 protocol for category1 limit values and with Soil
Quality Data (SQD), 2007 [111] with respect to chromium for unrestricted use. The analysis
of results is shown in Table 6.9 and is graphically shown in Fig. 6.17 and Fig. 6.18.

Table 6.9:FeCr Slag as concrete aggregate in the purview of Building Material Protocol

Sample Leachant Total chromium BMD 1995 64 SQD2007 in 64

2
Specimen pH 64 days release days ( mg/m ) days (mg/m2)
2
Code (mg/m )
OPFSCA100 6.68 8.4 140 120
PSFSCA100 6.68 4.8 140 120
PPFSCA100 6.68 7.2 140 120
OPFSCA100 2.88 9.2 140 120
PSFSCA100 2.88 5.0 140 120
PPFSCA100 2.88 7.5 140 120
OPFSFA100 6.68 9.6 140 120
PSFSFA100 6.68 5.5 140 120
PPFSFA100 6.68 8.8 140 120
OPFSFA100 2.88 9.8 140 120
PSFSFA100 2.88 5.6 140 120
PPFSFA100 2.88 9.2 140 120

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 Fig. 6.17 Tank Leaching Test results as compared to BMD & SQD at pH 6.68

Fig. 6.18 Tank Leaching Test results as compared to BMD & SQD at pH 2.88

6.5 M30 Concrete Mix Design with Ferrochrome Slag as Coarse

Aggregate
From the M20 concrete mix design with ferrochrome slag as coarse aggregate
material, compressive strength values were appreciably higher as compared to concrete with
natural stone as coarse aggregate. Zelic [142] also reported the suitability of FeCr slag in
higher strength concrete design, where the natural aggregates fail. The encouraging results
of M20 design has led to the experimentation with higher grade M30 concrete works.

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6.5.1 M30 grade concrete mix design

Concrete cubes of size 150 x 150 x 150 mm, concrete cylinders of size 100 mm
diameter and 200 mm height and concrete prisms of size 100x100x500 mm were cast with
different percentage of FeCr slag and natural stone as coarse aggregate with a mix design
ratio of 1:1.68:3.17 at water to cement ratio of 0.4 as per IS 10262-2009 [55] using different
types of cements like OPC, PSC and PPC. Specimen codes are presented in Table No. 6.8.
The test specimens were stored in moist air for 24 hours and then the specimens were cured
under water for 28 days. Fresh concrete tests were conducted immediately after mixing.
Hardened concrete tests were performed after 7 days and 28 days of curing.

6.5.2 Design Stipulation for M30 grade concrete

 Maximum size of the aggregate = 20mm

 Degree of quality control = Good
 Water to cement ratio = 0.40
 Optimum Mix Design Proportion=1 : 1.27 : 2.84
 Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days= 30 MPa
 Target compressive strength at 28 days=38.25 MPa

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 Table 6.10: Details of Concrete Specimens of M30 Design.

Specification code Description of the specimen

OPS1 Concrete cube with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 7 days curing
OPS2 Concrete cube with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 28 days curing
OPS3 Concrete cylinder with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 28 days curing
OPS4 Concrete beam with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 28 days curing
OPN1 Concrete cube with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 7 days curing
OPN2 Concrete cube with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 28 days curing
OPN3 Concrete cylinder with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Ordinary
Portland Cement after 28 days curing
OPN4 Concrete beam with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Ordinary Portland
Cement after 28 days curing
PSS1 Concrete cube with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag Cement
after 7 days curing
PSS2 Concrete cube with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag Cement
after 28days curing
PSS3 Concrete cylinder with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag
Cement after 28 days curing
PSS4 Concrete beam with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag Cement
after 28 days curing
PSN1 Concrete cube with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag
Cement after 7 days curing
PSN2 Concrete cube with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag
Cement after 28 days curing
PSN3 Concrete cylinder with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag
Cement after 28 days curing
PSN4 Concrete beam with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland Slag
Cement after 28 days curing
PPS1 Concrete cube with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Pozzolana
Cement after 7 days curing
PPS2 Concrete cube with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Pozzolana
Cement after 28 days curing
PPS3 Concrete cylinder with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Pozzolana
Cement after 28 days curing
PPS4 Concrete beam with FeCr slag as coarse aggregate and Portland Pozzolana
Cement after 28 days curing
PPN1 Concrete cube with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland
Pozzolana Cement after 7 days curing
PPN2 Concrete cube with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland
Pozzolana Cement after 28 days curing
PPN3 Concrete cylinder with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland
Pozzolana Cement after 28 days curing
PPN4 Concrete beam with Natural stone as coarse aggregate and Portland
Pozzolana Cement after 28 days curing

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6.5.3 Fresh Concrete Test

Fresh concrete tests were carried out to evaluate the workability of the concrete. The
results of fresh concrete tests are presented in Table No 6.11. Workability was found to be
medium. But the workability can be improved by using different plasticisers.

Table 6.11 The results of Fresh concrete test of M30 Design.

Slump Test
Concrete with cement type Concrete with natural stone as Concrete with FeCr Slag
coarse aggregate as coarse aggregate
OPC 32-50 mm 32-40 mm
PSC 30-48 mm 30-38 mm
PPC 31-46 mm 31-40 mm
Compaction factor
OPC 0.85-0.88 0.82-0.85
PSC 0.85-0.88 0.82-0.85
PPC 0.85-0.88 0.82-0.85

6.5.4 Hardened concrete test results

The important strength parameters of Hardened Concrete Test like Compressive

Strength, Flexural Strength and Tensile Strengths were measured for the concrete specimens
after 7 and 28 days of curing. The results are shown in Table No. 6.12

6.5.4.1 Compressive Strength (CS) of concrete cubes

Compressive strength is one of the most important and useful properties of concrete
and is most easily determined. It is used as a measure of overall quality of concrete and is an
indication of all other properties relating to deformation and durability.

6.5.4.2 Flexural Strength

Flexural strength is defined as a material's ability to resist deformation under load. The
transverse bending test is most frequently employed, in which a rod specimen having either a
circular or rectangular cross-section is bent until fracture using a three point flexural test
technique. The flexural strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at
its moment of rupture. It is measured in terms of stress, here given the symbol Fb. Calculating
formula = Fb = PL/BD2, Where P= maximum load in Newton, L= span length, B = Width of

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the specimen in mm and D = Depth of the specimen in mm. Cylinder Casting and Testing for
Flexural strength is shown in Fig. 6.19.

6.5.4.3 Tensile Strength

The tensile strength is one of the basic and important properties of the concrete. The
concrete is not usually expected to resist the direct tension because of its low tensile strength
and brittle nature. However, the determination of tensile strength of concrete is necessary to
determine the load at which the concrete members may crack. The cracking is a form of
tension failure. Formula for calculating split tensile strength fsp = 2P/πLD, where P is the
maximum load applied in Newton D is the diameter and L is the length of the cylinder
specimen. Prism Casting and Testing for Tensile strength is shown in Fig. 6.20.

Fig. 6.19 Cylinder Casting and Testing (Flexural strength)

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Fig.6.20 Prism Casting and Testing for Tensile Strength

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 Table 6.12 Hardened Concrete Test Results

Specimen Aggregate Cement Test parameter Unit Average % increase

value
OPS1 FeCr Slag OPC 7 days Compressive MPa 40.23
Strength
7.8
OPN1 Natural stone OPC 7 days Compressive MPa 37.33
Strength
PSS1 FeCr Slag PSC 7 days Compressive MPa 32.8
Strength 2.2
PSN1 Natural stone PSC 7 days Compressive MPa 32.1
Strength
PPS1 FeCr Slag PPC 7 days Compressive MPa 34.67
Strength
5.1
PPN1 Natural stone PPC 7 days Compressive MPa 33.0
Strength
OPS2 FeCr Slag OPC 28 days Compressive MPa 48.80
Strength
21.5
OPN2 Natural stone OPC 28 days Compressive MPa 40.15
Strength
PSS2 FeCr Slag PSC 28 days Compressive MPa 47.93
Strength
20.3
PSN2 Natural stone PSC 28 days Compressive MPa 39.82
Strength
PPS2 FeCr Slag PPC 28 days Compressive MPa 47.85
Strength
19.6
PPN2 Natural stone PPC 28 days Compressive MPa 40.01
Strength
OPS3 FeCr Slag OPC 28 days Flexural MPa 4.92
Strength
6.5
OPN3 Natural stone OPC 28 days Flexural MPa 4.62
Strength
PSS3 FeCr Slag PSC 28 days Flexural MPa 4.75
Strength
6.2
PSN3 Natural stone PSC 28 days Flexural MPa 4.47
Strength
PPS3 FeCr Slag PPC 28 days Flexural MPa 4.78
Strength
5.7
PPN3 Natural stone PPC 28 days Flexural MPa 4.52
Strength
OPS4 FeCr Slag OPC 28 days Split Tensile MPa 3.86
Strength
6.3
OPN4 Natural stone OPC 28 days Split Tensile MPa 3.63
Strength
PSS4 FeCr Slag PSC 28 days Split Tensile MPa 3.82
Strength
5.5
PSN4 Natural stone PSC 28 days Split Tensile MPa 3.63
Strength
PPS4 FeCr Slag PPC 28 days Split Tensile MPa 3.82
Strength
5.2
PPN4 Natural stone PPC 28 days Split Tensile MPa 3.63
Strength

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6.5.5 M30 Design Strength Result Analysis

Following the similar trend of M20 Design analysis in section 6.4, here in M30
Design also, it is found that all strength properties increase with increase of amount of slag
substitution. Concrete with 100 % Ferrochrome slag showed a 19-21 % increase in
compressive strength, 5.7-6.5 % increase in flexural strength and increase 5.2-6.3 % in split
tensile strength with all types of cement. This better performance is attributed to the
excellent aggregate properties of Ferrochrome slag. These encouraging results indicate the
suitability of slag as coarse aggregate in higher strength concrete work in agreement with
the similar work by Zelic [142].

6.6 Technical and Environmental Assessment of Ferrochrome slag as

Concrete Aggregate Material
From the detailed experimental results of concrete mix design using aggregate FeCr slag
as, the following important inferences are obtained.

 Even though the Ferrochrome slag has the desired engineering and mechanical
properties, its use has been restricted because of leaching of chromium very often
exceeding the regulatory norms under adverse environmental conditions.

 From the experimental study in concrete work using slag as aggregate material, it is
found that ferrochrome slag available as air cooled slag shows excellent results in
strength analysis as coarse aggregate in concrete work indicating its possible
utilization in high strength concrete work where the natural aggregates fail to
achieve the desired results. From the experimental studies ferrochrome slag available
as water cooled granulated slag is found to show suitability as fine aggregate in
general purpose concrete work.

 From the elaborate leaching experimental study carried out with unbound
ferrochrome slag samples, it is found that there is significant leaching of chromium
from the slag samples under regulatory TCLP test conditions. With slag as aggregate
in concrete product, the concrete provides suitable solid matrix for immobilization of
chromium. Whatever the small amount of chromium leaching from the slag, mostly
in the form of Cr(III), has been found to be successfully immobilized in all types of
cement and concrete matrix resulting in very low level release from concrete

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 samples. The results of compliance tank leaching and regulatory TCLP leaching
study from concrete bound ferrochrome slag indicate very low level of chromium
leaching and are well within the permissible regulatory norm. Blast furnace slag
based Portland slag cement has been found to be most effective in immobilizing Cr
(III) as well as Cr (VI).

 The results of 64 days release of chromium from standard tank leaching tests of
concrete samples showed very low values as compared with the Dutch Building
Material Decree 1995 [15] and Soil Quality Decree 2007[111]. From the results it is
inferred that the service life of concrete is not likely to create environmental
pollution problem, indicating the environmental compatibility of ferrochrome slag as
concrete aggregate material.

Thus ferrochrome slag, a problematic solid waste having disposal problem can be
suitably utilized as concrete aggregate material with chromium immobilization in cement
concrete matrix without causing significant environmental pollution problem.

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