Building Rural Roads

BUILDING RURAL ROADS
Copyright © International Labour Organization 2008 CTP 173

First published 2008
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Johannessen, Bjørn
Building rural roads / Bjørn Johannessen. - Bangkok: ILO, 2008
466 p.
ISBN: 9789221209775; 9789221209782 (web pdf)
International Labour Organization; ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific; ILO ASIST Asia Pacific
road construction / rural public works / labour intensive employment / rural employment / poverty alleviation
10.05.6
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REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................7
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 1 PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF WORKS ................................................9

1.1 Planning Framework .......................................................................10
1.2 Key Features of a Plan ....................................................................18
1.3 Road Selection ..............................................................................19
1.4 Selection Criteria ...........................................................................22
1.5 Design Standards ...........................................................................28
1.6 Technology Choice .........................................................................36
1.7 Road Inventories ............................................................................38
1.8 Planning and Estimating Works .......................................................42
1.9 Design Process ..............................................................................43
1.10 Road Alignments ............................................................................45
1.11 Quantity Surveying .........................................................................49
1.12 Time Management Planning ............................................................51
1.13 Cost Estimating .............................................................................60
1.14 Tendering Stage .............................................................................70
1.15 Works Implementation ....................................................................72
CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT...............................................................75

2.1 Selecting the Road Alignment .........................................................76
2.2 Tools for Surveying and Setting Out .................................................81
2.3 Horizontal Alignment ..................................................................... 90
2.4 Vertical Alignment ..........................................................................98
2.5 Setting Out Cross Sections............................................................105
CHAPTER 3 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ....................................................................... 115

3.1 Importance of Tools and Equipment ............................................... 116
3.2 Quality of Tools ............................................................................ 117
3.3 Characteristics of Suitable Hand Tools ........................................... 118
3.4 Maintenance and Repair of Hand Tools ..........................................130
3.5 Construction Equipment ..............................................................134
3.6 Maintenance of Equipment ...........................................................142
CHAPTER 4 CLEARING ............................................................................................145

4.1 Site Clearing ................................................................................146
4.2 Bush Clearing ..............................................................................148
4.3 Tree and Stump Removal ..............................................................149
4.4 Grubbing ..................................................................................... 151
4.5 Boulder Removal ..........................................................................152
CHAPTER 5 EARTHWORKS ......................................................................................155
5.1 Definition ...................................................................................156
5.2 Construction Principles .................................................................159
5.3 Calculating Volumes .....................................................................165
5.4 Organising the Excavation Works ...................................................169
5.5 Embankment Construction ............................................................172
5.6 Side Drain and Camber Construction .............................................180
5.7 Transporting Materials ..................................................................184
5.8 Rock Excavation...........................................................................187
5.9 Slope Stabilisation .......................................................................190
CHAPTER 6 GABION WORKS ....................................................................................199

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 200
6.2 Size and Specifications .................................................................202
6.3 Assembling the Cages ................................................................. 204
6.4 Common Layouts for Structures Using Gabions .............................. 208
6.5 Drainage Structures......................................................................210
6.6 Bank Protection ........................................................................... 211
CHAPTER 7 DRAINAGE ............................................................................................213

7.1 Overview .....................................................................................214
7.2 Road Surface Drainage ................................................................. 217
7.3 Side Drains..................................................................................226
7.4 Mitre Drains.................................................................................230
7.5 Scour Checks ............................................................................. 233
7.6 Catch-water Drains .......................................................................235
7.7 Culverts ......................................................................................237
7.8 Drifts ..........................................................................................237
7.9 Vented Fords ...............................................................................244
CHAPTER 8 CULVERTS ............................................................................................249

8.1 Introduction .................................................................................250
8.2 Culvert Location ...........................................................................255
8.3 Setting Out ..................................................................................256
8.4 Setting Out Procedures.................................................................257
8.5 Construction Operations ...............................................................267
8.6 Constructing Headwalls, Wing Walls and Aprons .............................270
8.7 Culvert Approaches ......................................................................275
8.8 Concrete Pipe Manufacture ...........................................................275
8.9 Corrugated Steel Pipes .................................................................280
CHAPTER 9 PAVEMENT............................................................................................281
9.1 Function and Composition of Road Pavements ................................282
9.2 Pavement Design .........................................................................285
9.3 Pavement Types ...........................................................................293
9.4 Earth Roads ............................................................................... 294
9.5 Gravel Roads .............................................................................. 298
9.6 Soil Mixing ..................................................................................315
9.7 Chemically Stabilized Soils ............................................................ 317
9.8 Macadam Type Pavements ............................................................318
9.9 Bituminous Pavements .................................................................321
9.10 Surface Dressings ........................................................................327
9.11 Otta Seals ...................................................................................331
9.12 Stone Pavements ........................................................................ 336
9.13 Concrete Surfaces ........................................................................341
CHAPTER 10 SOIL MECHANICS ................................................................................ 345

10.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 346
10.2 Definitions ...................................................................................347
10.3 Distinguishing Soils ......................................................................351
10.4 Simple Field Tests ....................................................................... 353
10.5 Soil Sampling ..............................................................................357
10.6 Laboratory Testing....................................................................... 360
10.7 Applying Compaction to Various Soil Types .....................................370
CHAPTER 11 COMPACTION ........................................................................................373

11.1 Purpose ...................................................................................... 374
11.2 Fundamentals of Compaction ........................................................375
11.3 Compaction Methods................................................................... 380
11.4 Compaction Procedures ............................................................... 384
11.5 Quality Standards........................................................................ 385
CHAPTER 12 CONCRETE WORKS ...............................................................................387

12.1 Basic Features ............................................................................ 388
12.2 Materials and Storage ...................................................................391
12.3 Proportion of Components ............................................................393
12.4 Water to Cement Ratio..................................................................394
12.5 Mixing Concrete ...........................................................................395
12.6 Formwork ....................................................................................398
12.7 Transport of Concrete ...................................................................401
12.8 Pouring Concrete ........................................................................ 403
12.9 Curing ........................................................................................ 405
12.10 Quality Testing .............................................................................407
CHAPTER 13 SETTING UP AND ADMINISTERING A SITE ............................................ 409
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 410
13.2 Setting Up a Camp....................................................................... 410
13.3 Quarries and Borrow Pits .............................................................. 413
13.4 Administrative and Financial Routines ............................................ 414
13.5 Site Stores .................................................................................. 417
13.6 Personnel Management ................................................................421
13.7 Site Meetings ..............................................................................425
13.8 Work Safety .................................................................................425
CHAPTER 14 WORK ORGANISATION ..........................................................................427

14.1 Introduction .................................................................................428
14.2 Work Programming ...................................................................... 430
14.3 Incentives................................................................................... 433
14.4 Setting Task Rates ...................................................................... 438
14.5 Managing the Workforce .............................................................. 440
14.6 Organising Subcontractors ........................................................... 443
14.7 Traffic on Site ............................................................................. 444
CHAPTER 15 REPORTING AND CONTROL.................................................................. 445

15.1 Overview .................................................................................... 446
15.2 Monitoring Works .........................................................................449
15.3 Drawings and Work Specifications .................................................452
15.4 Inspection of Works ..................................................................... 453
15.5 Quality Control ............................................................................ 454
15.6 Quality Assurance ........................................................................456
15.7 Measurement of Works ................................................................ 458
15.8 Records and Reports ................................................................... 458
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 464

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For the past 30 years the ILO has been involved in capacity development and training for
the effective provision of rural infrastructure. Through ASIST in Asia and the Pacific,
the ILO promotes the use of local resource based technology as a means of improving the
capacity of local government institutions to effectively deliver rural infrastructure services
in developing countries. This manual has been produced as part of this programme.
The use of local resource based technology has been established in a number of countries,
and is efficiently being applied in a large number of rural road development programmes.
Its success, in terms of emphasising the use of locally available resources such as labour,
tools and light equipment, combined with good workmanship and high quality standards,
has given this technology its due recognition. The active support and promotion of
such technology is not limited to national governments but also includes a number of
international organisations and international development banks.
Although the principal approach remains the same, the exact definition of the technology
varies from one country to another, depending on the prevailing site conditions, design

standards, local building practices and the actual availability of local resources. For this
reason, the technology differs quite significantly from one programme to another. Despite
this, there are certain best practices that are commonly applied across the range.
This manual attempts to present a set of technical solutions and work methods commonly
applied in a number of countries where the use of local resources is given serious
consideration when building rural roads. It describes a set of work methods and procedures
which have demonstrated in practice that they are effective both in terms of cost and
quality. To achieve this, the development of this document has drawn on the best practices
that have been identified in several rural road building programmes. In addition, it is based
on an in-depth review of existing literature from such programmes.
As part of the acknowledgements, it is therefore important to recognise the importance of

all the innovative work that has taken place in the various completed and ongoing rural
road development programmes. This includes the manuals and training material produced
for these programmes. It is only with this work as a basis, that it has been possible to
present the technology in a more generic version.
The contents of this manual have been developed with valuable inputs from engineers
with extensive experience from managing rural road construction works in a number of
countries. In this respect, particular acknowledgement is hereby given to the technical
inputs provided by Pen Sonath, Pisit Tusanasorn and Geoff Edmonds.
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INTRODUCTION
Rural roads are the last link of the transport network, however, they often form the
most important connection in terms of providing access for the rural population. The
permanent or seasonal absence of road access is a constraining factor in terms of providing
rural communities with essential services such as education, primary health care, water
supply, local markets as well as economic opportunities. The availability of such services
and opportunities are difficult to sustain without a good quality and well-maintained rural
road network, which provides regular and efficient transport access throughout the year.
Building good quality rural roads is

a particular skill in itself, requiring
pr op e r pl a n n i n g , e x p e r ie nc e d
supervision, good workmanship and
the selection of the correct technology
and work methods.
Rural roads provide a critical link in

a road transport network, facilitating

access to and development of the rural
areas. While these roads form the
majority portion of the road network, they often carry low volumes of traffic. Despite this,
their design and construction need to cater for the common type of vehicle loads and allow
access throughout the year and in all kinds of weather conditions.
These features place specific challenges to the road agencies in charge. On the one hand,
there is a need to find good engineering solutions addressing the functional requirements
relating to maintaining all-weather access. On the other hand, due to the size and extensive
distribution of rural roads, road agencies are under pressure to find low cost solutions that
allow authorities to build and maintain an extensive network of roads.
The purpose of this manual is to provide technical staff ranging from site supervisors to
engineers with a technical reference which in detail explains and describes commonly used
work methods and best practices for constructing rural roads.
It describes all phases of works management from the initial stages of identification and
preliminary design through technical planning, work organisation, works implementation
methods and procedures, site administration to reporting and control. The topics cover the
skills required from technical staff responsible for carrying out rural road construction and
rehabilitation works.
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CHAPTER 1
P L A N N I N G A N D
P R E P A R A T I O N O F W O R K S
1
P L A N N I N G A N D P R E PA R AT I O N O F W O R K S
P LANNING AND
PREPARATION OF WORKS
1.1 Planning Framework up plans for the improvement of, for

example, the road network.
When planning, we think ahead, set a
target or a goal and try to find the best Planning is carried out at several levels.
way to reach that target, identifying At headquarters, plans are made outlining
appropriate actions required to achieve the general features of a programme
a specific end result. Planning is done including information on which areas
almost everywhere and by everyone, will be covered by a specific programme,
from the farmer who figures out what, annual targets, programme budgets, who
when, where and how to grow crops, will carry out the works and the type and
to the Government, when drawing amount of resources required.
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At the other end, at site level, plans are and to what degree the government
more specific and describe in detail is successful in moving towards its
how work is distributed over the next ultimate goals, development plans
few weeks or months and what progress will include a time schedule during
is to be achieved utilising specif ic which specific targets or milestones
resources such as a particular group of are to be reached. As part of this 1
people and equipment carrying out a exercise, the authorities may establish
series of related work activities. specia l development programmes
to increase the speed at which the
There are many different types of plans goals can be reached. Centrally based
and many different names for them, but technical agencies, such as planning
usually they are called after the level at ministries and technical departments
which they are to be used and/or their play an important role in terms of
duration, e.g. overall programme plans, scheduling and estimating the overall
site plans, monthly work plans and resources required to reach intermittent
weekly/daily work plans. milestones in a programme.
National Plans Transport Sector Plans

The various types and levels of planning In line with the contents of national
carried out in the road sector are de ve lopment pl a n s , e a c h s e c tor
normally organised within a framework commonly prepares a set of long-term
of general policy documents, guidelines planning documents, often referred
a nd proc edu re s. Phy sic a l work s to as sector studies, implementation
planning start with comprehensive strategies or strategic plans. The
plans covering the nation as a whole. sector plans relating to transport
I n n at ion a l de velopment pl a n s , usually contain an analysis of the
governments specify their intentions current situation in terms of existing
in each sector by defining functional infrastructure assets, current transport
goals as well as formulating strategies pat tern s, on-goi ng de velopment
describing how to reach such targets. programmes, levels of recurrent budgets
Targets for the road sector are often and improvement budgets.
related to levels of mobility and access. On this basis, projections are made
National targets for rural road networks r e l a t i n g t o f ut u r e d e m a nd s f or
are commonly formulated as the extent development, f unding needs a nd
to which all-weather access is provided possible funding sources, and suggesting
to communities of a certain size or
providing all-weather roads within a
defined proximity of where people live.
Goals and targets for each sector can
be very ambitious and may take several
years to reach.
In order to be able to measure progress

0 1 1
a strategy for reaching the formulated local government administrations, the
targets. Transport sector studies present local technical agency in charge of rural
the government's long-term strategies road works needs to be fully involved in
and plans for the sector, commonly with this annual planning process.
a time span of 5 to 10 years. Although
1 the government will make every effort Local Plans
to achieve the goals contained in these I n add it ion to t he a n nu a l work
sector plans, it is important to note programmes, rural road works agencies
that these plans and strategies are not will need to develop long-term plans
directly linked to any specific budget for the development and maintenance
allocations. The extent to which these of t he road net work under t heir
plans are realised depends on the annual respective jurisdictions. Annual budgets
budgeting and work programmes do not meet the requirements of all
approved by the political bodies. requests for improvements, so a long-
term strategy describing when and
Annual Programmes and Budgets where developments can take place
Annual budgets are the f irst set of will need to be developed based on
concrete plans for which specif ic the priorities of local political bodies.
resources are dedicated. The annual Some development projects require a
work programmes and budgets for the construction period longer than the
road sector form an integral part of the standard budget year. Equally, the
annual programme and budget prepared timing and contents of maintenance
by the central government for all sectors. works will var y from one year to
The planning and preparatory work another. For these reasons, it is useful
behind the annual work programmes for the road agency to carry out periodic
normally commence a year in advance plans covering a period of 3 to 5 years.
of its announcement, thereby securing
the inputs of all stakeholders and Project Plans
also allowing for the assembly of the Project plans commonly relate to specific
necessary data to support the cost development projects, normally involving
projections in the budget. the construction or improvement of

one particular road section. Project
Traditionally, this exercise was very plans provide details on the basis of
much an undertaking by headquarters, which approval and funding decisions
however, with the decentralisation of are made. Equally, these plans form
government in recent years this exercise the basis for the detailed engineering
has become an integral part of local plans and in the next step the contract
planning processes. In addition to the docu ment s u sed du ring work s
central government budget procedure, implementation.
local government institutions carry
out a simi la r exercise of a nnua l Detailed Plans
programming and budgeting. As rural Deta iled pla ns a re t he work ing
roads are often under the jurisdiction of documents which the technical staff
0 1 2
maintenance plans is by far the most
important part of the planning activities
carried out by the authorities in charge
of the road network. As mentioned
above, maintenance planning needs to
be carried out on a periodic basis and 1
well as on an annual basis.
An important feature of all infrastructure
works planning is the need to make
adequate provisions for the upkeep of
the existing assets and installations
which have been developed in the past.
Although this issue is often neglected, it
would seem obvious that the first priority
in any works programme would be to
protect already existing infrastructure
refer to in relation to the scheduling investments, before spending money on
of individual work activities, supply of building new developments. For this
equipment and materials and hiring reason, government budgets normally
of staff and labour. Detailed plans are consists of a recurrent budget to deal
prepared for various time horizons, with the upkeep of already existing
ranging from the entire duration of the installations and an investment budget
project, to monthly, weekly and daily for the purpose of improving the level
work plans. The main purpose of of services. When building new roads
the detailed plans is to secure proper or upgrading existing roads to higher
management of all resources used as standards, funds are normally sourced
inputs to produce the planned outputs. from investment budgets.
These plans are normally combined
w it h a c omprehensive repor t ing Legal Framework
and monitoring system, allowing Most rural road works form part of
m a n a g ement to c ompa re a c t u a l the public services provided by the
achievements with the planned targets. government. The investments made
in the development and maintenance
Maintenance Plans of road a sset s a re norma l ly made
Planning is often associated with new from government funding, and as a
development initiatives, however, a consequence the created (and maintained)
substantial part of planning carried assets are regarded as the property of
out by any road works agency relates the government. Ownership issues such
to the optimal and most effective as who is in charge of the operation of
ways of utilising available resources to these infrastructure assets are defined
maintain already existing infrastructure in legal provisions, often consisting
assets. The preparation of effective road of national legislation combined with
0 1 3
specific regulations following the general authorities (i.e. district development
provisions in national laws. plans). Plans at the various levels in the
government hierarchy, not only need
Who is in charge of operating and to adopt certain standard formats, they
maintaining different segments of also have specific approval procedures
1 the public road network is normally thereby incorporating basic democratic
defined in national legislation such as principles and securing a certain process
a Road Act. Equally, if the authority of consultation with the population
for rural roads has been delegated to who will be affected by the proposed
local government, this decision is often development initiatives.
ref lected in the laws and provisions
defining the role and responsibilities of Setting realistic goals and targets for
local government authorities. any type of public services requires
good knowledge relating to the costs
Regulating Bodies and amount of resources required to
The implementation of a road works reach these goals. For the purpose
programme is regulated by a series of consistency and to ensure that
of procedures and guidelines. These all parties are adhering to the same
procedures commonly cover subjects such planning and implementation strategies,
as the planning process, programming the national agencies often develop a
a nd budgeting, procurement a nd set of standard work practices, which
contracting arrangements, technical include items such as standard designs
standards and works specifications, and work arrangements, catering for
and finally monitoring and reporting. the various conditions in which the
There may also be regulations relating infrastructure services are expected to
to social and environmental aspects operate.
which need to be observed in relation
to civil works projects. In addition, Road Classification
the institution providing the funding Planning in the road sector is organised
may insist on certain conditions under according the divisions of responsibility
which the resources are utilised. for the road network. Highways and
other roads of national importance
Regulating bodies may consist of are often covered by a national road
both government organisations as works agency, while roads providing
well as private sector organisations. access to and for local communities is
Any public works programme will often under the jurisdiction of local
be prepared following the general government authorities. In order
planning procedures pertaining to the to distinguish bet ween the main
source of the funds and the specific components of the public road network,
sector under which the programme roads are classified in groups according
of works belong. Development plans to their purpose, such as main or
are commonly produced at national national roads, provincial, district and
level as well as by local government basic access roads.
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P L A N N I N G A N D P R E PA R AT I O N O F W O R K S BUILDING RURAL ROADS 0 1 5
1
The development and maintenance of Setting Work Standards
each of these road classes is normally For each of the road classes in the public
assigned to different government road network, the government develops
agencies. Works related to national a set of design guidelines. These design
roads and highways are commonly guidelines includes general directions
1 assigned to a national road agency or on the geometric features of the roads,
a centrally based works ministry. The such as appropriate dimensions of
provision of provincial and district the road cross-section and curvature,
roads is often part of the responsibilities surfacing options, drainage solutions,

of local government authorities. road reserves, etc. These guidelines are
normally based on input parameters
Other roads, such as forest roads, roads such as prevailing and expected traffic
to national monuments and roads built volumes and terrain conditions.
for military purposes, are maintained
by the respective departments in In addition to the road design standards,
charge of the activities for which these most governments issue standard
roads serve. The provision of urban specifications relating to how civil
roads and streets is the responsibility of works should be carried out. Work
city administrations or municipalities. specifications are essential in the process
of securing that the construction works
All these government authorities may meet generally accepted industr y
not necessarily have the technical quality standards. Work specifications
capacity to manage and supervise road forms part of the guidelines to be
works, and for this reason may decide applied when carrying out any civil
to delegate this management task to works relating to public infrastructure.
an agency which carries the necessary T he speci f ic at ions a re norma l ly
capacity. developed by a technical unit in a civil
works department or alternatively by
Within local government administrations, a professional society representing
there would normally be a dedicated technical staff from the respective
technical department in charge of the engineering sectors, (i.e. association of

maintenance and development of the road and bridge engineers).
local road network. On the basis of the
priorities set by local political bodies Other Standard Procedures
and assemblies, the local government All public expenditure is governed
road works units prepare periodic by a comprehensive set of procedures
plans and annual works programmes, and directives detailing how funds
which include plans, detailing (i) how are to be used and accounted for.
local roads will be maintained and (ii) These procedures include budgeting
if additional resources are available, and accounting procedures as well as
any improvements to the network. detailed regulations on the contracting
a rra ngements. Most government
administrations employ dedicated staff
0 1 6
to deal with budgeting and accounting, From Plans to Implementation
however, these tasks also form an The planning process forms the basis for
integral part of the responsibilities of all budgeting and resource scheduling
the technical staff in charge of civil required in civil works projects. Periodic
works activities. and long-term plans provide estimates
for long-term budget projections, while 1
In addition, roads works programmes detailed plans are important for the
need to meet a number of social and budgeting carried out on an annual
environmental impact considerations. and project basis. The detailed plans
In order to secure this, the government also contain essential information
develops a set of procedures and guidelines which forms the backbone of the civil
to ensure that such consideration are part works contracts issued during works
of the planning process. implementation. Data pertaining to the
amount and location of work constitutes
Finally, it is worth mentioning that the most important part of most civil
the government provides specif ic works contracts.
regulations on employment conditions
and occupational safety and health The timely completion of works according
which need to be observed during to a plan is also a key determinant in
works implementation. Equally, the measuring progress of works and assessing
contracting arrangements will normally the efficiency of a civil works programme.
be integrated into a legal framework, In order to obtain an objective picture of
which spells out some of the basic the progress in a civil works programme,
principles of contracting, covering a comprehensive monitoring system is
issues such as resolution of conflicts, installed in which the achieved work
liability, employers responsibilities, legal outputs are measured and compared
status of contracts, etc. against the originally planned work
schedule.
0 1 7
1.2 Key Features of a Plan activities is clear to all parties involved.
As part of the justification, a key issue
A ll plans need to contain certain is to identify the beneficiaries of the
key information in order to serve the project.
purpose of providing the guidance and
1 targets for which they are intended. A civil works plan defines key outputs
When preparing a road development the achievement of which justifies the
progra mme, t he pla nning work s expenditure. The plan will also specify
rely on basic principles applied when the exact location of the work and
carrying out any planning. when it is planned to commence, its
duration and when it is expected to be
complete. When preparing budgets,
PLANNING consists of setting specific the outputs are often the key data
targets and goals and specifying in against which the project is appraised
detail the necessary resources and
actions to reach those targets. and evaluated.
The planned activities are linked to

For the sake of clarity and in order to each of the outputs in the plan. In
remain focussed on the task at hand, it order to achieve a specif ic output,
is useful to clearly define the purpose certain activities need to take place
or objective of the plan. Equally, in a particular sequence or schedule
it is essential that the justification of events. Some activities are linked
for carrying out any programmed to others, requiring the completion of
0 1 8
certain outputs before the next work 1.3 Road Selection
activities can commence.
The Process
The sequence in which the activities Roads to be constructed, improved
need to take place can be presented or maintained under a particular
in f low charts as part of the time pr o g r a m me a r e not s e le c t e d i n 1
management planning process. With an arbitrar y manner. W hile each
good estimates of the production programme will have its own tailor-
rates and measured quantities, it is made identif ication and selection
then possible to establish the exact procedures, the process will in most
duration of each work activity. A full cases consist of a number of distinct
work programme with start dates, stages:
milestones and completion dates can
then be established.
The inputs to a works project or

programme consist of all the resources
required in order to create the defined
outputs. In civil works, these are
essentially labour, materials, tools
and equipment. Tools and materials
are mostly consumable items which
when estimated to the correct quantity
will be used in their entirety for the
purpose of the individual project. Initial Identification
Labour and equipment are time bound The initial identification step is the
inputs and their usage and costs need preparation of a list of proposed
to be estimated on the basis of a unit roads to be improved or maintained.
rate and for how long they will be This initial list will, in most cases,
required. be prepared with the involvement of
local communities or their political

Based on the consumption of materials representation. Generally, the proposed
and usage of equipment and labour, it roads must meet pre-determined criteria
is possible to estimate the cost of each set by the programme management in
of the individual activities. Some cost collaboration with the planning and
items are directly linked to the amount funding authorities.
of quantity of outputs produced while
other cost items are linked to the The proposed roads that meet the
time duration during which a certain programme criteria are then forwarded
activity will take place. The total through the local authorities (i.e.
cost of all envisaged activities will district and provincial development
constitute the project budget estimate. committees) for further discussion in
terms of priorities and coordination
0 1 9
with other local development activities. should be taken by the appropriate
Afterwards, the list with the proposed development committee.
roads is forwarded to the implementing
agency for screening. Appraisal
Appraisal is a more detailed assessment
1 Screening for supporting an investment in a
The technical agency usually carries certain road. Often, a cost benefit
out the screening of identified roads in analysis is carried out as part of an
order to disqualify those projects that appraisal. This implies that construction
do not meet certain criteria, are not costs need to be estimated and socio-
technically or economically feasible, economic data assembled (population
or are not likely to have the expected densities, agricultural potential, traffic
impact. These assessments are usually volumes, etc.).
carried out on the basis of rough
estimates of costs and benefits of the Ranking
proposed works, such as the size of A programme may not be able to
population and number of communities absorb all selected roads which have
served. The screening may also include passed the screening and appraisal
an initial assessment of social and stages. In addition, some roads will be
environmental impacts. of higher importance than others for
various reasons. An overall ranking
Ideally, the technical agency will only of the selected roads, on the basis of
provide information as regards to costs overall weights of some important
and feasibility of a certain project, evaluation factors, will be necessary
and on this basis determine whether in order to decide which roads should
the project meets established selection receive priority and in what order. The
criteria. The final decision whether criteria used for ranking may be simple,
to still appraise a project in detail e.g. the road with the lowest cost per
0 2 0
1
head of population served could be process. From initial identification to
improved first. At this stage other social finally securing formal approval of
criteria may also be introduced. the plan and receiving the budgeted
funds may take one to two years. For
Approval this reason, it is common practice to
As a f inal step, the roads selected establish a schedule for this process in
according to this process will need to which specific deadlines are set for the
be approved by the relevant authorities. completion of each of the main events
The approval may need to come from described above.
provincial or central authorities, and in
some cases from a funding agency. The Equally, this process will require a team
technical line departments or planning of technical staff who can carry out the
authorities may need to be consulted identification, costing and technical
to ensure that the individual projects screening. Finally, the political bodies
fit into larger comprehensive plans to in charge of taking the final decisions
avoid any duplication of efforts and to will need to be assembled to secure the
make sure that all individual projects necessary approvals before the work
are contributing to overall development programme is official.
objectives in a coordinated manner.
No work can start before such approval When all the approvals have been
has been given and funding has been secured, the technical authorities will
secured. commence the detailed planning and
the preparation of detailed designs and
This process of identif ication and estimates for each of the individual
selection of sub-projects in an overall projects, and finally commence the
works programme is a time consuming preparation of contract documents.
0 2 1
1.4 Selection Criteria
As in all infrastructure works, there are
essentially three main criteria which
needs to be considered when proposing
1 a new rural road development project:
(i) technical feasibility,

(ii) economic justification and

(iii) social considerations.
Technical Feasibility
The technical feasibility starts out
with a rapid assessment of whether it is
possible to carry out the project from a
technical point of view. Some aspects
of rural road construction may not be terrain, difficult soil types, etc.
obvious to everybody involved in the • Building materials such as gravel,
decision making process. It is therefore aggregate and water should be
useful to secure some guidance at available at a reasonable distance
an early stage from technical staff to from the work sites.
ensure that a particular proposal is • A local authority to take charge of
technically feasible. future maintenance requirements.
By doing so, it is possible to rule out • There should be sufficient funds
impracticable projects such as proposals available to provide periodic and
with ver y large bridge crossings, routine maintenance.
alignments through very diff icult • If the use of labour-based work
terrain or through areas where land methods is a prerequisite (e.g.
cannot be made available for road on Food for Work programmes
building purposes. Other important or ot her rura l employ ment
technical considerations are: generation schemes), then a

minimum of 100 persons should
• The road should connect to a well- be available and interested in
maintained road, thereby adding working for the project under
on to the existing functional road the terms and conditions offered.
network in the area.
• When considering a new project Economic Justification
it is important to make a rapid Various investment models are available
assessment of the future road to carry out the economic analysis.
alignment, investigating the The benefits normally considered in
need for expensive structures economic evaluations are:
such as bridges, heavy earth • direct savings in the cost of
works through rocky and steep operating vehicles,
0 2 2
1
• time savings by travellers and other road works activities.
freight,
• economies in road maintenance Rural roads, however, represent the
costs, gra ss roots of t he road net work,
• reductions in road accidents feeding traffic into the secondary and
(although these often increase on primary roads and opening access to
improved roads), and the rural areas. Rural roads often have
• wider effects on the economic low traffic volumes and are generally
development of the region. constructed using simple designs
which essentially secure all-year round
Investment models are available to access. For these roads, the economic
estimate the total transport costs justification for the investment rests
associated with different road designs mainly on the expected impact on
including vehicle operating costs, social and agricultural development.
maintenance costs and renewal costs Both these outputs are time related
under a variety of traffic, climatic and and may have a large element of
maintenance conditions. uncertainty.
A choice of higher design standards The extent to which the local economy
may still achieve the established adjacent to the proposed road will
thresholds of rate of return, however, benefit from the investment depends
not necessarily giving the best value on a series of economic parameters
for money. In a number of developing such as availability of land, irrigation
countries, finance is usually scarce and facilities, pricing mechanisms on farm
it is therefore equally important to products, labour and transportation
utilise minimum effective designs and costs and several others. To forecast
thereby releasing savings to be used for an increase in agricultural production
0 2 3
1
P L A N N I N G A N D P R E PA R AT I O N O F W O R K S BUILDING RURAL ROADS 0 2 4
and producer benefits can be a complex road sections which have fallen
and difficult task. The effect of rural into total disrepair.
road improvement works on the local (iv) Once the three activities above
economy is equally difficult to predict have been secured, including
and virtually impossible to model, and regular maintenance for newly
any assessment made will have a high upgraded road sections, one 1
element of uncertainty and rely on a should be looking into new
series of assumptions. construction and expanding the
road network. Once again, new
The cost of detailed socio-economic projects should only be accepted
evaluation using sophisticated modelling when sufficient maintenance
techniques ahs to be put into the context resources are available or can be
of the selection of low cost, low volume secured for the new roads being
roads. Fortunately in recent years simple added to the network.
techniques have been developed and
have won general acceptance. Social Criteria
In terms of maintenance economics, Investments related to the development
there are, however, clear principles and improvement of major highways
which can be applied. A basic rule for and trunk roads are justified on the
any road works programme is to protect basis of optimising the economics of
previous investments and therefore to transport. By providing roads with
allocate available funds according in higher capacity, the overall transport
the following order: costs can be reduced. Rural roads
often have low traffic volumes and
(i) First, provide regular and timely investments in their development can
maintenance to the sections of be hard to justify on a purely economic
the network which are in a good basis. Instead, social benefits can also
and maintainable condition. be included on the basis of facilitating
"Good" condition is when the the provision of basic access to social
road section requires a minimum services. The following are amongst
of routine maintenance, which the social criteria that may be used

c a n be provided t hrough for ranking rural road rehabilitation
a r r a n g e me nt s s u c h a s t he projects:
lengthman system.
(ii) S e c o n d l y , p r o v i d e s p o t • The area influenced by the road.
improvements and periodic The larger the area of influence,
ma intena nce to ha lt t he the higher the priority. The
deterioration of road sections in correct determination of the area
fair condition, thereby upgrading served is important but can be
t hem to a ma inta inable difficult to identify. Watersheds,
condition and thus keeping the rivers or the proximity to adjacent
entire road passable. roads generally dictates the limits
(iii) Thirdly, rehabilitate existing to this area.
0 2 5
• The inhabitants served. The greater farms and households should be
the number of inhabitants to be given lower priority.
served, the higher the priority. • Increased area of cultivable
• Present condition of the road. land. By improving access, the
Communities without any access inhabitants may be encouraged
1 should be given high priority. to cultivate more land within the
The better the existing access, area of influence of the road.
the lower the priority. • T h e p o t e nt i a l i n c r e a s e i n
• The availability of all weather marketable production. Increased

access. Communities without production is related to road
access during some parts of the conditions, because improved
year should be given higher access to markets will encourage
priority. the inhabitants to produce more
• Present transportation costs per goods to sell.
km. Road transport costs are • The availability of social and
related to the road condition. economic ser vices. Most
The higher the present costs, the of t he socia l a nd ec onom ic
more these costs will decrease services (health, education, and
through road improvements. agricultural extension services)
• The area of cultivable land end where the trafficable road
within the area of influence. A ends and go no further. Improved
rural road programme should access can extend these services
benef it a s many farmers a s to isolated communities.
possible. Roads leading to fewer
0 2 6
From the above, it is clear that a projects to be included in the road
certain amount of data needs to be works programmes.
collected before an effective ranking
can be established. Furthermore, it is In this respect, the process of Integrated
also evident that some of the criteria Rural Accessibility Planning (IRAP)
may be in conflict with each other (i.e. has proven useful, both in terms of 1
maintenance economics versus areas an appropriate methodology for data
without road access). It is therefore collection as well as establishing local
important that the potential users and transport patterns and road works
political bodies in the rural areas are priorities in the context of an overall
fully involved in the final weighting rural infrastructure development plan.1
of the criteria and final selection of
Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning - IRAP
As opposed to appraising the economic rate of return for investments in

improvement of a single road in isolation from the rest of the transport network,
IRAP follows an approach in which all transport patterns and transport needs in
a given area are assessed before making decisions on road investment priorities.
Rather than looking at road improvements from a pure economic perspective in
terms of reducing transport costs on one specific road section, IRAP looks at the
entire network in an area and prioritises links base on a cost benefit approach,
where the benefits are expressed as improvements in access per person.
The planning tools seek to reduce travel time to basic services such as health,
education and other public services as well as improve transport of goods and
services to and from the rural communities. The planning process starts by mapping
existing travel patterns and on this basis tries to identify existing constraints in the
transport system. As the process links travel to other public services (and economic
activities) the approach provides a multi-sector planning tool, which with very simple
methods analyses how the transport needs are linked to other sectors.
The prioritisation of roads is based on a simple cost per person served augmented
by a weighting system based on the expressed demand of the local population for
access to different types of services such as health, education or markets.
The system is designed to rely on a high degree of community involvement for both
data assembly and compilation. It also includes effective procedures for consultation
with the future users of the infrastructure as well as providing local government
planners with clear guidelines on how to present and justify the final development
plan.
The final outcome from this planning process is a comprehensive local transport
master plan, which not only lists a series of road improvement projects, but also
provides a proper rationale behind the selected development priorities, essentially
describing where people live and where they need to travel.
1 Ref: Improving Access in Rural Areas, Guidelines for Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning, Chris Donnges,
International Labour Organization, 2003
0 2 7
1
1.5 Design Standards defined procedures for how and when

tests are carried out.
General
When preparing a civil works project, Design standards are usually developed
an important part of the plan is to by a national body and then distributed
describe how the works are to be carried to technica l sta f f in t he form of
out, including work methods, choice of design guidelines, instructions, work
equipment and materials, dimensions specifications and/or technical manuals.
and levels of quality of completed Most governments have identif ied
works. Furthermore, the contractors a n appropr i ate or g a n i s at ion for
will need assurances in regards to how standard setting and developing work
his work outputs will be assessed and specifications, often a unit in a technical
paid for. A considerable amount of the ministry or an independent private
work in terms of describing how works institution or professional association.

should be carried out and measured
can be reduced by establishing standard The scope of design work at central level
designs and work specifications. is limited to general considerations -
not to specific plans at each individual
With standardised work specifications, project. Decisions on final details require
it is also possible to prescribe certain local knowledge of terrain, soil quality,
minimum quality requirements for the placement of structures, location of
sector as a whole. Quality assurance quarries, etc. Available maps, drawings
measures in work specifications may be and statistics are not likely to contain the
in the form of specifying work methods, details required for each individual road
setting minimum standards for the end project. Obtaining such information
product and finally establishing clearly generally requires a field survey.
0 2 8
Technical design aspects to be dealt used and tests to be performed.
with at headquarters are the standard • Structures:
parameters for typical work items. Design guidelines for bridges,
The standards essentially encompass a culverts and road protection
range of values within which works are works and recommendations on
allowed to operate. Design standards the use of local building materials 1
normally provide general guidelines such as stone and timber.
relating to the following items:
L o c a t ion a nd a l i g n me nt a r e of
• Alignment requirements: particular importance when designing
Instructions for setting out new road development projects. The
vertical and horizontal curves of final design solutions are based on a
the road and how this fits with number of considerations, many of
the terrain. which are dependent on the specific
• Technical performance: local conditions. For example, high
Specif ications of maximum alignment standards aiming to reduce
gradients, minimum horizontal the number of curves and soft gradients
and vertical curvature, sight require considerable earth movements,
distances, super-elevation, cross- particularly in hilly or mountainous
fall, etc. terrain.
• Pavement solutions:
Guidelines for design of base This has a detrimental impact on
course and surface treatment the surrounding environment such
depending on road function and a s i n c r e a s e d d e m a n d s f or l a n d
traffic volume. expropriation, increasing the risk of
• Material requirements: landslides and erosion as well as higher
Specifications on the ingredients costs of construction and maintenance.
and quality of common building Furthermore such designs are difficult
materials such as gravel, concrete, to ca rr y out ef fectively applying
surface materials, how they are labour-based work methods. Design
engineers therefore need to recognise

t he i mp or t a nc e of s e le c t i n g a n
alignment, which at the same time as
catering for the technical performance
requirements of the road, also address
other important aspects such as social
and environmental concerns.
The selection of design standards is

related to road function, traffic volume
and terrain. In this respect the design
process deals with the following main
steps:
0 2 9
• Establish the road function, cost-effective solutions which still meet
• Assess the design traffic, essential performance requirements
• Assess other factors affecting the and essentially keep the roads open and
design (terrain, type and strength accessible throughout the year in all
of sub-grade, availability and types of weather.
1 cost of construction materials,
etc.), Equally important is the need to arrive
• Select a geometric design standard at technically sound design solutions
(road cross-section, design speed that keeps future maintenance costs at a

and speed related standards), minimum. This implies that the roads
• Select an appropriate pavement need to be properly designed and built
design (thickness, thickness to withstand the prevailing weather
and type of materials for each conditions as well as being able to cater
pavement layer), for the expected type and volumes of
• Assess the need for road structures traffic.
(bridges, culverts, retaining walls,
etc), The selected design should be justified
• Assess the availability of labour economically and the optimum choice
in the vicinity of the road work of design depends on the total life
sites, cycle cost, including both the costs of
• Assess the availability and skills construction and ensuing maintenance.
of local contractors.
Traffic Volume
Like any other type of infrastructure, Average daily traffic for rural roads
design standards for rural roads are is normally in the range of 50 to 200
developed to meet the functional vehicles per day, however, in more
requirements dictated by the users densely populated areas traffic numbers
of such facilities. Rural roads are may increase to 400 to 500 vpd. As
often characterised by their dispersed these roads cater for the same type of
geographical coverage in order to reach vehicles as found on the main roads,
all communities, thereby providing all- the permitted axle loads is usually the
weather access to the entire population same.
living in the rural areas. While this
feature creates a demand for an extensive
network of local roads connecting rural
communities to the main roads and
highways, each individual road carries
limited traff ic as each road serves
only one or a small cluster of rural
communities.
In order to create an affordable road

network it is therefore important to find
0 3 0
Cross-sections
Road widths essentially determine the Types of Terrain
size of the road and all its components.
Geometric design standards are
To limit construction and future dependent on the topo-graphical
maintenance costs, the width of the features of terrain through which
road should be kept at minimum the road passes. Road engineers
commonly classify the terrain 1
dimensions that still allow sufficient as flat, rolling or mountainous,
space for the traffic to operate. For depending on the average ground
access roads with low volumes of traffic, slope.
a single lane, 3 to 3.5 metres wide, is Areas with flat terrain obviously
sufficient. In remote regions with very offer most options in terms of
limited traffic or in mountainous terrain choosing the road alignment.
In rolling terrain, it is essential
where it is difficult (or expensive) to to align the road parallel to the
establish a full carriageway width, it is contour lines of the terrain, while in
common to consider a narrower road mountainous the task is to find the
"easiest" way through.
width of 3 – 3.5 metres.
Road construction in mountainous
This road width will cater for the t e r r a in p r o v i d e s t h e l a r g e s t
engineering challenges and is
largest vehicles expected on a rural
the mo s t exp ensive pla ce to
road. A typical double axle truck has build roads. For this reason, the
an overall width of 2.2 - 2.5 metres. geometrical standards are often
Meeting vehicles can pass each other at reduced on road sections through
mountainous terrain.
designated meeting places or by using
the road shoulders. Road construction in flat terrain
can also be costly as such areas
may be prone to flooding. Due
On roads with increased traffic, passing to the flooding of the terrain, the
manoeuvres increase and it is worthwhile road levels need to be elevated to
to increase the pavement width to cater a safe level above prevailing flood
levels, often involving extensive
for the operation of two vehicles next to earth fills.
each other. Still, with moderate traffic, a
4.5 to 5 metres wide road is sufficient to The easiest type of terrain for road
construction is essentially through
deal with the meeting vehicles. Vehicles gently rolling terrain with moderate
would need to slow down when passing, slopes. Rural roads through such
however, if the traffic is moderate, this areas can follow the contours of
the terrain, with excavation works
will have limited impact on travelling
limited to small amounts of cut
time. Shoulders on each side of the and fill. This type of terrain has
paved road width will facilitate the good drainage features with less
manoeuvring of meeting traffic as well occurrence of soil erosion. With
a well-designed alignment, roads
as any vehicles parked on or next to the through this type of terrain will
road. perform well with a minimum of
maintenance.
In populated areas with higher levels of
traffic, an increase in pavement width is
0 3 1
justified. A running surface of 5.5 to 6 Savings in travelling time due to higher
metres will allow most vehicles to pass design speeds and resulting straighter
each other without having to slow down. curvature is of less importance.
Shoulders are commonly installed on Road Gradients

1 roads for the purpose of providing Four-wheel drive vehicles can climb
additional manoeuvring space for gradients up to 20 percent while two
traffic to meet and also for parking and wheel drive trucks can successfully
stopping purposes without impeding negotiate gradients of 15 percent, expect

passing traff ic. Shoulders are also when heavily loaded. Steep gradients
often used for non-motorised traffic. will severely limit the performance of
Shoulders are commonly left unpaved, animal drawn carts.
however, in areas where soils are prone
to erosion, it is more effective to extend Maximum gradients on rural roads are
the pavement to protect the shoulders. mainly justified from a maintenance
perspect ive, a s road s w it h steep
Design Speed longitudinal gradients are difficult
Design speeds are normally low on rural to maintain. For this reason it is
roads. This allows the road curvature recommended that the gradient is kept
to be fitted gently into the existing below 8 percent on gravel or earth
terrain thereby reducing the amount of roads. If, however, it is necessary to use
excavation works. Most rural roads have a steeper gradient, it should be limited
a limited length so the design speed to a short section. In addition, it would
is not as important as for highways. then be useful to consider using a
The most important function of these stronger pavement, and also installing
roads is to provide basic all-year access. preventive measures to limit the erosive
effect of run-off water both on the road
surface as well as in the drains.
Camber
When applying concrete or bitumen

based road surfaces, a 3 to 4 percent
cross fall is sufficient. However for
gravel or earth surfaces, it is necessary
to increase this gradient to at least 6
percent. On gravel roads with a double
sloping camber, it would be preferable
to install an 8% cross fall, while on a
single sloping camber (often applied on
the narrower roads), one would prefer
a 6% slope. To secure these camber
gradients, the surface is often set out at
a gradient 1 or 2 percent higher during
0 3 2
construction in order to reach the
correct levels after compaction.
Surface
Most rural roads are either earth roads
or provided with a gravel surface. On 1
roads with limited traffic numbers, the
most important components of the road
are those related to drainage. Equally,
the main maintenance tasks on such
roads are related to managing surface
water and taking preventive action to steep gradients, to contain future
reduce its detrimental effect on the maintenance requirements on these
road. Where traffic numbers are higher, sections. Equa lly, bitumen based
it is necessary to consider more durable surfaces are recommended on roads
with low traffic levels when passing
through villages, for environmental
reasons - mainly relating to dust
control.
Maximum Axle Loads

An important role of rural roads is to
facilitate the transport of agricultural
goods from farms to markets. This
is often carried out by merchants
travelling to the villages to buy the
produce. The transport is normally
organised through the use of trucks,
which can carry considerable axle loads.
A properly engineered road, despite its
surfacing options, such as bitumen or narrow dimensions, can still cater for
concrete based surface treatments. this kind of traffic. Equally, with the
The old rule of thumb was to use limited numbers of vehicles passing on
gravel surfacing for roads with traffic these roads, they will also be able to
numbers less than 100 vpd, however, carry this type of traffic over time. It is
this threshold depends on a number of believed that with current designs, and
local factors such as hauling distance provided that quality building materials
to materials, cost of works, weather and workmanship are secured, these
conditions, availability of alternative roads are able to cater for the prevailing
materials, etc. axle load limitations.
It is also useful to apply a bitumen- Structures

based surface on short sections with Due to the limited traffic on rural
0 3 3
roads and the need for extensive standards take into consideration
networks of such roads in order to locally available skills and materials.
reach all communities, design standards
emphasise technical solutions which Culvert pipe production can be organised
are low cost but at the same time as a local industry, mainly requiring some
1 provide the required all weather access. skilled labour and limited amounts of
Appropriate solutions are also chosen equipment. If the local industry receives
for river crossings and other structures suff icient advance notice on future
that can limit the total costs. requirements, the supply and installation
of pipes can be organised through
Therefore, the design guidelines for loca l ma nufacturers a nd building
structures on rural roads are made entrepreneurs.
simple so that they can be designed,
built and maintained relying on locally Locally available stone can be used
available skills. in abutments, piers, wing walls and
For small bridges and other drainage retaining walls. The supply of stone can
structures, there is a great potential for be awarded to petty contractors and
utilising local contractors if the design farmers in the vicinity of the work site.
0 3 4
Terms and Definitions
Alignment: The direction of the centre line of the road.
Back slope: The portion of the side drain from the ditch invert to the intersection with the natural
terrain.
Carriageway: That portion of the roadway intended for the movement of vehicles (excluding shoulders).
Camber: The carriageway camber consists of a straight line cross-fall from the centre line to the
shoulders. In super-elevated curves the camber is replaced with a single cross-fall across
the entire carriageway.
Camber
formation: The layer above the sub-grade in its final shape, often consisting of the excavated soil from
the side drains. The camber formation is the layer on which the gravel course is placed.
Centre line: A theoretical line along its longitudinal axis dividing the road equally in two parts.
Crown: The highest point of the road, located on the centre line when the surface is shaped with a
camber.
Ditch invert: The cross-section profile of the side drain from the side slope to the back slope.
Gravel course: The top layer of a gravel road. Also referred to as a surface course or gravel wearing course.
Road formation: The surface of the sub-grade in its final form after completion of the earthworks.
Road reserve: The cleared portion of land where the road and all its components will be built.
Roadway: The area normally used by the traffic, consisting of the carriageway and shoulders.
Shoulders: The point at which the side slope of the ditch and the carriageway intersect.
Side drain: The drainage channel along the shoulders of the road which collects run-off water from the
carriageway and which prevents water from the surrounding terrain from reaching the road
surface.
Side slope: The portion of the side drain from the shoulder break point to the ditch invert.
Sub-grade: The existing natural soils on which the road pavement is placed.
Drainage
Culvert: A drainage structure allowing water to pass under the road pavement to be discharged on
the lower side of the road.
Gabion: A basket made of wire and filled with stone.
Drift: A structure which allows water to cross the road, and which at the same time provides a
firm surface for vehicles to pass through the water course.
Gradient: The rate of rise or fall in relation to the horizontal along the length of the road or other
structure (e.g. a drain).
Mitre drain: A drainage channel used for leading water away from the side drains into the surrounding,
lower terrain, also referred to as a turn-out drain.
Scour check: A construction across a drainage ditch with the purpose of reducing the gradient of the
channel in order to slow down the speed of water.
Catch
water drain: A drainage channel running parallel to the road which collects water from the surrounding
higher lying terrain before it reaches the road
0 3 5
1.6 Technology Choice
Rural infrastructure works can be carried
out using a wide variety of work methods
and types of equipment. In developing
1 countries, labour wages are often low so
the use of manual labour to carry out
a number of civil works activities still
remains more cost-effective than using

heavy construction equipment.
There are several categories of rural To avoid a common misconception,

infrastructure improvement programmes it is important to distinguish between
that use large numbers of unskilled labour-based methods and labour-
labour: intensive methods. In contrast to
labour-based technology, a labour-
• Relief Programmes responding to intensive approach seeks to maximise
natural or man-made catastrophes, the use of labour with minimum use
(i.e. droughts, severe floods, war, of mechanised equipment, often at the
etc). in which the prime objective expense of cost and quality efficiency.
is to provide food and income to
the affected individuals. Although Labour-based technology can be defined
suc h prog r a m me s m ay a l so as the construction technology which,
improve infrastructure, this is while maintaining cost competitiveness
considered as a secondary effect. and acceptable engineering quality
• Employment Generation standards, maximises opportunities for
Programmes - These projects often the employment of labour (skilled and
give limited attention to cost unskilled) together with the support of
and quality effectiveness since light equipment and with the utilisation
the asset creation is a secondary of locally available materials and other
objective. resources.
• Asset-Creation Programmes -
These programmes have as their Work Methods
primary objective to improve As mentioned earlier, labour-based
infrastructure at competitive methods do not exclude the use of
costs, ma inta ining accepted equipment. The way labour-based
design and quality standards and works technology has been adapted
applying the most appropriate to the functional requirements of
technology. Simultaneously, they the completed roads implies that a
supply employment opportunities considerable amount of equipment
in the rural areas, providing is still required. For comparison, the
supplementary cash income. table below shows the most common
equipment used for building rural roads,
0 3 6
either applying labour-based works A s long a s t he technolog y choice
technology or relying on conventional remains simple, it should have very
equipment intensive methods. limited impact on the ensuing works
implementation arrangements. The
The construction of common structures works can then still be carried out using
such as culverts, bridges and retaining local contractors or if required by force 1
walls generally rely on an appropriate account. When applying labour-based
mix of skilled and unskilled labour and methods, the main difference is that the
some equipment. In terms of choosing works rely on the effective organisation
the most appropriate technology for and supervision of a large labour force.
this type of works, it is more important This may be a new experience for the
to select materials which are locally technical staff, requiring some initial
available and to the extent possible training in order to reach the full potential
reduce the amount of materials which of labour-based works technology.
needs to be imported from far away.
The use of labour-based work methods
For both the road works and the also allow for an increased participation
structural works, it is important that of local communities in the works. This
the designs are developed in a manner can either be organised through the
which, to the extent possible, allows employment of local inhabitants as part
for works to be executed relying on of the labour force or by contracting
locally available resources. This applies out parts of the works to community
not only to the choice of materials but groups. Equally, local villagers can
also relates to the choice of technology. be involved through the provision of
Rural roads essentially consist of simple locally available building materials.
engineering structures and do not
require any complicated technology, The technology choice is normally
equipment or work methods. For specified in the works specifications.
this type of civil works it is possible Since most standard technica l
to rely on mainstream engineering specifications describe both methods
technology, and by keeping it simple it and performance requirements of the

may be possible to use local builders and end product, it is necessary to modify
contracting firms to carry out the works. these documents in order to reflect the
technology choice.
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1.7 Road Inventories
General
In order to make rational decisions on
how a road network can be improved,
1 it is important to assemble adequate
information about its current extent
and condition and how it serves the
transport needs in the geographical area

it covers. Like any other assets owned
by the government, it is also important
to keep records of its components
to ensure that they are adequately
protected and maintained.
A n inventor y forms the basis for

any asset management of the road
network. Combining this inventory with
a regular assessment of its condition
provides the basic justification for any
road improvement and maintenance
programme. Through a road condition Like any inventory of assets, a road
inventory, it is possible to monitor the inventory provides details relating to the
wear and tear of roads and bridges and general features of the roads in a given
on this basis plan and implement timely area, including geometrical dimensions,
works inputs to protect and improve a lignment, surface t ype, access to
the infrastructure. material sources, traffic volumes and
number and location of structures. It may
also contain information pertaining to
the function and importance of the road,
such as the name of villages and the size

of population served and other important
infrastructure in the vicinity of the road,
such as clinics, schools, irrigation systems,
agricultural service centres, markets, etc.
Road inventories are often described

through the use of standard forms in
which this information can be entered.
In addition, the location of the road
assets are identified with the use of
maps describing each individual road
as well as the network as a whole. The
0 3 8
maps range from simple hand drawn Maps and Graphical Presentations
strip maps to advanced computerised Maps form an important basis for the
graphical information systems (GIS) planning of any type of infrastructure.
in which all the data is linked to a T he y pr ov id e a g o o d g r a ph ic a l
digitalised map. Although modern GI presentation of the transport needs and
systems are impressive and allow for an patterns in a given area, and together 1
efficient management of data, it should with data relating to the location of
be stressed that these systems are not villages, economic activities and social
essential for the effective management services, it is possible to establish a good
of information relating to a rural road overview of the transport situation.
network. Experience clearly shows
that even a simple system of manually The use of maps for infrastructure planning
prepared strip maps can be an effective is carried out at two levels, (i) for the
planning tool for the development and overall planning of development works
maintenance of rural roads. in a given area, and (ii) for the specific

0 3 9
purpose of planning individual road required in order to maintain and
maintenance and improvements works. improve the condition of the road
network. Maps are therefore used for
A basic feature of maps is that they specifying works in detail and are often
provide a good overview of where included as part of project designs and
1 people live and how communities are contract documents. Together with
connected together through various information on the condition of the
means of transport such as roads, tracks, network, they provide a good overview
railways, rivers, etc. For development of the network as a whole.

planning purposes, information on
economic activities and social services As mentioned earlier, maps can be
can be added to the map and used produced using various methods. With
during discussions relating to the the increasing application of GIS for
overall development of a specific region. rural development purposes, it is often
With the inclusion of such information, possible to obtain good and up to date
it is possible to obtain a good overview digital maps. If these are not available,
of how various sectors interact with the alternative is to produce simple road
each other. From the point of view of maps from old topographical maps or
establishing an effective road network, aerial photographs. Even without such
the information relating to other sectors basic information, simple strip maps
can improve the understanding of can always be produced based on the
how the roads provide the necessary actual travelling distance measured
transport links required in other sectors during road surveys.
(access to schools, clinics, markets, local
government head-quarters, etc.). Road Condition Surveys
In order to assess the needs for and
For engineers and technicians in charge to pla n f uture improvement a nd
of the management of a road network, maintenance works, it is necessary to
the use of maps is more specifically maintain an intimate and up-to-date
related to locating where works are knowledge of the condition of the road
0 4 0
network. For this reason, it is common
practice to carry out regular road
condition surveys. These surveys form
the basis for future work programmes
and funding requirements so they
need to be carried out well in advance 1
of the next budget approval process.
Road condition surveys allow the road
authority to:
• become thoroughly familiar

with the road network and its
maintenance problems and as
a result make objective and
quantified assessments of the
conditions of each road,
• re v ie w t he ef fec t ivene s s of
maintenance activities carried out
since the previous inspection, and
• programme improvement and
maintenance works to be carried • performance of cross-drainage
out in the next construction structures such as bridges and
season. culverts
• qualit y and performance of
A road works unit is normally in charge pavement,
of an extensive road network and • extent to which current design
with the limited resources and time is effective in terms of dealing
available, it is necessary to assess the with weather and traffic without
condition of the roads in an accurate causing excessive maintenance
and timesaving manner as possible. demands,
Therefore, it is useful to concentrate • containing possible environmental

on the identification of defects using problems such as landslides and
a few well-def ined key indicators soil erosion,
describing the roads. Such indicators • road safety problem spots.
must be defined for each programme
and will depend on local conditions Road authorities will normally establish
and requirements. However, there are clear procedures for preparing road
some features that need attention on all condition inventories to be applied
roads: during various stages of planning of
construction and maintenance works.
• overall performance of road (i.e. This information should be stored and
providing all-year access), later updated when future improvement
• drainage features, works are carried out.
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1.8 Planning and Estimating Works
Preparatory Activities The sur vey work is a continuous
There are several stages of preparations process carried out on a regular basis
before a civil works programme can to monitor t he performa nce a nd
1 commence. These preparatory activities condition of the road network. Equally,
will need staff resources and logistical the budget preparations are normally
support in order to be carried out in carried out a year in advance and
a timely fashion. For this reason, a therefore based on earlier preliminary

schedule of events defining when survey assessments of the road condition and
works, design, preparation of bidding required improvement works. When
documents a nd t he tendering of specif ic road improvement or new
works will take place is prepared. The construction project are proposed, it is
figure below outlines the sequence of necessary to carry out a detailed survey
preparatory activities required in order specifically for this purpose.
to secure that the road works take place
at the right time. When the work budgets have been
secured, detailed designs and work
This time schedule should cover the plans are prepared for each road
entire period starting from when works project. With the detailed plans
the initial surveys will take place completed, it is possible to commence
u nt i l c ont rac t awa rd a nd work s t he tendering process. Once t he
implementation. This will ensure that contracts have been awarded, the
the preparatory works are completed at detailed work plans need to be updated
the correct time before the necessary to (i) reflect the actual time at which the
budgets are available and works are contractor can commence works and (ii)
intended to start. It also allows for to reflect the specific arrangements of
the necessary supervision staff to be resources which the contractor intends
mobilised when works are ready to to make. The plans of individual work
commence. projects are finally compiled into an
overall programme describing all works

The first step among the preparatory under the supervision of the road works
activities is to establish in detail the agency.
composition of the actua l work s
requirements. All works planning is This planning and programming exercise
based on field surveys where the actual not only applies for construction works
condition of the road is established in but also provides the basis for planning
detail. Based on what is observed in of road maintenance. The planning
the field, it is possible to make specific process should therefore result in two sets
suggestions on how to improve the road of plans, one for the annual maintenance
and on this basis calculate quantities of progra mme a nd a not her for road
work and estimate costs. improvement works.
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1
1.9 The Design Process
The process of design and cost estimating
follows a series of distinctive steps as
illustrated in the figure below. The
first result of this exercise may warrant
some reassessment of the inputs to
the estimates, before submitting the
results for final approval and funding.
Although some of the activities need
to be carried out in detail only once, it
is important that all parties involved
carefully study the drawings and other
technical documents in order to arrive
at a common understanding of the
contents of the works. The client, or
the consultants engaged by the owner
of the infrastructure, is responsible for
preparing the designs. The process of
cost estimating however needs to be

carried out by both the client as well as
the contractor.
The first step in the process is to survey

and record the conditions in which
the works will be carried out. In
the case of the construction of new
roads, a road alignment needs to be
determined during the field surveys.
With rehabilitation works, it is common
practice to remain along existing
alignments to avoid the need to acquire
0 4 3
additional land. Civil works related to calculation of production rates, which
structures will also require a thorough in the next turn will determine the
field survey to establish topography, soil duration of each of the work activities.
conditions, drainage patterns, access to
site, etc. Finally when a work schedule has been
1 assembled on the basis of the above
Design standards provide guidance information, and when current prices
in terms of how the works are to be have been collected on labour, materials
carried out. Based on the functional and equipment, it is possible to estimate

requirements, the designer will propose the costs of each of the work activities
t he appropriate design solutions and finally produce a detailed cost
according to prevailing government estimate for the entire project.
guidelines. The selected designs will
then be adapted to the specific site This exercise is often carried out for
conditions. On the basis of the detailed several alternatives, using various types
designs and how these are adjusted to of materials, work methods and designs.
the prevailing site conditions, it is then Finally, when satisfactory results have
possible to calculate the exact quantities been achieved, the estimates need to be
of work. The type and amount of approved and the funding released.
work is then presented with the use
of drawings, works specifications and Planning the Design Stage
finally a bill of quantities. All the above activities needs to be
planned in an organised manner,
Although the overall construction with staff assigned to various job
methods are often defined in the work responsibilities which need to be
specifications, the designers still need completed before agreed deadlines.
to take a number of detailed decisions The time available for the design stage
related to work methods, choice of is often limited since the client will
equipment, type of materials, etc. be eager to commence works as soon
These decisions form the basis for the as possible. The allocated budgets
0 4 4
may have to be spent before a certain 1.10 Road Alignments
deadline, and once funding has been
identified, all parties involved will start Once a road connection has been
looking forward to the completion of given sufficient priority in order to
the works. For these reasons, it is useful allocate funding for its construction or
to prepare a time schedule, indicating improvement, the exact alignment is 1
when t he outputs of t he va rious established. This is the stage at which
preparatory activities will be complete. the physical conditions in the area are
Knowing how much time is required assessed in detail, including topography,
for the design work will provide an soil conditions, optimal river crossings
indication of when the tendering stage and other general features influencing
can commence and f inally when a the cost of the project.
contractor can start the works.
The initial step in identif ying an
In some cases it is useful to explore appropriate alignment is carried out
several design alternatives before by reviewing ava ilable maps a nd
making a f inal choice. When still aerial photographs. This provides the
exploring the options, it is important designers with an overall picture of the
to limit the amount of detailed design role and function of the road in relation
works. A full and detailed design and to the population and travel patterns in
work plan should only be prepared the area, and also gives some indication
when t here is solid commitment of how the road needs to be adapted
in terms of funding and executive into the terrain.
agreement supporting the decision to
carry out the project in the immediate When the approximate alignment has
future (such as in the coming budget been identified on a map, a detailed
year). survey needs to be carried out in order
to establish the exact location of the
The detailed design of a civil works road and all its components. Only then
project involves a substantial amount of will it be possible to estimate the precise
work and will require considerable staff quantities and costs of the work.
resources either from in-house technical
units or from external consultants.
Equally, detailed designs have a certain
shelf life before they become obsolete
and need to be updated (involving
additional resource intensive surveys
and redesign work).
0 4 5
For major roads and highways, survey design unit or by engaging external
and design works are carried out to very consultants. Rural roads require a lower
high levels of accuracy, often relying level of detail. Survey and design is
on advanced methods of surveying often under the responsibility of local
and data processing. On highways, government agencies which do not
1 such work is often carried out using possess these sophisticated design tools.
digitised maps and computer-assisted As shown in later sections in this
design tools, either by an "in-house" manual, the detailed design of rural
road alignments can be carried out

using simplified work methods relying
Good Road Alignments
on simple and inexpensive setting out
The determination of a good alignment equipment, and still achieve sufficient
is more dependent on experience and levels of accuracy and detail. As a
good judgement by the designer than
the availability of advanced surveying result, the costs of the design works can
and processing equipment. be limited and the works can be carried
out by the local government road unit.
By selecting an alignment which
follows the terrain and minimises
earthworks, both initial construction Alignments for rural roads commonly
costs as well as future maintenance follow existing track s and trails.
requirements can be reduced. This
includes design principles such as: W hen roads are reconstructed or
rehabilitated there would normally
• Crossing ridges at their lowest be limited changes to the alignment
point or through the lowest pass;
• Circumventing hills rather than
as there may still be some residual
going straight over; value in the existing facilities such as
• Avoiding deep cuts, thereby embankments, side cuts, culverts, and
reducing earthworks and avoiding
bridge structures. Following existing
to destabilise side slopes;
• Avoiding excessive fills by alignments will also minimise the need
realigning the road, preferably for land expropriation.
to locations where a cut-to-fill is
sufficient;
• Finding the highest lying ground When constructing new roads with
when passing through flood- completely new alignments it is however

prone terrain; important to adjust the route in line
• Avoiding steep road gradients;
• Avoiding rocky terrain or areas with the above mentioned guidelines.
with difficult soils; As a first step, it is useful to sketch
• Locating good river crossings the route on a topographic map or an
where there are limited risks of
future scouring and erosion. aerial photograph. This will provide
an improved picture why a particular
When determining the optimal road alignment has been chosen, showing
alignment it is important to assess
how each road section will perform
the key factors which have influenced
in terms of future maintenance the process. The final route selection
requirements. The most effective would of course need to be verified with
preventive maintenance measure
site inspections and surveys. Based on
lies in the actual design of the road.
the field surveys, a map with the exact
0 4 6
1
location of the road alignment can then time during the duration of the road
be prepared, including information works project. For this purpose, it is
relating to road levels, location of helpful to use a standardised form
structures and other key features in the where the details of the envisaged works
vicinity of the road. are recorded.
When collecting information regarding Once the initial road alignment has
the site conditions, it is important that been determined, the Engineer can carry
it is recorded in an organised manner out a survey of the road to estimate the
which can easily be referred to at any amount and location of construction

0 4 7
works. Information about road curvature, between their access roads and the
earthworks (cut to fill, embankments, rural roads. Equally, people in the rural
etc.) and drainage structures (bridges, areas will choose to establish their new
culverts, mitre drains, scour checks, etc.) houses or business premises close to the
is then plotted in the road alignment rehabilitated or improved roads.
1 drawings at its exact chainage along the
road alignment. In this process, it is important that
the authorities in charge of the roads
Surveying new alignments is a resource- make sure that the road and all its
intensive activity. It requires skilled components are not compromised
technical staff for a considerable time in any manner as a result of the
in order to complete the works in a connections made or the new building
professional manner. For this reason, it activities taking place close to the road.
is useful to schedule this type of work Particular attention needs to be given
to periods of the year when the staff is to maintaining the established drainage
less involved in supervision of on-going system of the road, ensuring that any
works, such as during the rainy season. connections made to the road do not
Survey work also requires good logistical block or constrict the side drains.
support as the staff needs to travel to Equally, the building activities in the
the field on a daily basis. Where the vicinity of the road should be held at a
future road is passing through dense safe distance, maintaining the clearance
forest, it may also be necessary to hire a provided in the road reserve.
small group of workers for bush clearing
thereby providing the necessary sight Roadside development may also cause
lines for the surveyors. new safet y concerns. A lthough it
may be difficult to avoid people and
For e x ist i ng road s on wh ich no businesses establishing themselves along
major changes are envisaged to the the roadside, the road alignment can
road alignment, the proposed road always be directed away from the existing
improvement works can be recorded in settlements. Rather than directing the
a table briefly recording the assessment road straight through the centre of
of the current road condition together villages, it is always a safer solution to find
with the proposed improvement where an alignment in which the road passes
deficiencies are observed. Using such by at the outskirts of the communities.
a form, information can be quickly Similarly, it is strongly recommended
recorded for any given section of a road. to keep the road alignment away from
places where people congregate, such as
Roadside Development health centres, schools and town centres
Rural roads are meant to serve the people and market places. Instead it is better to
living alongside it or in the villages in the provide a short access road between the
vicinity of the road. As a result they will main road and these facilities, allowing
be entering the road at any point and long-distance traffic to pass by at a safe
will be establishing simple connections distance.
0 4 8
1.11 Quantity Surveying as a reference when the actual works
eventually commence. The location of the
The quantity survey for road works offset pegs needs to be carefully recorded.
should be carried out after the road
alignment has been selected and the Estimating Quantities
appropriate road design standard has When a final choice of the exact position 1
been approved. This task should be done of the road alignment has been made, the
by the engineer and technician with next step is to carry out a full estimate
the setting out team and based on the of the quantities of work. The estimated
data assembled in the road alignment work quantities form the basis of the cost
drawings. Once the initial volumes have analysis and determine future inputs of
been estimated, it may be necessary to labour, materials, tools and equipment.
re-adjust the road alignment in order to
reduce the volumes of work. Based on the information recorded in the
road alignment drawings, it is possible
If the works consist of improving an to carry out a complete estimate of the
existing road on which no changes are construction quantities.
envisaged to the road alignment, there
should be sufficient data in the road Here again, it may be necessary to re-
condition forms. adjust the road alignment in order to
find the best location and optimal road
Recording Information levels. When building a new road, the
Once the road alignment (horizontal, main task when carrying out a quantity
vertical and cross sections) has been set, survey is to estimate the exact volumes
all measurements should be carried out of earthworks. The road alignment
at regular intervals and marked with pegs will determine the amount of cut and
and recorded in a Works Quantity Form. fill required. Based on the information
It is useful to draw up the cross section collected during the field surveys and
at regular intervals along the road in a the quantity estimates, it is possible to
notebook clearly describing the dimensions prepare the Bill of Quantities.
and chainage. By drawing these cross-

sections to scale, it is then easier to The work quantities will vary along
calculate the cross-sections of cut and fills. the road alignment, depending on the
terrain features. In order to calculate the
Solid offset pegs should be established volumes of work with a reasonable degree
during this exercise to mark the alignment of accuracy, the road is therefore split into
in the field, which can then be used shorter segments with uniform geometric
features to simplify the calculations.
The estimates of t he volumes of

earthworks are based on the cross-
sections drawn up at regular intervals
along the road alignment during the field
0 4 9
1
survey. Based on the chosen road levels, it activities are included.

is then possible to first estimate the areas (v) The sum of these quantities
of the cut and fill in the cross-sections represents the total volumes of
and thereafter calculate the volume work for the road project.
between the cross-sections.
It is also possible to prepare a strategy for
One way to do this is as follows: how the work is to be carried out, making
decisions on appropriate work methods,
(i) The alignment is set out with pegs t y pe a nd qua ntities of equipment
every 10 to 25 metres. The level of required, packaging of contracts, etc.
the new road is marked on the pegs.
(ii) At each section the height and width With the work quantities established,
of excavation (or fill) is estimated a time plan and cost estimates can be
and noted. Alternatively, the cross prepared for the project based on the
fall gradient can be measured using resources available and their respective
a line level and ranging rods. unit cost rates (i.e. labour, materials,
(iii) The average cut height and width tools and equipment).
is calculated for each section.
(iv)The quantities of other work
0 5 0
1
1.12 Time Management Planning
Preparing a Work Schedule If the client decides to award separate
The preparation of a project work contracts for some of the operations,
schedule is useful for a number of reasons. i.e. separate contracts for structures and
A works programme is necessary in order gravelling, it is important to know the
to estimate the duration of equipment exact schedule of all activities so that
and labour inputs. A lso, the work the start of the various works contracts
schedule will determine when the funding can be properly coordinated.
of the works needs to be made available.
If the project duration is more than one Work scheduling is equally important for
year, the required funding needs to be the contractors. In order for the contractor
distributed over several budget years. to allocate resources such as workers,
Equally important, is the wish to carry equipment and materials, it is vital
out the works within a certain timeframe. that the start and duration of all work
Therefore, a work schedule is required in activities have been properly programmed.

order to determine the appropriate start This will allow the contractor to make all
and completion dates of the works and necessary preparations in order to provide
thereby indicate when the services of a these inputs on time.
contractor will be required.
Equipment may need to be serviced
Finally, a specific project may be a before being sent to the site. Some
component of a larger works programme. equipment may need to be hired, which
It is therefore important that the work requires some lead-time in terms of
schedule of each individual project is canvassing the market and negotiating
well established in order to coordinate acceptable prices. Equally, material
all programme components. suppliers need to be identified and prices
need to be canvassed. Labour needs prior
0 5 1
notice so that they can make appropriate proposal provide the basis for preparing
arrangements so their time can be the work schedule.
released for work on the project site. Generally, the work plan will contain
the following information:
A work schedule is also necessary
1 in order to enable the contractor to • type and amount of work by
establish realistic cost estimates which works location,
form the basis of a bid proposal. Costs • workdays and equipment-days
of certain activities are directly related (targets) for each work activity,
to the duration of the works. The work • starting and finishing date for
schedule describes the exact duration each works activity,
of the works and thereby provides the • material schedules,
contractor with essential information • temporary traffic management
required for bid preparation. arrangements,
• summary totals.
Once works commence, the contractor
needs a work programme against which In order to prepare this plan
progress can be measured. With the work of works, there are certain
plan, it is possible to identify insufficient t y pes of information t he
works progress at an early stage and planner needs to access. When
take remedial action to improve the starting the preparation of a
performance of certain activities. work plan, it is important to
make an assessment of the
Most contracts require the contractor to required level of detail in the
submit a work programme shortly after plan. If the project is still in its
the signing of the contract agreement. preliminary stages, there is still
This work programme will need to be no need for detailed planning.
approved by the supervising engineer, It is important to bear in mind
before the contractor commences that a high level of detail will
work. Through regular reviews of work require more time to prepare the plan and
progress and during the site meetings, also require more basic information as
this plan is updated and adjusted inputs to the plan.
to meet any changes of work and
unforeseen site conditions. First of all, it is important to establish the
Inputs to a Work Schedule

A tentative work plan is prepared before Mobilising and starting up includes:
the tendering of the works. Once a
• Establishing the site camp,
works contract has been awarded, the • Recruitment of workers, mobilising
contractor is expected to prepare an equipment and purchasing
updated work plan in consultation materials, and
• Initial surveying and setting out
with management. The estimates of works.
work quantities and the contractors bid
0 5 2
Planning the Workforce
For labour-based works, the prevalent persons can physically fit into the area
t a sk r a te s dete rmine the ove r all where the task should be carried out
production rates. Often, the works can without becoming overcrowded;
then be quantified in terms of how • There may be a limit to how many
many workdays are required. As an workers are available. Equally, the 1
example, the excavation and building of project should maintain a fairly
an embankment may require a total of constant size of the work force, rather
100 workdays. In order to determine the than hiring and firing people on a
exact duration of this work, the next step regular basis;
required is to allocate the appropriate • The works need to progress at a
number of labourers to this task. certain pace which is in tune with
other activities on site.
As a starting point, the contractor is
interested in completing the work as Where the activit y require s some
soon as possible, however, the number of equipment, the total outputs of the
workers recruited needs to be based on workforce need to be in balance with the
several considerations: production capacity of the equipment.
• Obviously, there is a limit to how many
overall period in which the works can dismantling of the camp buildings and,
take place, i.e. when it can commence finally, a formal opening ceremony.
and when all works need to be completed.
The particular work, covered by the The next step is to establish the
work plan, may form part of an overall appropriate rates at which each of
programme, and therefore needs to be the activities should be carried out.
carefully coordinated with other works Production rates are closely related to
not part of this particular project. the amount of inputs invested into
an activity. Increasing the amount
W hen c a lc u lat i ng t he t i me s for of equipment and labour normally
construction, the planner must also achieves a higher production rate. The
allow for mobilising and starting up planner needs to decide on the level
activities, and final completion and of inputs required in order to achieve
clearance of the sites. appropriate level of progress.
Construction works need to start in Furthermore, the planner needs to

a logical and staggered way. Some take into consideration project specific
activities will have to start first before conditions (i.e. soil types, prevailing
other activities can follow. Labour is weather, availability of labour and
employed as needed according to the equipment, etc.), which may affect
increase of activities at site level. production outputs.
Completion work includes the final Once the outputs have been established,
clearing up of the work site, the the production rates determine the
0 5 3
duration of each of the activities. After initial planning stages through to the
sorting out the order of each of the completion of the construction works.
activities, this information combined
with start dates and production rates will Work plans are prepared to various
produce the duration and completion degrees of detail, depending on the
1 dates for each activity and the works as a audience and purpose of the planning.
whole. The adjacent bar chart outlines the
overall schedule of a project. This plan
The plan of operation is presented with will need further detailed planning of
diagrams such as bar charts and time- each activity before works commence.
location charts. They are distributed to all
management levels so that the supervisory The example on the next page shows
staff at each level can prepare for their a more detailed plan for the execution
own responsibilities in carrying out the of the physical works. The same level
work on time within the overall plan. of detail can also be applied to the
preparatory stages by splitting them
Bar Charts into more detailed activities.
Bar charts or Gantt diagrams are the
most common graphical presentation The work schedule can be broken
of a work schedule. Since they are down into more detailed sub-activities.
easy to prepare, most projects are first For example, the bridge works can be
described through the use of a bar described in detail by specifying the
chart. These charts are not only useful start and duration of excavation works
for the programming of physical works, for the foundations, construction of
but are also commonly used for the abutments, form works for the bridge
preparatory stages such as planning and slab, pouring of concrete, curing,
identification of works, preparation of diversion of water and traffic, etc.
contract documents and the bidding
process. Bar charts do not indicate the progress
during the course of a specific activity
The example below shows an overall - they only indicate when an activity
bar chart describing a project from its starts and when it ends. For this reason,
0 5 4
1
it may be useful to complement the selected for improvements. This implies
chart with information related to the that when the construction works is
specific progress expected. Using the taking place at the start of the road, this
sample shown above, one could add the often indicates that the works have just
monthly production outputs for each of started. Equally, if the work is taking
the activities presented in the chart. place towards the end of a road section,
this would imply that a majority of the
Once works actually commence, the works have already been completed.
actual construction outputs can be Although it is perfectly feasible to start
entered into the work plan, thereby the works at any given location along the
enabling easy comparison with the road alignment, the actual progress of
originally planned progress. In the works is reflected in the portion of the
figure above, the actual production road length that has been completed. For
outputs have been entered up to the this reason, the progress can be described
month of May. The planned production as a function of the completed length
is indicated as completed kilometres of road. This relationship is therefore
above each bar and the actual outputs presented as a time-location graph in
underneath the bars. which the one axis describes the location
to which works have been completed
In this sample, the figures show the plotted against another axis depicting the
production for each month. As an time or date.
alternative method, it may be more
u sef u l to record t he cu mu lat ive Both planned as well as actual work
production outputs. progress can be described with the use
of time-location diagrams. Since the
Time Location Charts road works activities normally start
Road construction works has the very at one or at most two locations, and
unique feature that its progress can be advances in a linear fashion along the
measured on the basis of its location road line, it is possible to forecast the
along the road section which has been progress of works at any given time as a
0 5 5
function of linear metres completed. By by the end of February, it is expected that
plotting the planned works as a simple 5 km will be completed.
line graph, it is easy to determine
when works are complete at any given The client may wish to complete the
location along the road. works over a shorter time and therefore
1 plans that two work teams are engaged,
The simplest use of a time-location each team starting from separate ends of
chart is shown in the figure below. This the road working towards each other. If
chart describes the planned progress of the output rate of each team is equivalent
a road rehabilitation project of 15 km, to the original plan where only one team
expected to be completed within a was utilised, the time location diagram
duration of 10 months. would look like the graph shown in the
figure on the next page. From this time
From the graph, it is possible to read the location chart, it can be seen that the
following information. The works will works will then be completed by the
commence in December at the start of middle of May.
the road, and will be completed by the
end of September the following year. Time location charts can also be broken
From the gradient of the line graph, it down into more specific activities.
is possible to calculate the production For road rehabilitation works, it is
rate during a certain month. A steep normal practice to plan each of the
gradient implies that the rate of progress main operations in detail, i.e. clearing,
is high, while a slower increase would earthwork s, surfacing work s and
describe a lower monthly production installation of cross-drainage structures.
output (as seen from the month of July The following time location chart
onwards). Finally, the graph describes the describes a project, in which the
cumulative progress at any time during planned progress for each of the main
the duration of the works. For example, work operations is described separately.
0 5 6
1
From this chart, it is possible to see operations. As shown in the chart
that the cross-drainage structures are b e low, t he g r ave l l i n g op er at ion
completed after the clearing works will take place at a faster pace than
have been carried out, but before the the earthworks. This is easily seen,
earthworks and gravelling operations since the gradient of the line curve
take place. Since the cross-drainage representing the gravelling operation
works are not of a linear type, they is a steeper than the line representing
are simply described as a bar chart, the earthworks. Actually, the distance
extending over a certain duration of between the two work teams carrying
time at the same location (chainage). out these operations can be measured
from the chart as shown below.
The time location chart also clearly
specifies the spacing of the various
0 5 7
Resource Inputs the chart, it is possible to read that
There are various other t y pes of progress up to the end of May consists of
information that can be added to a completing 11 km of earthworks, roughly
time location chart. An important according to schedule. Furthermore, the
type of information is the scheduling gravelling operation just started during
1 of equipment a nd ma npower. In the same month with an output of 2 km
the diagram below, information on compared to a planned output of 3 km.
labour requirements has been added
to the time location chart. The labour By extending the line graph describing
requirement is important information actual outputs, using the same gradients
for recruitment purposes. With this as achieved during the last month, it
forecasting exercise, it is possible to is possible to forecast when the works
provide advance notice about the exact will be completed. In this example the
need for workers. earthworks seems to be following the
planned schedule, however, the gravelling
Time-location charts are helpful for both operation needs to pick up more speed
planning and monitoring work progress. in order to meet the planned completion
The physical progress can be entered into date.
the same chart as the originally planned
progress. At a glance, it is then possible Choice of Planning Method
to see whether the works are ahead or There are a number of planning methods
behind schedule. The figure on the next currently in use in the construction
page describes the same time-location industry. Each method has its strengths and
chart after work has commenced. From weaknesses and it is therefore important
0 5 8
1
that the choice of planning method is The time location diagrams however
relevant to the type of works involved. provide more detailed information which
is difficult to present in a bar chart.
For simple projects with a limited number The time location charts are efficient in
of activities, the bar charts will adequately terms of monitoring production rates
meet the demands of the user. Bar charts and for this reason they are very useful
can also be used for a number of different also for monitoring progress when works
purposes, not only describing construction are distributed in a linear form.
works, but also activities related to
planning and preparation of civil works. In order to get the best of both methods,
Finally, since bar charts are the most bar and time location diagrams can be
common method of presenting work combined into the same chart as shown
schedules, they are easily understood. in the sample below.
Monthly Physical Progress

0 5 9
1.13 Cost Estimating stage, rough estimates are produced to
illustrate the costs of alternative designs
Purpose of Estimating and alignments. On the basis of the
Accurate cost estimating is essential when preliminary estimates, it is possible to
planning and managing construction narrow down the number of alternatives
1 works. The client or the owner of the and prepare more detailed designs and
project needs estimates for several estimates for the two or three most
reasons: feasible alternatives. Based on the
detailed estimates for some selected

• detailed information on costs, options, a single solution is chosen
a l low decision ma kers a nd and approved for implementation. At
technical staff to value and this stage, a comprehensive estimate
compare several alternatives, is produced which forms the basis for
• estimating forms the basis for future financial planning - referred to as
proper budgeting and financial the Engineer's Estimate when tendering
planning, and for the works.
• it allows for proper accounting,
and may avoid serious cost When contractors tender for works,
under- or over-runs once a t he y need to produc e t heir ow n
project is under implementation. estimates. Accurate bidding by the
contractor is essential in order to stay
Once the work quantities have been in business. Contractors need to know
established, it is possible to estimate at all stages of a contract, the exact
the cost of the project, based on the expenses related to all work activities,
use of available resources (i.e. labour, thereby allowing the firm to calculate
materials, tools and equipment) and and control its profit and loss.
their respective production rates.
When the bids are opened the estimates
Estimating costs is not a one-time in the qualified bids are checked once
exercise but a continuous process again to ensure that all works have been
from the initial inception to the final included in the prices offered. Once a
completion of a works project. At contract is awarded, the project budget
various stages of the project, estimates is reconciled with the price offered by
are produced to varying degrees of the most competitive bidder.
detail. During the initial planning
During the execution of a contract,
modifications are made to the original
design. Unforeseen site conditions
may warrant changes to be made to
the contract which will have financial
implications. When modifications are
made, earlier cost estimates need to be
revised. Finally, general price increases
0 6 0
on materials, wages and services may
lead to increased construction costs Costs versus Prices
during works implementation.
When dealing with contracts, it is
useful to differentiate between the
During project implementation all meaning of costs and price.
the expenses incurred are monitored 1
When referring to a cost, this usually
thereby allowing planners to update implies the true expenses related to
their cost figures in order to secure a certain activity or service, based
accurate estimating in the future. on the prevailing costs of materials,
equipment and labour - as opposed
to a price which describes the
Staying Competitive amount quoted by an entrepreneur
No contracting firm wants is to find or supplier for rendering a service or
itself working on a project where works carrying out a business transaction
based on the prevailing market
cost more than what can be recovered situation. Entrepreneurs will normally
from the contract. When tendering make considerations relating to what
for a job, the first step is to calculate the buyer is prepared to pay for the
goods and services before setting
the true costs of carrying out a job as the final price.
described in a contract. Only when this
has been completed can the contractor When preparing an Engineer's
Estimate, the total amount normally
start speculating on an appropriate bid reflects the true cost of the works.
price. The two most essential questions When a contractor submits a bid, a
for a contractor when establishing his/ price is offered for the same works,
however this amount includes market
her final bid price are: considerations and attempts to
maximise the profits while still being
• What is the client willing to pay competitive. As compared to the
project cost, the contractor also has to
for the job?
include provisions for future possible
• At what price level does the bid cost increases, risk assumptions and
price remain competitive? profits - items which are not directly
linked to true expenses which may
occur during the construction period.
The road authority prepares a cost
estimate for the works before inviting If there is a lack of competition

bids. This is commonly referred to in the market, the price of certain
works may be substantially higher
as the Engineer's Estimate. If all bids than what constitute the true costs.
received during a tender exercise Equally, when work is hard to come
are substantially higher than the by, some contractors may underbid on
contracts, effectively offering prices
engineer's estimate, the client needs to lower than the real costs.
establish why there is such a significant
difference, and whether to accept the
offers received or to ask for new tenders. difficult part of a bid competition, is to
predict the prices of other bidders.
A contractor needs to provide bids
that are more attractive than the prices As a general rule, the above speculations
offered by competing firms. The most in different price levels should at all
0 6 1
times remain above or equal to the priced, based on a cost per unit. So-
actual real costs of the works. called ad-measure contracts are the
most common method of estimating
If the competition in the market is and agreeing on the price of a civil
such that a bid price lower than the works project.
1 estimated costs needs to be offered,
then the contractor needs to seriously The activities listed in the Bill of
reconsider his/her position. In such an Quantities will often only present the
event, it is important for the contractor direct works activities that take place
to assess whether (i) it is important to on site. At best, the BoQ only includes
remain in the market and (ii) whether some very few indirect cost items such
it is possible to recuperate losses from as site mobilisation, insurances and
likely additional works. final demobilisation.
Cost Calculations For this reason, any other costs, which

The cost of the construction works are not itemised, need to be added
consists of (i) the direct costs of the to the activities listed in the BoQ.
works, and (ii) the indirect costs related It is therefore common practice to
to preparing and managing the works. add expenses such as supervision,
Both direct and indirect costs are in management, insurances and other
principle expenses that will occur as a overheads as a percentage overhead
result of carrying out the works. to the direct costs. This is commonly
referred to as all-inclusive unit costs.
There are various methods of presenting
these costs. The most common method Indirect Costs
of presenting the costs of a civil The indirect costs are essentially all the
works project is by preparing a Bill of expenses incurred by the contractor
Quantities in which each of the main in relation to a specific works project,
work activities are quantified and then which are not explicitly identified in
0 6 2
the Bill of Quantities. These include Risk
the costs of mobilising equipment and The contractor needs to incorporate
labour, setting up and running a site a risk a ssessment into the prices
camp and office, site supervisory and demanded for the services rendered.
administrative staff, demobilising at the When running a civil works projects
end of the works, including cleaning up there are always certain activities, which 1
activities. It also includes work carried will encounter some problems. When
out by the head office. In addition, the cost estimating, it is important to
budgets need to include provisions for make certain allowances for unforeseen
unforeseen events that may result in incidents. Adding allowances for risks
additional expenses. and unforeseen events should however
be made with certain caution. With
Company Overheads a too conservative approach, the end
The work sites will rely on a number of result may be that the prices offered
support services such as procurement are too high and not competitive. Due
suppor t, accounting, genera l consideration should also be given to
administration and others. The costs of the fact that some risk allowances are
preparing and bidding for works also already incorporated into the applied
need to be recuperated. production rates. Instead of looking
for the worst-case scenario, it is better
The costs of these services need to be to take a more optimistic approach.
incorporated into the prices offered Making excessive allowances up front for
for the services of the contractor. The unforeseen events ties up a considerable
indirect costs also include expenses amount of money. Instead, it is better
related to taxes, fees, insurances, costs to show more flexibility to such events
of securities, bonds and other banking when they occur and then f inding
services related to the contract and solutions that address the problems at
finally the costs of accounting and hand without causing any considerable
administering the works. delays in overall works progress. BUILDING RURAL ROADS
Profit
Contractor Overheads: In order for the contractors to continue
and possibly expand their operations
• Office rental costs they need to earn a profit. Setting the
• Head office staff salaries
• Administration expenses appropriate level of profits on a works
• Communications (phones, mail, contracts depends on how the market
fax, email) is currently assessed. When contractors
• Utilities such as water and
electricity are in high demand, they are able to
• Vehicle expenses demand higher profits as compared to
• Office equipment and supplies in a market with a shortage of work.
• Financial charge s such as
interest on borrowed capital Estimates on profit demands should
• Taxes, fees and insurances. t herefore be made a lready when
preparing the engineer's estimate.
0 6 3
Calculating Direct Costs based works, the wage component of
The direct costs are essentially the cost unit rates also constitutes a significant
of the construction works, consisting component of the cost. It is important
of the cost of labour, materials and that the unit rates established when
equipment required to carry out the estimating costs are at levels which:
1 work activities. For any considerable
amount of works, the direct costs (i) cover all costs relating to materials
items are normally specified in a Bill of inputs, use of equipment and
Quantities. The standard estimating labour costs,

procedures for most civil works projects, (ii) are sufficient to provide for current
is that the client first produces a set of labour wages, attractive enough to
estimated quantities of works, to which secure the required recruitment of
a estimated cost is calculated. When labour and provide the incentives
prices are collected from potential necessary to achieve good work
contractors, the contractors need to outputs,
produce their own cost estimates on the (iii) c ost a re ba sed on re a l ist ic
basis of the calculated quantities. production rates and equipment
availability (or down-time),
The calculation of direct costs is based (iv) for material costs, have been
on the costs incurred by employing confirmed by suppliers for the
labour, operating or renting equipment prescribed quality specifications.
and buying the necessary materials.
Alternatively, if part of the work is Works specifications specify how works
carried out through sub-contractors, it are carried out. When estimating costs,
is necessary to estimate the likely costs it is common practice to split the works
of relying on such services. into detailed activities following the
same divisions as found in the standard
For most civil works, the inputs of work specifications. The costs of the
materials and equipment usage constitute construction works will vary according
the majority of the costs. For labour- to the methods applied and the level of
0 6 4
quality required. In order to be clear equipment failure, etc. Such rates
as to what the estimated costs covers, represent an average of the efficiency of
it is useful to refer to the methods and sites which have been well organised as
quality specified in the standard work well as sites where the work organisation
specifications. falls short of expectations. In some
cases, the average production rates for 1
Production Rates the purpose of estimating would be 30
Equipment costs are calculated on the to 40 percent lower than the actual task
basis of usage time or cost per produced rates set for a specific activity or given
unit. When estimating and tendering to the individual workers.
for works, it is important to differentiate
between average production rates and It is also important to bear in mind the
task rates. A production rate is the variations of the site conditions depending
average performance measured over on when the works takes place. With
a longer period of time, preferably moderate amounts of rain, task rates can
over several work projects, including be increased as compared to excavating
losses of production due to faulty hard soils in the dry season. During the
works, disruptions due to bad weather, peak of the rainy season most civil works

0 6 5
comes to a standstill due to flooding of Equipment Costs
work sites, excessive moisture content The costs relating to t he usa ge of
in soils used as building materials, and construction equipment is the largest
other work activities sensitive to rain (e.g. cost item on most civil works projects.
bitumen works). Equipment costs are either in the form of
1 hire costs or related to operating equipment
Having selected the appropriate equipment owned by the contractor. Irrespective of
and established the exact work methods, the ownership arrangements, the usage of
it is possible to estimate appropriate equipment have a number of cost-items, all

production rates. Combining the of which needs to be charged to the works
production rate of the inputs and the project. These include:
costs then provides the necessary unit
cost rates. Finally, by multiplying the (i) the initial capital cost of the
unit costs with the quantities of work equipment, taking into consideration
will produce the total overall direct the expected residual value at the
costs. end of its useful life,
(ii) the interest and charges related
On this basis it is possible to establish a to the finance required for its
unit cost per hour of usage (or per km purchase,
for transport equipment). Cost rates (iii) cost of all routine maintenance,
are however normally quoted as a cost repairs and overhauls made during
per completed unit of works, i.e. US$ the lifetime of the machine,
per cubic metre of excavation works. (iv) insurances and licences,
To establish the appropriate unit rate, (v) consumable items such as fuel,
it is necessary to know the average lubricants, grease, including the
production rate and the average time labour costs involved in carrying
the equipment is available for works: out the servicing of the equipment,
Unit rate = (vi) operator's wages and related
usage cost / production rate / overheads.
availability
Depreciation Costs
When estimating the direct costs Depreciation is the decrease in value of an
of each of the work activities, it is asset, resulting from deterioration, wear
important to check how the quantities and tear or becoming obsolete, making
of works will be measured. The works it less efficient to perform the services for
specifications will not only specify which it was originally intended.
the outputs of the work, but also how
it is to be measured and paid for. By Whether the equipment is owned by a
applying these standards it is possible to contractor, or hired out by a equipment
avoid any misunderstanding in terms supplier, it is expected to last for a certain
of exactly how the cost estimates have period of time which is normally longer
been produced. than the duration of each individual
works project to which the machine has
0 6 6
Equipment Depreciation
FThe simplest method is to distribute not always the case, equipment owners
the depreciation costs evenly over the will still want to write off a considerable
lifetime of the equipment. This implies portion of the equipment value during
that the value of the equipment decreases its early years as the increase in repair
in time at a uniform rate. The annual costs are inevitable. A common method 1
depreciation can then be found by dividing of doing this is by applying the sum-of-
the purchase cost, less the salvage value, the-years-digits method. For a piece of
by the estimated life of the equipment. equipment with an estimated life of 5
For example, if a roller, costing US$8,000 years, the sum of the digits would be
is estimated to last 5 years at which time 1+2+3+4+5=15. During the first year
the scrap value is around US$ 500:-, the the equipment will then be depreciated
annual depreciation would be 1,500:-. by 5/15 of its purchase value, the
Assuming that the roller will be operating second year by 4/15, the third by 3/15
150 days per year and will effectively be and so on. In effect this leads to a 33
available 5 hours each day, the hourly percent depreciation in the first year, 27
depreciation cost will be 1,500 / 150 / 5 percent in the second year, 20 percent
= 2.00 US$/hour. in the third year and eventually only 7
percent in the final year.
For less costly equipment, this quick
method of calculating depreciation costs There are more sophisticated models
may be sufficient. For more expensive available, however, considering the
e quip m e n t , a n d p a r ti cula r l y f o r variations in all the variable s and
equipment with considerable repair costs parameters involved, the general approach
it may be more appropriate to increase of frontloading the depreciation to the
the rate of depreciation during the early extent possible without overcharging for
years. Ideally, the rate of depreciation the equipment is a common approach
should be adjusted so that it is possible used in construction industry.
to achieve a constant operating cost
for the use of the equipment during its
entire lifetime. This can be achieved if
the rate of depreciation can be reduced
when the equipment gets older and
the costs of maintenance and repairs
increase.
In order to achieve this, it is however,

necessary to have a good picture of the
maintenance and repair costs. As this is
been assigned. The cost of purchasing during which it can be effectively used
the equipment therefore needs to be for carrying out civil works. Eventually
distributed to the various projects where it wears out and at a certain point of
it is used. By the time the equipment time it becomes too old or obsolete and
is worn out, the owner needs to have needs to be replaced. Depreciation of
recuperated the expenses of not only its value is a method of distributing the
operating the equipment but also the costs of the equipment investments to
initial purchase amount. the various projects where it is being
utilised during its useful life.
All equipment has a fixed lifetime
0 6 7
T here a re a nu mber of met hod s Materials
that can be used to calculate the Materials are a major cost item on
depreciation costs of equipment. The building works, including structures in
chosen method is often dictated by road works projects. The main material
external factors and the purpose of the items in relation to road works are the
1 calculations. Depreciation of assets inputs used for concrete and masonry
forms an essential part of company structures, such as cement, reinforcement
accounting and tax authorities will have steel a nd a g greg ate. In add it ion,
clear rules on how this is carried out. materials costs occur in a significant
When attempting to estimate the real manner when the road is provided with
costs of the use of equipment, it may be a bitumen-based pavement.
necessary to use different models.
The amount of materials required is
Interest calculated from the technical drawings.
Interest on equipment investments Volumes of concrete are obtained
is essentially the opportunity cost of from the physical dimensions of the
investing in equipment rather than structures. Reinforcement steel can
placing the money in an interest be summed up from the structural
accruing account. This may sound designs. The proportions of cement
r a t he r t he or e t ic a l, how e ve r, i n and aggregate in the concrete provide
equipment leasing schemes this item the necessary basis for calculating the
appears as a real cost, in the form of the amount of each ingredient. Similarly,
charges for the leasing services. the prescribed composition of the
pavements will indicate the volumes of
Repairs and Maintenance Costs bitumen and aggregate.
Regular repair and maintenance is
necessary in order to secure a decent When assembling prices on materials it
availability rate and performance is important to clarify whether the rates
from the equipment. The repair costs given include the costs of transport to
will increase over time. Eventually site. Building materials are heavy and
these repairs become so frequent bulky and therefore the costs of delivery
and expensive that it is no longer may be significant.
worthwhile keeping the equipment.
This time is referred to as the end of Equally, the estimates need to include
the useful life of the equipment. costs of form works and scaffolding.
Finally, it is important to factor in
The equipment will need regular supply a certain amount of spillage in the
of fuel and lubricants. Finally, it is material quantities.
common practice to include the costs of
employing a driver for the equipment as When estimating material costs, it may
part of the total equipment costs. also be necessary to consider possible
price increases of materials and wages
during the course of the contract. Some
0 6 8
contracts have separate clauses that spells the remaining two thirds distributed on
out how such additional costs can be equipment and materials).
added to a project. At the early stages
of estimating a new project, it may be Assembling the Price Data
useful to add some provisions for cost Producing a reliable cost estimate
increases. If the project is expected to requires the involvement of a number 1
start in the immediate future and is of a of key players and resource persons.
short duration, such provisions are not Information relating to prices on
included. materials, equipment and services need
to be up to date. To achieve this, it is
Labour necessary to consult the right technical
The cost of labour is often a minor factor staff, material suppliers and contractors.
in conventional building and civil works Large contracting firms have dedicated
projects. When applying labour-based staff dealing with estimating and pricing
works methods, however, it is possible to of works. Equally, central road works
substitute some of the equipment usage agencies often prepare cost norms used
with labour. For rural road construction for preparing estimates of new works
or improvement works, the labour costs projects. Still, the best reference source
component can then be increased to for costing new projects is the costs
roughly a third of the total costs (with incurred on recent or on-going works.

0 6 9
1.14 Tendering Stage Decision to Bid
For all contractors the most important
The purpose of this stage is to identify issue determining whether to participate
and engage the best suitable contracting in a bid competition is the potential
firm(s) to carry out the planned works. for profit on a particular works project.
1 The selection of contractors needs Preparing and submitting bid proposals
to be carried out according to the costs money so the contractor needs
procurement rules and regulations set to be selective in terms of choosing
by the government. In addition, it also the right projects where there is a

needs to be perceived by the competing good chance of winning a tender and
firms as fair and transparent, providing thereafter making a profit on carrying
all qualified participants with equal out the works. There is obviously a
opportunity when competing for the close relationship between the mark-
job. up and the chance of winning a bid.
Increasing the mark-up will reduce the
Similar to the design stage, the bidding success rate.
stage needs to be carefully planned.
Producing a detailed procurement In addition to assessing the chances
schedule is useful for all participants of winning the tender, there are other
involved in the bidding process. issues which need careful consideration.
A central issue at the very start of the
As mentioned earlier, the client is tendering process relates to knowledge
always eager to commence construction of the actors in the construction
works as soon as possible, so the various industry. Contractors want to carry out
bidding activities need to be scheduled the bulk of their works with reliable
in detail clearly indicating when each clients, with which they have already
individual involved will need to be established good working relationships.
available and when their inputs need to Commencing works for new clients
be completed. always bears certain uncertainties.
These can be questions relating to
0 7 0
1
the timeliness of payments, quality of bidders from far away, however, it may
supervision, quality control measures, disqualify some of the local small firms.
etc. Equally, the source of funding may
indicate the ability of the client to pay The decision whether to attract local
for the works on time. or outside firms is also determined
by the contents of the works and the
From the client's point of view, it is proficiency and experience of local
also preferable to work with known contractors. If the required skills and
contractors with a past record of experience are not available among
timeliness and good quality work. local contractors, efforts are necessary
These comfortable relationships also to secure the interest of firms from far
need to be weighed up against the need away to come and work in the area
for securing competitive prices for the where the works are located. Organising
works. Attracting new contractors to the contracts into larger packages will
participate in the tenders allows for encourage bidders from far away to
more competition and possibly better tender for the works.
prices. Providing market access to new
contractors may also stimulate growth Contractors need a steady supply
in the industry thereby improving the of work in order to sustain their
implementation capacity. operations. For this reason the decision
to bid will be determined by the

Type, Size and Location of Work envisaged workload at the time when
The project location has a major impact the works commence. Even with full
on who will bid for works and will in order books, the contractor may still
most cases favour the local contractors want to tender for the works, relying on
already established in the vicinity of the sub-contractors and rented equipment.
works. For smaller works, there is also This however, involves more risks as
the issue of whether the mobilisation the increased works may stretch the
costs become too high in comparison capacity of the overall management of
to the overall size of the works. These the firm. Equally, by relying on hired
are important issues when the works equipment and the performance of sub-
are packaged into contracts. Offering contractors will add more uncertainties
larger contract packages may attract to the works.
0 7 1
1.15 Works Implementation for the following
day is prepared,
Short Term Plans setting new
Short-term plans are used for the daily production
systematic planning of physical works targets for each
1 activities at site level. A central part of of the planned
this exercise is to establish short-term activities.
targets for all major work activities with
the resources available on site. To prepare these work plans properly,

the supervisor needs to know what has
A lthough planned targets are not happened on the site before. Without
always met, it is still the aim of the information such as the resources that
project management to achieve the were needed to produce a given output,
long-term goals and deadlines. This why certain targets were not met, etc.,
means changes and adjustments are proper planning is impossible. To get
made to the short term plans when the right information on time, a well
necessary. To enable managers to put functioning reporting system is required.
progress back on target if production
slips, it is important that there is The basis for the daily work plan is:
accurate monitoring of progress and the
flexibility to take new decisions when (i) the measured quantities of work for
and as required. the major construction activities,
(ii) estimated productivity (task) rates,
The construction supervisors have to (iii) the resources (labour, equipment
plan in detail how the workforce and and materials) available and
equipment is to be organised in order allocated to each activity.
to reach the set targets. This planning
is called daily work planning. The planned and achieved outputs are
recorded together with the inputs of
Daily Work Planning labour and equipment on a daily basis.
The Daily Work Plan is the most Using a standardised form as shown
detailed of the plans. It outlines which below allows for the comparison of
activities will be executed, how many results between several sites. At the end
workers and machines allocated to of each week and month the results
each activity and the quantity of work are compiled and plotted against the
resulting from these inputs. overall project plan.
The supervisors must always plan Taking Remedial Action

ahead by at least one day. At the end Ve r y o f t e n , p l a n s h a v e t o b e
of the workday, the supervisor records changed, before or during the works
the outputs achieved on each of the implementation, due to such factors
activities. Based on the production as changes in the number of workers
achieved and the plan outputs, a plan available, equipment breakdown, bad
0 7 2
1
weather or unforeseen difficulties such of m a n a g ement i nvolve d i n t he
as bad soils or hidden rock. This means monitoring process:
that the supervisor must be alert and
anticipate such changes to the best • at site level, targets are monitored
of his/her ability and adapt the plans in detail for each individual
accordingly. activity. In addition, it is common
practice to maintain detailed
It is important to note why certain records of all labour, material and
changes in the plan had to be made. equipment inputs,
When, for example, the work had to • a district or sub-district office
be re-planned because of insufficient will norma lly compile a
tools or materials, this means that the summary of planned outputs
stocking of the site store is inadequate and compare these to actual
and needs to be improved. progress,
• at provincial level, targets per
Construction Targets district would be established and

The setting of construction a nd monitored, and
productivity targets is essential for • at headquarters, the national and
project monitoring. The comparison overall programme targets are set
between planned targets and actual and monitored.
achievement allows for a realistic
judgement of the performance of a To be able to set targets, the following
work unit or site. Targets must not only information must be known:
be set for outputs in terms of quantities,
but also in terms of quality. • the technical standards to be
achieved,
The degree of details in targeted • the qua lit y standards to be
outputs varies according to the level achieved,
0 7 3
• the quantity and difficulty of the
work,
• current task and productivity
rates, and
• resources required and available
1 (labour, materials and equipment,
etc.).
However, there are other factors that

influence productivity and operational
plans. Some of these are beyond the
control of the management, but must
be allowed for, such as adverse weather
conditions, unforeseen soil conditions,
disruptions in supplies of goods and
materials.
Once targets have been established, the

planners can calculate the cost ceilings
and prepare budgets. Work plans may
also have to be revised in line with
availability of funds. Most programmes
will have an overall plan, describing
how to achieve f ina l progra mme
objectives, and annual plans to plan the
work over a financial year.
0 7 4
CHAPTER 2
S U R V E Y I N G A N D S E T T I N G O U T
S 2
URVEYING
AND SETTING OUT
SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT
2.1 Selecting the Road Alignment

When planning the construction of (iii) a straight alignment may pass
a new road, there are always several through difficult terrain such
p o s sible c hoic e s of a l i g n ment s . as rocks, swamps, dense forest,
A lthough the shortest connection etc., which should be avoided to
between two points is a straight line, minimize construction costs;
the road alignment is seldom entirely (iv) if a river or other obstacle has
straight. There are a number of reasons to be crossed, it is necessary to
for this: establish an alignment which
provides a crossing at the most
(i) a straight and short alignment suitable location;
would cut through villages, (v) by choosing a slightly longer
farms or other public or private a lignment, the road can be
property. In most cases, this constructed on soils more suitable
is not acceptable, as it would for road building purposes;
destroy crops, buildings and (vi) A more circuitous route may
public facilities; allow the road to provide access
(ii) in hilly or mountainous terrain, to a greater number of people
the resulting gradients on a (vii) Finally, the choice of alignment

stra ig ht a lignment become may be influenced by the location
too steep a nd t he required of suitable sources of water and
earthworks will be excessive; the location of gravel deposits.
0 7 6
Road sections with steep gradients
Check List however require more maintenance and
are therefore more expensive to operate
• Locate the best sites for river
crossings, in the long run as compared with roads
• Avoid rocky areas with gentle gradients.
• Avoid areas with heavy bush
clearing 2
• Try to avoid areas requiring Costs to future traff ic are greater
complicated drainage solutions when the road is designed with steep

• Follow existing alignments gradients. More energy is used to climb
• Avoid steep gradients (max
10%) and descend steep hills, causing more
• Keep earth moving to a minimum wear to the vehicles. More powerful
• Be considerate with existing means of transport are required for
farming activities in the area
• Avoid triggering soil erosion steep curvatures. Animal drawn carts
will only be able carry reduce loads on
such roads.
Rural roads are built to improve access
and will usually not have stringent Vertical alignments requiring excessive
requ irement s in reg a rd s to road cuts and fills along the road line should
curvature. Prior to the construction be avoided. By adjusting the horizontal
of the road, the community has most alignment to the existing terrain,
probably been relying on a track or there is a large potential for reducing
a trail. Following the alignment of earthworks. Avoiding large side cuts
existing tracks will in most cases have also reduces the risk of soil erosion and
the least effect on the surrounding landslides.
environment. Often, the alignment
of existing tracks also provides the Equally, steep side-sloping ground
best solution in terms of reducing the should be avoided even if the existing
amount of earthworks. road or track is cut into it. If possible,
relocate the line lower down the hillside
It is sensible to make sure that all where the ground is flatter.
interested parties agree on the route

and places to be linked by a new or The higher construction costs of a
improved road. During the early longer alignment may also be justified
planning stages, it is therefore useful to if the road can provide additional access
carry out a process of consultation with to public facilities such as schools,
the communities and beneficiaries of clinics and community centres. While
the road works project. close proximity to the road is regarded
as an advantage, road safety concerns
Factors Affecting Choice of Route may argue for a road alignment at a safe
An alignment with steep gradients distance from residential areas, schools
may initially be cheaper than selecting and other public facilities.
a longer route avoiding steep sections
and thereby reducing the road gradient. The road planning team also needs
0 7 7
2
SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT BUILDING RURAL ROADS 0 7 8
to consider existing land use and to
whom the land belongs. Although
compensation arrangements can be
made, careful consideration of all
possible alternatives at the design stage
may avoid such issues or at least reduce 2
encroachment on private property
to a level at which it does not cause

serious impact on the livelihood of local
residents.
Cross drainage structures are expensive

and can to a certain extent be avoided
when the road follows the line of
the watershed. High ground such as
watershed borders has natural drainage way issues with local residents and to
and if the road is located in such ensure that no new economic activities
terrain, the amount of drainage works commence inside the road reserve, i.e.
is significantly reduced. new buildings erected, planting new
crops, etc. It also allows local residents
Initial Survey reasonable time to terminate on-going
The objective of the preliminary survey farming or other economic activities
is to obtain a general idea of the future within the road reserve before the road
location and dimensions of the road and works commence.
to assess how this alignment integrates
into the surrounding environment. The initial survey is an essential input
This relates particularly to the existing for the preliminary cost estimates and
terrain as well as the impact of the road budget allocations. From the survey,
on local residents and their economic rough qua ntities of work ca n be
activities. By considering severa l derived, soil conditions observed and
alternative alignments, it is possible productivity norms and costs assumed.

to arrive at a final solution that to the This survey also provides an overview
extent possible takes all these aspects of potential social and environmental
into consideration. The survey methods impacts c aused by t he new road
used at this stage can therefore be alignment. The line established by the
simplified without prejudicing the level surveyor is clearly defined and marked
of accuracy desired. properly so that it can be retraced
during the detailed design.
The centre line of a new road is
established well in adva nce of It is important to stress that during
commencing construction works. this survey the subsequent end product
This allows the authorities sufficient must be borne in mind. When building
lead-time to resolve any right-of- a new road for local traffic, expected to
0 7 9
2
carry limited traffic volumes, the choice throughout the construction stage and
of alignment should reflect this. A high- once more during the final stage of
speed alignment and design is expensive measurement of completed work for
and irrelevant to a low volume rural payments. For this reason, it is useful to
road. Undulating vertical curvature establish a dedicated setting out team,
and comparatively sharp curves are which deals with all surveying activities
more compatible with local roads with throughout the duration of the project.
limited traffic.
Setting out works is a daily activity
Detailed Survey on which all other works operations
Preceding road construction and the rely in order to achieve good quality
bidding process, a supplementary outputs. Equipment operators and work
survey is undertaken. The purpose of gangs need directions on where, and
the detailed survey is to establish all the to which dimensions works are to be
details of the chosen alignment such as carried out. Supervisors need to ensure
the exact location, width and levels of that individual work tasks have been
the road and drainage arrangements. properly defined in order to organise
On this basis, the precise quantities the works efficiently.
of works are estimated and used as
the basis for further planning and In order to meet these daily requirements
preparation of works. in terms of def ining work s, it is
important to establish efficient setting
Setting Out Works out work methods and procedures,
Surveying activities are carried out which at the same time provide the
at various stages of a civil works prescribed level of accuracy.
project, starting at the planning stage,
0 8 0
2.2 Tools for Surveying and Setting Out
There are a number of appropriate cm x 5 cm square. It is useful to paint
methods for setting out a road alignment. them white or yellow to improve their
The choice of surveying equipment is visibility. The chainage is painted on a
based on the required level of accuracy prepared surface on the peg. To avoid 2
and the applied setting out methods. loss or damage, these pegs are placed
W hen sur veying rura l roads, it is outside the road width, hammered deep

important to bear in mind the required into the ground to avoid pilferage and
level of accuracy for the works. Obviously, placed in a prominent location.
the level of detail for a rural road is not
the same as for major highways or city Survey pegs are used for locating
streets. the various parts of the road, such as
the centre line, road shoulders, side
Bearing this in mind, the following drains, culvert trenches, etc. Pegs are
section describes some low-cost and also used for marking the daily task
easy to use but still sufficiently accurate work of each individual worker. The
methods of surveying and setting out pegs are sharpened sticks 30 cm long,
rural road work. manufactured on site. Together with
a string line, they are also used for
Reference pegs are used defining vertical levels when carrying
to mark the alignment out earth fills or levelling works.
and road levels. They are
invariably of wood, tree Tape measures are available in a large
branches or stakes cut to variety of shapes and lengths. The most
length, ideally 40 cm long common lengths used for setting out
and 5 cm diameter or 5 are 30m and 5m. The tapes are made

0 8 1
of steel or linen. Although the former way that it can be attached to a ranging
is stronger, the numbers and marking rod. It has a screw mechanism that
on the tape becomes unreadable after a enables the profile board to slide up and
period of use. Tapes are vital for setting down the ranging rod and be fixed at
out lengths and widths as well as setting any desired level by tightening the screw.
2
A long-lasting profile board is made
from thin steel plate welded to a short
length of metal tubing that can slide

up and down and be clamped to the
ranging rod. A useful size for the metal
tasks and measuring completed works. profile board has been found to be
The smaller tapes, 2m, 3m or 5m in 40cm by 12cm. It is painted red to
length, are useful for small construction make it easy to see.
elements, such as profiles of ditches,
cambers, trenches, etc.
It is important to keep
them clean and avoid
dirt entering the case.
Profile Boards are used to determine

the vertical alignment of a road section.
The profile board is designed in such a Ranging Rods are used to set out
stra ight a nd cur ved lines a nd to
support profile boards when setting
out the vertical alignment of the road.
R a nging rods ca n be made from
hollow metal tubes, such as 20 - 25mm
diameter galvanized water pipes, with
a pointed end made from sharpened
reinforcement steel. They are normally

2 metres long, and are painted red and
white to make them easy to see during
setting out.
Both profile boards and ranging rods

are inexpensive and can easily be
manufactured by a local metal work
business.
Before commencing setting out works,

make sure that a sufficient amount
of ranging rods and profile boards is
0 8 2
available. A supply of 20 rods and the second to watch the spirit level. The
profile boards is regarded as a line operator moves the string up or
minimum to effectively carry out down until the bubble is centred in the
the job. middle between the spirit level marks.
The string line will
In very compact, or rocky ground, then indicate the 2
it may be necessary to first make horizontal line.
a hole for the ranging rod by

hammering down a metal spike For this purpose a clear nylon fishing
made of high tensile reinforcement line should be used. This makes it easy
steel. Crowbars can also be used to move the level along the line to the
for this purpose. required position.
A useful additional tool is

a sliding hammer with a The line level can be used to:
weighted head that fits over
transfer the exact level from
the ranging rod and can be one profile board to another
used to drive the ranging profile, thereby ensuring that
rod into the ground. both are at the same level,
measure up or down from a

Line Levels known horizontal level, and
The level of the profile boards can be set a new level, and
controlled by using a line level. The line find the slope between two
level is a short spirit level (about 100 mm fixed profile boards, and
long) with a hook at each end to hang it determine which one is
higher.
from a nylon string.
This instrument needs two persons to The line level has a range of up to about
operate - one at the end of the line, and 50 metres. It is easy to carry around,
and with care it can be used for setting
out levels and slopes not less than 1 in

300.
Points to remember when using a line

level:
• The line level should be placed

h a l f w ay b e t we en t he t wo
ranging rods. Use a measuring
tape to find the exact middle
point.
• Keep the string tight - do not let
it sag.
0 8 3
• The line level is a delic ate two marks is less than 10cm,
instrument, look after it - do the correct level is exactly in the
not throw it around and treat it middle of the two marks. If the
roughly. difference is more than 10cm,
• Check the accuracy of the line the line level is no longer accurate
2 level regularly. enough and should be replaced.
Checking the Line Level It is always useful to turn the line level
Like all surveying equipment, the around every time it is used, and take
line level needs to be checked for its the middle of the two marks as the
accuracy on a regular basis. This can horizontal level.
be done by carrying out the following
procedure: Boning rods are generally manufactured
on site from wooden laths to a " T "
• Place two ranging rods 10 metres profile and of uniform height. A simple
apart. Fix a line on the one metre stand can also be manufactured. This
mark on one rod, transfer this version is also referred to as a traveller.
level to the other rod and mark
it.
• While keeping the string in the
same position on the first rod,
take the line level and turn it
around on the string.
• Adjust the string on the second
rod until the bubble is in the
middle again and mark the new
level.
• Check to see if the two marks
are at the same place. If not,
measure the difference between They are used to establish additional
the two marks. levels between f ixed levels (inter-

• If the difference between the polation) or beyond (extra-polation).
0 8 4
Triangles
Triangle sets can be manufactured by
a carpenter and are used for various
purposes:
• to set out a right angle to the 2

centre line (necessar y when
cross-sections are set out), or

• t o c ont r ol or e s t i m a t e t he
steepness of gradients - in this case
They are particularly useful to check a spirit level or a plumb line is also
gradients of ditches and culverts. In required.
the figure below, it can be seen that the
ground level at point 3 is lower than
at the locations 1 and 2. By raising the
middle boning rod, the bottom end
of this rod will indicate the required
level in order to achieve a continuous
gradient between points 1 and 2.
The same exercise can be carried out

using profile boards. Often, a single
boning rod is then used to check the
surface levels between profile boards. The steepness of gradients is described
This exercise is commonly applied to as a ratio. For example, a gradient
secure the correct levels of earthworks of 1 : 2 means that over a horizontal
layers when building up fills or when stretch of two metres, the terrain will
spreading gravel. rise one metre vertically. Alternatively,
the gradient can be expressed as a BUILDING RURAL ROADS
0 8 5
percentage increase in elevation. A 6
percent gradient would describe a 6m
rise over a 100m horizontal stretch.
When measuring existing gradients

2 using a triangle, a spirit level is required
to secure the horizontal line. The joints
of the triangle are then adjustable with
pinned joints rather than fixed.
The most common use of the triangle is

to quickly establish a right angle to the
road centre line.
Optical Square
The optical square is a small instrument
using either mirrors or a prism to
establish a right angle, as illustrated in
the figure below. moves forwards or backwards until the
observer sees the reflection of rod C in
Whilst holding the optical square, the one line with the direct view of rod B.
observer can see both point B, through At this point, the angle CAB, is at a
a narrow opening in the optical square, right angle.
and point C through a mirror or prism.
W hen ranging rods are placed at Straight Edge
positions B and C, the observer will see The straight edge is a simple beam,
ranging rod B directly and ranging rod usua lly made of wood, which in
C reflected as illustrated in the figure combination with a spirit level and tape
above. measure, can be used to establish a
gradient or road camber.
When points A and B on the survey

line are known and point C has to be The straight edge is usually 3 metres
found, as shown in the figure below, long a nd set horizonta lly wit h a
the person holding ranging rod C spirit level. This method is used for
0 8 6
2

the measurement of gradients which end of the staff. The tube is filled with
continue only for short distances, e.g. water until the level is about one metre
culvert beds, drain slopes and road high from the ground. Both ends of the
camber. The figure above shows how a tube are fitted with rubber stoppers to
gradient of 1:15 is measured. prevent loss of water. The total length
of the tube, which defines the range
Tube Water Level of the instrument, is variable, but is
The use of a "tube water level" is a usually limited to about 15 m by the
very accurate and simple method for difficulty of moving the level around.
measuring the level differences of two
points. The two ends of the pipe are brought
together at the starting point, the stoppers
This level consists of a length of clear removed and the readings taken level
plastic hose attached at each end to a with the bottom of each meniscus. The
wooden levelling staff, as shown in the readings should be the same (e.g. reading
figure below. The two levelling staffs A = 50 cm, reading B = 50 cm). The
should be of the same length, about 1.5 m surveyor takes the pipe to the point being
long. A graduated tape is attached to measured and takes another reading. The
each staff, with the zero level at the top difference between the two readings is the
0 8 7
difference in level (e.g. if reading A = 30 cm very accurately over distances up to
and reading B = 70 cm, the difference in 100 meters. There are several types of
level is then 70 – 30 = 40 cm). dumpy levels on the market, each with
its own design.
The range is limited only by the
2 convenience of being able to carry Camber Boards
the hose. The two points where the A camber board can be used to check
difference in level is being measured do the cross slope of the road. Its length
not need to be in sight of one another. is usually the same as the distance
The level gives accurate results and can from the centre line to the shoulder of
be used for setting level lines or slopes the road. In cases where the shoulders
not less than 1 in 1,000. have the same gradient as the running
surface, the length of the camber
Dumpy Level board can be extended to include the
The dumpy level is shoulder.
a survey instrument
consisting of a The figure below shows a 2.5 metre
telescope fixed to a horizontally rotating long camber board showing a gradient
table and a spirit level. Mounted on of 5 percent (1:20). The camber board
a tripod, it is used to measure height is built with a length and gradient that
differences, used in combination with suits the required profile.
a levelling staff. The dumpy level is the
classic instrument used for setting out The camber board is used in combination
levels in road works projects. Levels with a spirit level as shown below.
can be transferred from a benchmark
and new levels can be established Camber boards are useful for checking
0 8 8
2

the cross-slope on existing roads The table below shows the appropriate
however it should not be used when quantities of tools required for carrying
building a new camber. The use of out the regular setting out activities
profile boards and a line level will relating to rural road construction
provide more accurate results. works. As demonstrated in the following
sections, surveying and setting out for
Ditch Templates rural road works can be carried out
The ditch template is basically a using fairly simple and inexpensive
trapezoid, constructed of timber laths equ ipment. T he se qu a nt it ie s a re
or plywood to check the profile of adequate for a work site involving 300
ditches, mitre drains, back slopes, workers.
etc. The template is constructed to
the same shape and measurements
as the drain, to provide a quick and Description Quantity
easy method for checking excavation ranging rods 20
works.
profile boards 20
Choice of Tools traveller 1

The f inal choice of surveying and line levels 5
set t ing out tools is ver y much
measuring tapes 30m 3
dependent on the task at hand and the
personal preferences of the technical measuring tapes 5m 6
staff in charge of the work site. Various club hammers 2
methods of setting out do, however,
chisels / metal spikes 3
have different degrees of accuracy. A
particular setting out method should axes 6
only be chosen if it meets the accuracy string 200m
requirements for the particular work pegs 300
activity.
0 8 9
2.3 Horizontal Alignment Setting Out a Straight Line
Setting out straight lines is the easiest
Prior to construction, the exact location part of surveying. The straight line can
of the road needs to be established be established by placing ranging rods
through a detailed survey. The position every 50m to 100m, and by sighting
2 of the road centre line provides the along the rods to ensure that they are
main reference for the setting out of placed in line. Between these ranging
all other key positions relating to the rods, intermediate points are set out at
various components and structures that every 10m. Normally, sections of not
form part of the road. While surveying more than 50 to 100m are set out at the
work s for h ig hway const r uct ion time. In mountainous terrain, sections
normally relies on triangulation and of less than 50m may be necessary.
polygon networks and up-to-date
maps, surveying for rural road works In hilly or rolling terrain, the line of
is normally carried out without such sight between two fixed points may be
aids. A common approach used to obscured. The following method can
establish the alignment for a rural road then be used to set out a continuous
is by finding a suitable alignment in straight line.
the terrain, using simple tools such as
ranging rods, profile boards and a line The solution is to find two locations
level. on the hill which meet the following
conditions:
When surveying the alignment, the
exact location of the road is established • From point A, ranging rods placed
by marking the centre line with pegs at points B and C should be
located every 20 metres on straight visible, and
sections and every 5 to 10 metres along • From point D, ranging rods set at
curves. A mark is also placed on each of points C and B must be visible.
these stakes defining the distance (up
or down) to the finished formation level From point A, set out points B and C in
of the road surface. a straight line which is roughly heading

0 9 0
B
A
B C D
2

towards point D. Repeat the exercise smooth curvature.
from position D and ensure that point
C is in line between points D and B. The distance between the intersection
Then go back to position A and move points can easily be measured and used
the ranging rod at point B so it is in as a first estimate of the length of the
line between the point A and C. Repeat road to be constructed.
this procedure until A-B-C and D-C-B
are straight lines without the need for There are various methods to set out
further adjustments. curves. With rural roads designed
for low traffic volumes, it is usually
Setting Out Curves suff icient to follow existing tracks
At f irst, the centre line is def ined and to improve existing curves where
by means of a series of straight lines necessary. Some simple methods to
meeting at points of intersection (PI). set out curves using a tape measure,
To avoid abrupt changes of direction in ranging rods, pegs and strings are
the road alignment, these straights are described on the following pages.
joined by curves thus creating a more

0 9 1
The Intersection Method simple equipment and is easily managed
The intersection method is an effective by the technical staff on site.
method to set out a curve. It requires
STEP: 1
2
The first step of designing the curve is to establish where it starts and ends.
These points, referred to as tangent points, also define the end of the first
straight line and the start of the next straight line. Having established the
tangent points and the intersection point, the distance between the TP and the
PI, referred to as the tangent line, is divided into five or six intervals of equal
length. Starting at the tangent point, place ranging rods along the tangent lines
to mark these intervals.
Longer tangent lines produce longer curves with a larger radius. Deciding on
the appropriate length of the tangents depends on the angle between the two
straight lines.
With a large intersection angle (i), the intersection method will produce an easy
curve with a large radius. The tangent length can then be shortened (however
still keeping it at more than 20m).
A smaller intersection angle (ii) will require a sharper curve with a smaller
radius. In such situations, the tangent line should be extended in order to
increase the curve radius (i.e. more than 30 metres).
0 9 2
STEP: 2

A string line is stretched from the ranging rods in positions a on each of the
tangent lines. Another string line is pulled between positions b on both the
tangent lines. The point of intersection between each of these string lines will
mark the first point defining the curve between the tangent lines.
With practice, the determination of this curve point can be done without the
string lines. Sight along line a - a while an assistant holds a ranging rod in your
sight line. A second assistant stands at point b and sights along the line b - b.
Direct the first assistant along line a - a until he/she also stands on the line b - b.
Mark this spot with a ranging rod and a peg.
STEP: 3
Now repeat this exercise by sighting along b - b while an assistant is sighting

along the line c - c to find the next curve point. Once again the curve point is
marked with a peg.
0 9 3
STEP: 4
2
Complete the exercise for the remaining lines c - c, d - d, until reaching the
intersection point. Finally, use these curve points to set out pegs at intermediate
points along the curve at 5 m intervals. Inspect the curve and make sure that
all the pegs provide a smooth line.
Adjusting the Position of the Curve point opposite the intersection point, PI.
If the length of the tangent lines is Where the two middle lines intersect is
increased, the final curve will move the middle point of the curve (as above
further away from the intersection with c-c & d-d, and B-b & C-c).
point, PI. By manipulating the length

of the tangent lines, it is possible to Setting Out Curves "by Eye"
avoid obstacles such as trees, buildings, When following an existing alignment,
boulders, etc. when setting out the curve. it is often sufficient to adjust the centre
line pegs "by eye" until they appear to
There will always be one curve point less follow a smooth curve. A quick way to
than the number of segments into which control and adjust the setting out of a
the tangent length is divided. For example, curve is to line up the first and third
6 segments will produce 5 curve points. peg and measure the off-set of the
second peg to this line. Then repeat this
Even numbers of segments on the exercise by lining up the second and
tangent line will give uneven numbers of fourth pegs and measuring the off-set
curve points, and provide a middle curve to the third peg to this line. The process
0 9 4
2

is continued along the entire curve. By This method can prove useful in
comparing the off-sets at the different mountainous terrain where there is
peg locations, it is possible to adjust limited space and it is more difficult to
the centre line so that all the offsets are apply the intersection method.
equal and so obtaining a smooth curve.
Curves with a Small Radius
When the radius of a curve is large Short curves can be set out using part
(when the angle between the tangent of a circle. This method is useful for
lines is large), it may be more practical connecting two straight lines with a
to set out the curve "by eye" directly short curve, however, it requires the
rather than by the intersection method. area around the curve to be clear and
This should only be done on large easily accessible.
radius curves with short curved lengths.
When the intersection angle is small The figure below shows how a circular
and the radius small, it is recommended curve with a 30-metre radius is set out.
to apply the intersection method.

0 9 5
Having decided on the appropriate completed, those pegs should be
radius, set out an off-set line at the same retained to serve as references when
distance from the centre line as the planning and supervising maintenance
length of the radius (off-set lines 1 and 2). works. The off-set pegs are located at
The point at which the two off-set lines right angles to the centre line.
2 intersects (IP) is the centre from which
the circle is defined. Having established
the centre of the circle, any point
along the curve can be set out using a

measuring tape or a string with the same
length as the curve radius. Equally, once
the intersection point for the off-set lines
have been established, it is possible to
locate the tangent points, i.e. where the
curve starts and ends (points A and B).
This is where the tape or string is at right
angles to the centre line.
Off-set Pegs
As the pegs along the centre line of the
road may be lost during construction,
it is common practice to establish
permanent references away from the area To determine the location of the off-set
covered by the road. These off-set pegs pegs, first construct a 90 degree angle
are the permanent markers for setting from the centre line. The quickest way of
out works, and provides an efficient doing this is by using a measuring tape,
reference from which all future works creating a right-angled triangle with sides
are set out. Equally, these off-set pegs are measuring 3, 4 and 5 metres. Alternatively,
useful for checking completed works. a string line can be used on which the
A f ter t he road work s have been same lengths are marked on the string.
0 9 6
Place a ranging rod at the point on the
centre line from which an off-set peg is
required (A). Measure 4 metres along the
centre line and place a peg at this position
(B). Fix the 4m mark on the tape to this
point. Then measure 5 more metres along 2
the tape/string to find position (C). By
measuring another 3 metres along the

tape and placing this point on the tape
back in point (A), and stretching out the
tape, position (C) can be located. The
line between points A and C will be 90
degrees to the centre line.
Repeat the exercise on the opposite side

of the centre line and then check that drains. This would apply to the off-
the ranging rods on both sides are on set distance on both sides of the road
line. The position of the off-set pegs alignment.
can now be located by measuring the
desired distance from the centre line Where the road passes through sloping
following the direction of the ranging ground, and side cuts and fills are
rods. The chainage and the location of therefore required, it is useful to locate
the off-set peg relative to the centre line a toe and a back slope peg in order to
is marked on the peg. fully define the road cross section. The
toe peg normally defines the outside
In flat and rolling terrain, the off-set edge on the low side at the base of the
distance is usually half the width of the fill, and the back-slope peg defines the
formation plus the width of the side top of the back slope.
0 9 7
2
2.4 Vertical Alignment final quality of the road alignment is

dependent on a thorough field survey

General and having made a careful assessment of
The vertical alignment defines the exact the various alternatives available.
level of the road and how the road is
placed in relation to the surrounding In flat or slightly rolling terrain, the
t er r a i n . A s w it h t he hor i z ont a l design of the vertical alignment is fairly
alignment, most road works agencies straightforward. The main concern
have developed appropriate standards for in this type of terrain is to ensure that
how the vertical alignment is designed. water is efficiently drained away from
Rules concerning the allowed curvature the road and that potential floodwater
and gradients greatly inf luence the remains well below the road surface
alignment of the road and the amount levels.
of earthworks required. Still, the
0 9 8
When the road passes through hilly
or mountainous terrain, the choice
of alignment is more critical in terms
of arriving at a durable design, which
stands up to the environment in
which it needs to perform. In order to 2
reduce future maintenance works, it
is important that the road follows the

shape of the existing terrain, avoiding
steep gradients and large cuts and fills.
Heavy earthworks will often have a
detrimental effect on the stability of
slopes, and can easily trigger landslides.
Side cuts and fills are also more prone
to erosion, with the eroded material
often falling into the drainage system or
causing damage to surrounding areas.
It is therefore always recommended to
minimise the earthworks by trying to
follow the contours of the terrain. Therefore, the option of alternative
hor i z ont a l a l ig n ment shou ld be
This can often be done in the case explored to avoid excessive amounts
of rural roads since the geometrical of earthworks and steep gradients.
standards allow for smaller radiuses Although this may result in longer
on the horizontal alignment for such alignments, such choices will most
roads. The main purpose of rural roads probably provide better design solutions
is to provide basic access. As compared as the risk of major damages to the road
with highways, for which design speeds during the rainy season is reduced.
are a more important design parameter,
the main emphasis of rural roads is to Several methods can be used for setting
maintain all-weather access throughout out the vertical alignment of rural

the year to the rural communities. roads. Similar to the setting out of the
horizontal alignment, the methods
M a x i mu m a l l o w a b l e g r a d i e nt s described in this section rely on the use
should not be exceeded except in very of string line levels and profile boards.
exceptional circumstances. Roads with
steep longitudinal gradients are exposed The Profile Board Method
to increased erosion from surface water. A commonly used setting out procedure
Experience clearly shows that roads for rural road works is based on the use
with gradients above 8 percent are of a series of profile boards and a string
difficult to maintain unless a durable line level. Profile boards are commonly
pavement is installed on the road used on all road works projects in order
surface as well as in the side drains. to establish the correct levels for the civil
0 9 9
2
works. The use of a line level provides initial surveys during the planning stage.
a simple method of transferring levels The basic principle is to place a series
from one profile board to another and of profile boards that show the exact
also measuring the gradient between level one metre above the completed
two profiles. The line level is used as construction levels. The method is best
an alternative to a levelling instrument. described by imagining the excavation
The method is simple and when used of a ditch from point A to point B at
correctly provides sufficient accuracy for the level of the dotted line as shown in
rural road works. the figure below.
This method can be effectively used for

setting out most levels on a rural road,
including the levels of excavation works
and fills, surface layers and drains.

Using profile boards and a line level is To ensure a correct and uniform level
also a quick and effective method of of the ditch, ranging rods are placed at
establishing the quantities works in the positions A and B. Profile boards are
1 0 0
2
mounted on the rods one metre above sufficient slots, the workers can start

the level of the excavated ditch. excavating the ditch by removing the
soils between the excavated slots. The
A third profile board with a fixed height traveller is then used once again to
is used for controlling earthworks control that the finished work is to the
levels between the two profile boards. correct level and that there are no high
It is known as the travelling profile or or low spots.
traveller. A boning rod is effectively
used as a traveller. During excavation If t here is no boning
along the line from points A to B, the rod readily available, a
traveller can be used to control that tempora r y traveller is
the correct levels have been achieved. easily made from a ranging
By placing the traveller in the sight road and a profile board
line between A and B, it is easy to by measuring the length
determine whether the excavation has needed from the blunt end
been carried out to correct levels. of a ranging rod to the
further edge of the profile.
When the top of the traveller is below For guiding drainage work, it is, however,
the sight line between the two fixed more appropriate to use a boning rod with
prof ile boards, the ditch has been a permanent length, since the profile on a
excavated to a too low level. If the temporary traveller can become loose and
traveller sticks up above the sight line, thereby indicate an incorrect length.
the ditch needs to be dug deeper.
A traveller is also useful for establishing

To provide good guidance, it is useful levels beyond the sightline between to
to dig slots at regular intervals of 4 to profile boards, as shown in the figure
5 metres along the sight line. With below.
1 0 1
When the correct levels have been set Vertical Levels
out with profile boards, the traveller When designing the horizontal alignment,
will give an indication of the finished it is important to check the gradients
construction levels anywhere along the along the road. Ideally, the longitudinal
sight line. gradient should be somewhere between
2 two and eight percent, preferably staying
This is useful for the site supervisor at the low side of the range. In the field,
when setting out. The most frequent the slope of any surface can easily be
use of a traveller is to mark levels on established with a line level and two
setting out pegs. In addition, it can be ranging rods. By transferring the level of
used for activities, such as: one profile board to the next ranging rod,
the level difference can be determined.
• to guide and check excavation T he slope or t he grad ient is t hen
below earthwork levels (e.g. calculated as follows:
for excavation works during
construction of foundations for
structures),
• to find out whether solid rock
or large boulders are above or
below the level of the road before If the difference of levels is 0.5m
deciding on the final vertical between two profiles with a distance of
alignment, 20m between them, the gradient is:
• to estimate the amount of fill
needed if the level of the road is
"lifted", or when the road crosses
low areas - this will assist in This procedure is useful in order to
estimating the quantities of work identify low spots along the road line.
involved and help decide on the It is also a useful method for ensuring
optimal road levels, that the slope of the side drains has the
• to locate the end of drains and correct gradient and there is no risk of
approaches, and erosion or silting. If the road gradient

• to provide a quick check on is found to be unsuitable, the road
excavated or filled levels. alignment should be adjusted to produce
1 0 2
2

levels with an improved gradient. of the centre line is fixed, avoiding
unsuitable gradients. By trying out
This method can also be used for different centre line locations it is
check ing gradients over a longer possible to establish an alignment with
distance. This is carried out by setting the best possible road gradient.
a profile one metre above the ground
at the start of the section in question, Adjusting Vertical Levels
and another one metre above the Once the horizontal road alignment has
ground on the proposed centre line at been established, the next step is to set
the end of the section. A third profile out the vertical alignment, by fixing the
is placed 10m from the first profile level of the road at appropriate intervals
along the sight line of the other two along the centre line. As the slope of
profile boards. Using a line level, the the existing terrain normally does not
difference in level between the two provide an even surface, the road levels
profiles 10m apart is measured and can once again be adjusted to reduce
the average slope of the terrain can be the amount of earthworks. The method
calculated. shown below, using prof ile boards
to optimise the road level, provides
This way, the slope of the terrain can an effective way of minimising earth
be determined before the final location movement.
STEP: 1
First, fix profile boards on the ranging rods along the centre line at a fixed level,
one metre above the ground level.
1 0 3
STEP: 2
2
Then sight along the profile boards. Get an assistant to adjust the level of each of the
intermediate profile boards so they are all on line with the first and the last profile.
All the profile boards will then be one metre above the completed level of the road.
STEP: 3
Where the level of the centre line cuts too deep into the terrain, this will involve
excessive excavation work. The profile boards can then be adjusted up or down
to reduce the earthworks and also achieving an improved balance between the
volumes of excavation and fill.
STEP: 4
Finally, make sure that the profile boards along the centre line have been
correctly placed. All other levels for the road structure will be set out based on
the profiles along the centre line.
1 0 4
2

2.5 Setting Out Cross Sections • the exact location and amount of
excavation works,
General Observations • detailed measurements of fills
Once the position and level of the and embankments,
centre line has been established, the • all road levels including shape of
next step is to install the entire road road camber,
including its drainage system. This • location and shapes of the drainage
work is normally carried out in two system, including side and mitre
stages. A preliminary survey is done drains, cut-off drains, drifts and
when preparing the detailed design culverts, and
drawings, which form part of the • exact location and dimensions of
bidding documents. This sur vey any other structures.
exercise is essential for estimating the
exact quantities of work. As with the surveying of the road
alignment, the setting out of the road
A second surveying exercise is carried out cross-section can effectively be carried
at the time when civil works commence. out using the same surveying tools and
At this stage, the setting out of the methods. The results are marked with
road cross section provides the detailed pegs, indicating the key locations such as
directions for civil works activities such extent and depths of fills and excavations,
as clearing, excavation and fill works, location and depth of drains, etc.
and drainage construction. A similar
exercise is carried out when works on a Setting Out the Road Camber
road section have been completed, for With the position and levels of the
the purpose of reporting and payment of centre line already established, it is
the actual quantities of work carried out. possible to set out the camber and side
drains. The road camber is usually
Using the established centre line for the constructed at the same time as the side
road, this setting out exercise will result drains. The cross section is set out at a
in details relating to: right angle to the centre line.
1 0 5
When designing the camber and side The procedure described below is an
drains, it is important once again to keep efficient way of setting out the road
the excavation works to a minimum by levels, achieving a well-placed road
following the existing level of the terrain with good drainage and which does
along the road line. By carefully assessing not involve extensive excavation or fill
2 the road levels along the centre line, the works.
resulting quantities of earthworks can be
kept at a minimum.
STEP: 1
Using the previously established centre line, set out ranging rods at 10m
intervals along the centre line for a section of 50 to 100 metres.
By placing ranging rods at the start and end of the road section, intermediate
ranging rods are sighted in along the centre line. The distance between the
ranging rods is measured out using a tape or a piece of string with a fixed length.
Place a wooden peg next to each of the intermediate ranging rods.
STEP: 2
On the centre line of the road, fix the first profile board. This profile may
already be in position as the last profile from the previous set out section. If
not, measure one metre up from the existing ground level, and mark this level
by fixing a profile board so that the top edge of the profile board measures one
metre above the ground.
1 0 6
STEP: 3
Go to the centre line ranging rod at the other end of the road section and repeat
the procedure, measuring up one metre from the ground level.
STEP: 4
2

By sighting in the intermediate profiles from one end, fix profile boards on
the intermediate ranging rods along the centre line so that they are all at the
same level.
STEP: 5
Check the height of each profile board above the ground level. If the height is
approximately one metre, there is no need to adjust the levels.
On the other hand, if the height of the profile boards is significantly greater or
less than one metre (by more than 10cm), the levels may need to be adjusted.
There are normally humps or depressions along the line and in most cases, the
set out line will smooth out such minor variations. However, it may be that the
centre line passes a hill or a dip in the terrain. In such cases, it is necessary to
adjust the profiles to avoid excessive excavation works.
If this is the case, raise the profile at position D so that it is one metre above the
ground and then lift the profiles at B, C and E so they are in line with the levels
of the profiles at A to D and D to F. This measure will reduce the amount of
excavation works.
1 0 7
STEP: 6
2
When adjusting the final levels of the centre line, there

are some general rules, which are useful to follow:
(i) Try to match the road levels to the existing terrain.

(ii) It is better to lift the profiles than to drop them. Getting the final level of the
road, up and above the surrounding terrain improves its drainage features.
(iii) Try to keep lifts and drops less than 10cm. Larger variations may result
in an uneven or bumpy vertical alignment.
(iv) Use the profiles in a conscious manner to get a good picture of the
vertical alignment.
As a final control measure, make sure that the chosen gradient still allows for
the side drains to be emptied. It is important to spend time on this aspect before
continuing the next steps, because all other levels will be set out based on the
profiles along the centre line of the road.
STEP: 7
At the start of the section, measure out the position of the road shoulders and
the outer end of the side drains from the centre line. Mark the road shoulders
and side drains with ranging rods. Repeat this exercise at the other end of the
section. Once the key positions of the cross section have been set out at the
start and the end of the road section, sight in intermediate ranging rods at every
10m along the road shoulders and side drains. Place a wooden peg next to each
of the intermediate ranging rods.
1 0 8
STEP: 8

Transfer the levels to the ranging rods at the outer end of the side drains. Start
with the beginning of the road section. Using a string and a line level, transfer
the level of the profile board at the centre line to the ditches on both sides of
the road. Once the levels are set out with profile boards, mark the levels on pegs
next to each ranging rod.
Repeat this procedure for the same two ranging rods at the other end of the
road section and for any intermediate profile along the centre line that was
lifted or lowered to reduce excavation works. Then, sight in the intermediate
side drain levels.
As can been seen in the figure above, the height of the profile on the low side of
the centre line is more than one metre when the road is passing through terrain
with a cross-slope. If there is good natural drainage on the lower side of the
road, it may not be necessary to install a drain on this side.
STEP: 9
Mark the levels for the centre line on pegs placed next to the ranging rods along
the centre line. Now, use the centre line profile boards to set out intermediate
pegs, placed at every 5 m along the centre line. This is easily carried out with a
one metre tall traveller. Mark these pegs at the point where the bottom of the
traveller touches the peg, when lined up with the profiles. On all the centre line
pegs, mark the level of the crest of the camber.
Levels are usually indicated as three-digit numbers, showing the required cut or
fill in metres (e.g. +0.20 means that a fill of 20 centimetres is required). When
the level is indicated, always measure from the top of the peg.
1 0 9
STEP: 10
2
Place the levels of the shoulders along the road. For this, it is one again useful
to have a traveller. Line up the traveller along the line between two side drain
profiles, and the bottom of the traveller will show the correct level of the
shoulder.
Place pegs every 5m along the edge of the shoulder. Using a traveller, mark
these pegs at the point where the bottom of the traveller ends when it lines up
with the profiles.
STEP: 11
Locate and set out the mitre drains. Make sure that the mitre drains are set out
before commencing the excavation works for the side drains and camber.
STEP: 12
Set out with string line the side drains that need to be excavated. Remember to
leave out the mitre drain block-offs
1 1 0
Typical Cross-sections
Flat terrain
In flat terrain, the cross section is essentially designed to a level ensuring that there
is a balance between materials excavated from the side drains and the material 2
required for building the road camber. The side drains are designed sufficiently
large to provide the enough materials for the road camber. As a result, the road

shoulders are then at the same level as the surrounding terrain. In this case, the
survey pegs serve to mark the centre line as well as the road level. When it is
necessary to cut or fill to reach the required level, this is shown on the peg.
Side Cut
Side cuts are normally excavated to level and thereafter the camber is constructed
using the materials excavated from the side drain and back slope. Side cuts only
needs a drain on the hill side of the road. Water draining towards the downhill side
of the road is left to disperse on the natural slope below the road.
This cross section provides a stable foundation as the entire road formation is
situated on naturally compacted soils. The drawback is that it leaves the road
builder with a considerable amount of surplus material from the cut, which needs
to be safely deposited somewhere without creating any harm to the environment.
The ideal solution is to deposit surplus soils at sections of the road where fills are
required. Dumping excess soil on the lower side of the road is not recommended as
these soils may erode and cause silting problems further downstream.
1 1 1
Cut to Fill
The best solution is if the road can be built on a part cut and part fill. This
allows excavated materials to be used at the same location to build up the
fill. By adjusting the level of the centre line in relation to the existing terrain,
2 it may be possible to use most of the excavated materials in an adjacent fill.
This provides a cost effective solution to side cuts since transport of soil is
minimised. Equally, this design is a more environmentally sound solution as
most soils are used and not left to waste.
Again, the survey peg marks the future level of the road. The figure below
shows that the volume of the excavation is approximately twice the volume of
the fill and that a bench-notch should be dug to provide a stable foundation for
the fill side of the road.
In steep terrain, it is difficult to stabilise the fill. It is therefore preferred to leave

a majority of the road in a side cut. Equally, it is common practice to extend
the width of the road on the fill side of the centre line, thereby avoiding heavy
traffic travelling on the outer edge of the fill. Fills need to be laid in compacted
layers, preferably not thicker than 15cm. In order to avoid the fill from sliding,
the existing terrain beneath the fill is shaped as a flat platform on which the
material is laid.
When the height of the cuts and fills become excessive and difficult to stabilise,
it is worthwhile considering the use of retaining walls - both on the fill as well
as the cut side.
1 1 2
Embankments and Fills
In mountainous and hilly terrain, fills are essentially a result of providing a smooth
vertical curvature across depressions in the terrain. Fills are normally required for
the approaches to cross drainage structures such as bridges and culverts. Fills can
also be used to lift the alignment above rocky or difficult soil conditions. 2
The most common use of fills is however, for the purpose of protecting the road and

its pavement from any surface water during floods. By lifting the road pavement above
prevalent flood levels, the pavement remains dry and its bearing capacity is maintained.
If the road is submerged, it will obviously become impassable. If the flood waters are
passing across the road, this will cause erosion of the pavement. Equally, a submerged
pavement will be soaked in water and as a result have a compromised bearing capacity
Soils used for fills are normally similar to those found in the sub-grade of the road. With
few exceptions a large variety of natural soils can be used for building road fills as long
as they are placed in layers and compacted according to established quality standards.
Materials for building a fill need to be borrowed from nearby areas, preferably not
too far away in order to limit the cost of transport. The ideal situation is of course
if the soils can be supplied from a road section where a substantial cut is required.
This is a common solution in hilly terrain where side cuts are commonplace.
In flat flood prone terrain, however, there will be a consistent demand for
additional soils in order to lift the road onto an embankment. In such cases, the
soils are obtained from borrow pits in close vicinity to the road. Side slopes on
embankments and fills need careful attention. Slope gradients need to be carefully
assessed based on the cohesive features of the soil. The slope gradients together with
the embankment height will have a major impact on the total width of the road. BUILDING RURAL ROADS
The survey pegs on both sides of the road show the height to be filled. The height
is marked on the peg and measured from the top of the peg. In addition to setting
out the road fill, there will also be a demand for setting out the necessary excavation
work in the borrow pit.
1 1 3

Building Rural Roads

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BUILDING RURAL ROADS

Copyright © International Labour Organization 2008 CTP 173

Layout by Sync Design Co. Ltd. Thailand

CHAPTER 1 PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF WORKS ................................................9

CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT...............................................................75

CHAPTER 3 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ....................................................................... 115

CHAPTER 4 CLEARING ............................................................................................145

CHAPTER 6 GABION WORKS ....................................................................................199

CHAPTER 7 DRAINAGE ............................................................................................213

CHAPTER 8 CULVERTS ............................................................................................249

CHAPTER 10 SOIL MECHANICS ................................................................................ 345

CHAPTER 11 COMPACTION ........................................................................................373

CHAPTER 12 CONCRETE WORKS ...............................................................................387

CHAPTER 14 WORK ORGANISATION ..........................................................................427

CHAPTER 15 REPORTING AND CONTROL.................................................................. 445

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 464

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

As part of the acknowledgements, it is therefore important to recognise the importance of

Building good quality rural roads is

Rural roads provide a critical link in

a road transport network, facilitating

1.1 Planning Framework up plans for the improvement of, for

National Plans Transport Sector Plans

In order to be able to measure progress

projections in the budget. the construction or improvement of

roads is often part of the responsibilities surfacing options, drainage solutions,

technical department in charge of the engineering sectors, (i.e. association of

The planned activities are linked to

The inputs to a works project or

local communities or their political

(i) technical feasibility,

(ii) economic justiﬁcation and

technical considerations are: generation schemes), then a

of routine maintenance, which the social criteria that may be used

• The availability of all weather marketable production. Increased

Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning - IRAP

As opposed to appraising the economic rate of return for investments in

access to different types of services such as health, education or markets.

1.5 Design Standards defined procedures for how and when

work in terms of describing how works institution or professional association.

engineers therefore need to recognise

The selection of design standards is

(road cross-section, design speed that keeps future maintenance costs at a

In order to create an affordable road

Shoulders are commonly installed on Road Gradients

stopping purposes without impeding negotiate gradients of 15 percent, expect

When applying concrete or bitumen

Maximum Axle Loads

It is also useful to apply a bitumen- Structures

remains more cost-effective than using

There are several categories of rural To avoid a common misconception,

technology, and by keeping it simple it and performance requirements of the

transport needs in the geographical area

A n inventor y forms the basis for

such as the name of villages and the size

Road inventories are often described

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

railways, rivers, etc. For development of the network as a whole.

• become thoroughly familiar

Therefore, it is useful to concentrate • containing possible environmental

a timely fashion. For this reason, a therefore based on earlier preliminary

overall programme describing all works

cost estimating however needs to be

The ﬁrst step in the process is to survey