EASA –Principles of Flight

Aerofoil terminology

Flight Training Adelaide

28/09/2018 Subsonic Aerodynamics 2
AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY
Aerofoil Terminology - Objectives

At the end of the lesson the student

should be able to recall a definition
of:

i. Aerofoil
ii. Chord line
iii. Chord
iv. Mean Camber line
Objectives continued.

v. Camber

vi. Thickness/Chord ratio

vii. Fineness ratio

viii. Leading edge radius

Aerofoil.

An aerofoil is any surface designed to obtain

reaction (Lift) from the air through which it
moves.
Chord Line

The imaginary straight line parallel to the

longitudinal axis of the aircraft, joining the
leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil.
Chord

The chord is the length of the chord line in

metres.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord

The mean aerodynamic chord is the length of

the chord line in metres of an imaginary
rectangular aerofoil that would have
pitching moments or force vectors
throughout the flight range identical with
those of the actual wing.
When viewed from overhead the chord line is
always parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft.

Chord Line
Longitudinal Axis

Chord Line

Note same wing different chord length.

Mean Camber Line
The Mean Camber line is the imaginary line
equidistant between the upper and lower
surfaces of the aerofoil.
 Camber

The Camber of an aerofoil is its curvature. It is

measured as the maximum distance between the
Mean Camber Line and the Chord Line.
 Camber
Camber is expressed as a % of Chord
a 100
x %
b 1

a b
 Position of maximum camber

is expressed as a percentage of chord from the

leading edge.
Thickness
Thickness is the maximum distance
(perpendicular to the Chord Line) from the
upper surface to the lower surface.
Thickness/Chord Ratio

is the ratio of the thickness of an aerofoil to

the chord of an aerofoil expressed as a % of
Chord.
Position of Maximum Thickness/Chord Ratio

is expressed as a % of chord from the

leading edge.
Fineness Ratio

is a variation on the thickness chord ratio and

is expressed as the ratio of the chord of an
aerofoil to the thickness of an aerofoil.
Leading Edge Radius

The leading edge radius of the aerofoil is the

radius of curvature of the leading edge
shape.
Sharp (small radius) for thin high speed
aerofoils with low thickness/chord ratio.

Blunt (large radius) for thick low speed

aerofoils with large thickness/chord ratio.
Normally expressed as a % of chord
Two very different aero foils with regard to
leading edge radius and thickness / chord
ratio.
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Summary of Terminology Lesson 1.
28/09/2018 Subsonic Aerodynamics 23
Lesson 2 - AEROFOIL TERMINOLOGY Part 2.
Objectives.

At the end of the lesson the student should

be able to recall a definition of:
i. Wing span
ii. Wing area
iii. Aspect ratio
iv. Angle of Incidence
v. Relative Airflow (Remote and
Effective).
Objectives cont’.

vi. Angle of Attack

vii. Lift

viii. Drag and

ix. Total Reaction

x. Centre of Pressure

xi. Aerodynamic Centre

 Wing Span

Wing span is the geometric distance measured from

wing tip to wing tip.
 Wing Area

The area of the wing extended through the fuselage

projected on a plane perpendicular to the
aircraft’s normal axis.

The formula for calculating the area of a

rectangular wing is span x chord.
 Wing Area cont’.

The formula for calculating the area of a tapered or

elliptical wing is span x mean aerodynamic
chord.

Wing area is indicated by “S” in the Lift formula.

 Wing Taper Ratio.

Wing taper is the ratio of the wing tip chord to the

wing root chord.

TC
Taper is calculated as
RC
 Wing Taper Ratio

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 Sweepback
Measured at ¼ chord

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Aspect Ratio

The Aspect Ratio of a wing is the ratio of the

span of a wing to its chord.

For a rectangular wing this is very easy to

calculate by the formula:

span
chord
Aspect Ratio cont’.

The formula for calculating the aspect ratio of

a tapered or elliptical wing is:

span.squared
area
Aspect Ratio – medium/high aspect ratio
Low Aspect Ratio wings are used on fighter
aircraft.

F104 = 2.22:1

Light flight training aircraft typically

have an AR of approximately 5.5:1
Wing Loading
A measure of the gross weight supported by
each unit area of the wings during straight
and level flight.
Expressed as either lb/ft2 or kg/m2.
Wing loading for a typical training aircraft is
approximately 20.2 lb/ft2.

Aircraft Weight (W)

Wing Loading (w) =
Area of the wings (S)
Load Factor (G)

The ratio of lift generated by the wings to

aircraft weight (W) is called the Load
Factor (n) or “g loading”.

Lift Produced (L)

Load Factor (n) =
Aircraft Weight (W)
Load Factor

To maneuver, the wings of an aircraft must

produce more lift (L) than is required to
balance the aircraft weight.

In straight and level flight (n) = 1g.

In a level 60° banked turn (n) will be

shown in a later lesson to be “2g”.
Angle of Incidence.

is the angle between the chord line of a wing

and the aircrafts longitudinal axis.

Longitudinal axis

Angle of Incidence Chord line

 F8 Crusader -Variable Incidence

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Remote Relative Airflow
i. Remote Relative airflow refers to the relative
motion between a body (wing) and the remote
airflow, that is the airflow far enough away from
the wing not to be disturbed by it.
ii. The direction of the relative airflow is
principally determined by the flight path of the
aircraft.
iii. It is normally considered as being parallel to and
opposite the flight path.
Effective Relative Airflow.

Modification of the airflow over a wing by

downwash, which will be discussed in a
later lesson, alters the direction of the
airflow which is not remote from the
influence of the wing.
Angle of Attack

Angle of Attack is the angle between the

chord line and the relative airflow.
Relative Airflow and Angle of Attack
Relative Airflow and Angle of Attack
 Lift and Drag

Lift is that component of the total aerodynamic

reaction which acts perpendicular to the relative
airflow.

Drag is that component of the total aerodynamic

reaction which acts parallel to and in the same
direction as the relative airflow.
Lift, Drag and Total Reaction.
Centre of Pressure (CP)

The point on the chord line through which the

Distributed lift is effectively concentrated
and is a function of camber and section lift
co efficient
 Total Reaction.

TR is considered to act through the Centre of

Pressure
Aerodynamic Centre (Ac )
The aerodynamic centre is a point on the chord line
of an aerofoil where all CHANGES in lift
effectively take place and about which the
pitching moment remains practically constant.
Not affected by camber,thickness or angle of attack

. You can say, it is the point in which, when you hold

the airfoil in place there, the airfoil will not get
rotated by aerodynamic forces.
Lesson 1 and 2
Revision Questions.
Q1.

Lift is said to always act perpendicular to the:

a. mean camber line

b. relative airflow
c. chord line
d. longitudinal axis of the aircraft
Q2.
Wing taper is the ratio of :

a. tip chord / root chord.

b. root chord / tip chord.
c. span / chord.
d. chord / span.
Q3.
Wing span is measured from:

a. the side of the fuselage to the wing tip.

b. wing tip to wing tip.
c. the centre of the fuselage to one wing tip.
d. leading edge to trailing edge.
Q4.
Aspect Ratio of a rectangular aerofoil is the
ratio of:

a. Wing chord / wing span.

b. Wing span / wing chord.
c. Camber / wing chord.
d. Camber / wing span.
Q5.
The angle of Incidence is the:

a. angle between the chord line and the

longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
b. angle between the relative airflow and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
c. angle between the mean camber line and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
d. angle between the chord line and the relative
airflow.
 Q6.
The camber of a non-symmetrical aerofoil is:

a. the same for the upper and lower surfaces

b. the measured distance between the chord line and the
mean camber line in metres
c. the measured maximum distance between the chord
line and the mean camber line expressed as a % of
chord
d. zero as a non-symmetrical aerofoil has no camber
Q7.

The camber of a symmetrical aerofoil is:

a. the same for the upper and lower surfaces

b. always positioned at 50% chord
c. always parallel to the relative airflow
d. zero as a symmetrical aerofoil has no
camber
Q8.

The imaginary straight line that connects the

leading edge to the trailing edge of an
aerofoil is referred to as the:

a. mean camber line

b. chord
c. chord line
d. span
Q9.

The imaginary curved line equidistant

between the upper and lower curved
surfaces of an aerofoil is referred to as the:

a. mean camber line

b. camber
c. chord line
d. incidence
Q10.

The thickness ratio is the ratio of ;

a. thickness to chord
b. span to chord
c. chord to thickness
d. chord to span
 Q11.
Complete the following sentence,
“The centre of pressure is that point;

a. at which the pressure over the upper surface is lowest

b. at which the pressure difference between upper and

lower surfaces is greatest

c. on the chord line through which the total reactions is

said to act.

d. on the aerofoil surface through which the total

reaction is said to act.
Q12.
Complete the following sentence,
“Lift is the;

a. resultant force of the distributed pressure

b. resultant force of the low pressure

c. resultant force of the high pressure

d. the component of total reaction

perpendicular to the relative airflow
Q13.

A wing has an area of 40m2 and a span of

20 m. The aspect ratio is;
a. 10 : 1.5
b. 20 : 1
c. 10 : 1
d. 2 : 1
Answers

1b, 2a, 3b, 4b, 5a, 6c, 7d,

8c, 9a, 10a,11c, 12d, 13c