New Approaches to Pedestrian Problems

Author(s): Olof Lövemark

Source: Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan., 1972), pp. 3-9
Published by: University of Bath
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20052251
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 NEW APPROACHES TO PEDESTRIAN
PROBLEMS

By Olof L?vemark

Empirical studies of the characteristics and behaviour of pedestrians are indispensable

for establishing design criteria and methods in transport and town planning for
major activity centres. A knowledge of pedestrian requirements is useful for designing
not only pedestrian areas, including parts of buildings, but also vehicular traffic
systems, parking systems and public transport systems.
Big improvements in convenience, economy, safety, hygiene and interest can often
be achieved by adapting environmental characteristics to pedestrian behaviour.
The study of pedestrian traffic has therefore attracted rapidly growing interest in
recent years. Up to now about 200 studies of scientific value have been reported in
about 30 leading international journals, the majority of these studies having been
accomplished in the last five years [1]. This international research is revealing
numerous deficiencies in existing theories of planning. These deficiencies are partly
due to inadequate knowledge of pedestrian pehaviour and partly to vagueness in
understanding of the consequences of failing to design properly for the pedestrian.
Six principal deficiencies are distinguished in this paper. Each is illustrated by
two examples. Some conclusions for future research are given in the last section.

VARIATIONS IN PEDESTRIAN BEHAVIOUR

Many hypotheses and assumptions about pedestrian behaviour have ignored the
great variations often found. The resulting errors in judgment have naturally led to
planning concepts adapted to some and not to all pedestrians.

Example 1
Criteria of the maximum acceptable walking distances for different purposes are
necessary for the design of major activity centres. The location of car parks is norm
ally founded on hypotheses and criteria such as the following: "People will not walk
more than x metres; therefore all parking must be located within that distance". The
result is usually gravely detrimental to safety, hygiene and (paradoxically) conveni
ence and thus economy, particularly in central business districts.
In a study by the author [2], consisting of about 8,000 interviews, it was found
that readiness to accept walking distances shows very wide variation in environments
with restricted parking supply and with alternative means of transport. Acceptance
decreases constantly after 300 to 400 metres and ceases at about 1000 metres.
This variation can be taken advantage of in planning, if economy, safety and
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January 1972 JOURNAL OF TRANSPORT ECONOMICS AND POLICY

hygiene so demand, by locating the car parks at varying distances with falling prices.
In the author's study [2] the following pattern is suggested for parking in central
business districts :

Proportion of Maximum
parking space walking distance Price

i * 2y
i 2x \\y
i 3* y

If 3x exceeds abou
An advanced use
design of environ
traffic. Unfortun

Example 2
The variation in walking speeds of pedestrians, including older persons, covers the
range of 0-7 to 1-5 metres per second. At crossings some additional time for waiting
and crowding should be added.
In the planning of business districts and elsewhere, light-controlled crossings are
normally based on a minimum speed of 1 *0 or 1 -2 metres per second without addi
tions. This neglect of the variation in speed causes stress, dangerous behaviour and
accidents. If the errors are corrected one obtains different capacity estimates for both
vehicular traffic volumes and parking.

INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT
Another common error is the tendency to underestimate the influence of certain
environmental factors on pedestrian behaviour. This neglect gives rise to incon
venient, ineffective and sometimes dangerous pedestrian arrangements.

Example 3
In a study of pedestrian flow in a business district, covering a whole year [3], the
author obtained the following results. A fall in temperature from 25 degrees Celsius
above zero to 5 below almost halved the number of shopping pedestrians. A gentle
rain of 1 mm per hour had a similar effect. Work categories were about half as
sensitive as shopping.
Facts of this kind help to indicate the value of covering and air conditioning
pedestrian areas in major activity centres. By such means the attractiveness of the
centres will be greatly increased. A systematic and economically motivated adapta
tion of the environment to pedestrians' sensitivity to rain, cold weather and wind
will lead to entirely new centre patterns, in which the concept of "building" may
lose its traditional significance.
4

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NEW APPROACHES TO PEDESTRIAN PROBLEMS Olof L?vemark
Example 4
In a comparative study of two environments with similar standards in public
transport, parking and delays caused by light-controlled crossings, but with very
different standards in width of pavements and in interest created by interesting
buildings and landscaping, the author observed that pedestrian trips averaged about
30 per cent longer in the more interesting and undisturbed environment [4].
Because of the difficulties in distinguishing the effects of particular environmental
characteristics, and also the small extent of the study, which included only 700
interviews and two environments, the result is only an indication. Taken together
with other evidence, however, it suggests that pedestrian influence zones might be
enlarged by about 50 per cent by the use of generous pavement widths, interesting
buildings and landscaping.
These measures might make all the difference in mixed traffic environments,
where walking distances above 400 metres are probable or necessary.

IMAGINED BEHAVIOUR
Fundamental differences in the behaviour of various pedestrian categories have
sometimes been assumed which do not exist. Behaviour patterns have been assumed
which scarcely ever occur. Such assumptions will naturally lead to unsuitable design.

Example 5
In the design of major activity centres it is normally assumed that people walking
from bus stops or stations are prepared to accept longer distances than those walking
from car parks. On this assumption are based criteria, e.g., for the design of business
districts and industrial developments, such as : maxima of 200 metres to car parks and
500 metres to public transport. Figures of 100 metres and 600 metres respectively
have actually been used.
In the study mentioned in example 1 above [2], the author found that the readi
ness to accept walking distance decreases very rapidly, and equally for both cate
gories, from about 350 metres. The difference in standards adopted for motorists
and public transport users cannot be based on actual behaviour.
A new approach to this basic question could have dramatic consequences for
present centre design theory. In the author's study [2] the following standard is
suggested: maximum of 400 metres to public transport from "chair to seat", with
appropriate allowances for differences of level, delays causd by conflicts with motor
traffic, and climatic conditions. Considering the walking speed of older persons, this
distance should never be exceeded. This is a less rigorous standard than that indi
cated by another study of trips inside a large business district [5].
A similar fault applies to parking for shopping trips versus parking for work trips
in business districts [2].
The readiness to accept walking distance probably depends mainly on availability
of time, readiness to pay for comfort and ability to walk.

Example 6
Criteria for the design of environments where there is conflict between pedestrians
and motor traffic are often based on unrealistic assumptions of pedestrians' readiness
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January 1972 JOURNAL OF TRANSPORT ECONOMICS AND POLICY

and ability to make observations and judgements. The subject has been studied by,
for example, the British Road Research Laboratory. The author's recent study of this
problem [6] gives the following results :
Hardly any pedestrians make observations by stopping and turning. Traffic flows
approaching from directions more than 90 degrees from the pedestrians' direction of
movement are therefore highly undesirable. Drivers' dangerous behaviour with
regard to pedestrians increases very rapidly with congestion, and pedestrians'
behaviour gets worse close to bus stops and stations, because of time stress.
International research on this subject is comprehensive. The present lack of
objective, specific criteria for the design of "conflict environments" could be elimin
ated by simply applying its results.

INCOMPLETE PLANNING FOR PEDESTRIAN SYSTEMS

Present planning methods for pedestrian systems are very incomplete in analyses of
their effectiveness and safety. It has been impossible to develop rational methods
because of lack of knowledge of certain behavioural characteristics.

Example 7
The principle of segregating pedestrians from vehicular traffic is now fully recog
nised in centre planning. In the planning of segregated systems, however, the
analysis of the effectiveness of the pedestrian spaces is very poor. The following
empirical results and conclusions are drawn from the author's recent study of this
problem [7].
Pedestrians' abilities to estimate conflict and alternative walking distances are
considerably overestimated. The impact of certain environmental characteristics is
quite unrecognised. People choose up to 30 per cent longer distances in a vehicular
traffic system rather than a shorter, separated pedestrian system. This is valid for
vehicular systems, with or without pavements for pedestrians, where there is often
severe conflict. (The difference in walking distances between the systems is however
often smaller, and shorter vehicular systems are common.)
The following examples of environmental characteristics that give these conse
quences are valid also for "choice" between two separate pedestrian systems : (a) lack
of clarity in the separate pedestrian system compared with the vehicular system,
especially at the supposed place of choice, due to unclear spatial form and greater
deviation from the destination point, particularly when this is visible in the direction
of the vehicular system; (b) lack of convenience in the separate pedestrian system
due to short deviations, repeated changes of direction, ramps and steps.
It is just as important to make the pedestrian system convenient and clear as it is
to make the vehicular system inconvenient for the pedestrian, even when the
vehicular system involves distances up to 30 per cent longer. The necessity for both
attracting and repelling elements in environmental design is often overlooked.
The implications are also valid for the design of buildings and parking structures
(e.g., location of entrances, stairs, escalators, moving belts and lifts), and also for the
grouping of buildings.
6

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 NEW APPROACHES TO PEDESTRIAN PROBLEMS Olof L?vemark
Example 8
In the planning of city centres, which always have both segregated pedestrian
systems and mixed systems, there is normally little analysis of the probable effective
ness of the mixed systems. This is true even in development plans for central business
districts, where the pedestrian traffic in the mixed streets is often extensive. The
following results are drawn from the author's recent study [6].
Pedestrians' demands for convenience are seriously underestimated. As an example
of this, it was found that 20 per cent of pedestrians did not accept a roundabout route
20 metres long to use a crossing without light control on a road 15 metres wide,
carrying about 10,000 vehicles per day. In narrow roads crossings are so ineffective
that they cannot be used in planning.
Light-controlled crossings have a repelling effect, especially when divided and in
narrow roadways. This causes trips to be made either between crossings or at more
dangerous ones, in both cases leading often to longer distances and more accidents.
Present concepts of traffic lights and crossing places are too completely dominated
by the car to be useful where there are pedestrians. New knowledge makes it possible
to take account of all these aspects and to use them as the basis for further
experiments.

INCOMPLETE METHODS FOR CENTRE PLANNING

The organisation and design of spaces for pedestrians sometimes lead to results
which are not obvious, but are nevertheless important.

Example 9
As mentioned above, light-controlled links between pedestrian spaces have a
repelling effect on the pedestrians' choice of routes. This effect can be partly
explained by the fact that waiting time is more disagreeable than walking time [8].
The design of light controls, especially where they involve long waiting times and
divided phases, affects the spatial distribution of trips, particularly shopping trips.
Because the potential attractiveness of business sites often depends directly on the
number of passing pedestrians, a series of inconvenient light controls will lower or
sometimes even destroy the value of business sites [9]. This effect, which might also
result from lack of clarity in the pedestrian system, is ignored in present theory.

Example 10
In an experimental interview study, bus passengers with different walking
distances, bus frequencies and journey times were asked about their attitudes
towards alternative and competing improvements in these factors [10]. The result,
which is only tentative, showed that of the total time between home and work
(35 to 40 minutes) about a third consisted of walking time. This result, together
with other evidence, indicates that the influence of pedestrian arrangements on the
attractiveness of mechanical transport systems is underestimated in the discussion
of future regional systems.

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January 1972 JOURNAL OF TRANSPORT ECONOMICS AND POLICY
UNOBSERVED PLANNING TASKS
The lack of knowledge of pedestrian behaviour, and the very incomplete study of
the function of existing environments, have obscured the possibilities of improving
environments by small measures.

Example 11
It is not possible, as is commonly believed, to devise an optimal traffic develop
ment from the point of view of pedestrian safety on the basis of studies of the spatial
distribution of accidents. These studies do not show the dangerous behaviour which
in certain traffic situations causes accidents. Nor do they tell us the environmental
characteristcs that cause this behaviour.
Research will soon make it possible to create an optimal strategy for this kind of
planning, which at present does not take account of these facts and is ineffective.
Ambitious plans for new areas are misconceived if they do not reduce the risk of
accidents.
The following conclusions, which are based on the important international
research on the subject, could indicate the strategy. A systematic survey over the
whole town of trips between crossings in main routes with greatest vehicular traffic
volumes and speeds would reveal the optimal measures, which would be both of the
carrot and stick variety. The next step would be to substitute crossings not controlled
by lights in congested environments, especially close to stations and bus stops [11].

Example 12
The possibilities of improving existing public transport systems so as to reduce
incovenience for walking and waiting have been underestimated. By interviews, in
which alternative and competing improvements are presented, it is possible to
identify the optimal measures.

CONCLUSIONS
A great deal of the international research in this field is not directed towards the
development of design criteria. This might be explained by lack of contact, both
between planners and researches and between different researchers.
The subject is decidedly a matter for cooperation between many different
researchers. Medicine, psychology, sociology and geography contribute basic
knowledge. The applied research lies in the field of traffic planning, town planning
and architecture.
It is therefore important to increase the contact between planning and applied
research and also between basic research and applied research.

REFERENCES
[1] A library of all international research reports on the subject is maintained by PLANFOR, the
research group the author represents. Sponsor : National Swedish Institute for Building
Research.

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NEW APPROACHES TO PEDESTRIAN PROBLEMS Olof L?vemark
[2] Study of accepted distances by pedestrians. An interview study in the central business district of Gothenburg.
Stencil, 1965.
[3] Study of time variations during a year for a pedestrian flow in the central business district of Gothenburg.
Stencil, 1964.
[4] Study of accepted distances by pedestrians in the different environments in Gothenburg. Stencil, 1964.
[5] Evaluating the requirements for a down town circulation system. Robert L. Morris, U.S.A., 1964.
[6] Studies of the effectivity and safety of pedestrian systems in streets with vehicular traffic. L?vemark, Nydal,
1969. Sponsor: National Swedish Council for Traffic Safety Research.
[7] Studies of the effectivity of separated pedestrian systems. L?vemark, Fogelberg, 1969. Sponsor: National
Swedish Council for Building Research.
[8] User's choice of mode of transportation. Institut d'Am?nagement et d'Urbanisme de la R?gion
Parisienne, France, 1966.
[9] Gesetzm?issigkeiten St?dtischen Fussg?ngerverkehrs. Clause lieidemann, Germany, 1967.
[10] Bus passengers' preferences for different standards. An interview study in Malm?. L?vemark, Svante
mark, Sweden, 1969.
[11] Planning methods for optimal renewal of pedestrian traffic systems with regard to safety. L?vemark,
Hyd?n, 1969. Sponsor: Life Insurance Company Trygg-Fylgia.

Plan for Centre for Urban Studies, University of Lund, Sweden

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