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ABSTRACT
In spite of the resilience of its spirited people, Montserrat is a long way from achieving self-
sufficiency in agriculture. Its citizens are still reeling from the shock of a long history of devastating
hurricanes, earthquakes and floods, and, more recently, a volcanic eruption which killed 19 people and
rendered more than half of the island uninhabitable. The Montserratians are living on borrowed time,
their economy being temporarily supplemented by a huge injection of funds from the British mainland.
Composting and water reuse technologies show great promise for supporting the struggling farmers and
gardeners. But can this potential be realised in practice, in spite of all the technical, financial and
cultural constraints? How can composting be best promoted in Montserrat and is it really desirable to
do so? This report will consider these questions and attempt to provide some answers.

Composting has had a troubled history in Montserrat. The failure of the sugar crop, once a significant
source of export income, has been partly attributed to insufficient attention to the use of organic soil
amendments1. However, an epidemic of yellow fever and dysentery, in 1837, which affected about 600
people and killed 20, has been popularly attributed to the import of a contaminated batch of compost2.

Figure 1. Beautiful Montserrat, emerald isle of the Caribbean. This island has the potential to return to its former status as a lush,
fertile, tropical paradise. However, farmers and gardeners are constrained by poor soil, steep slopes, soil erosion, small plot sizes,
wandering livestock and the high price of water during the long dry season.

Montserrat has extremely high standards of hygiene, and its citizens have a healthy aversion to slimy
substances such as septic tank sludge and rotting vegetable peelings. Soils are poor, slopes are steep
(see figure 1), plants become stressed during the dry season and it is difficult for farmers to grow
anything in exposed, wind-swept areas such as Lookout. Untethered cows and goats wander all over
the island feasting on whatever vegetation they encounter, with equal disregard for weeds, trees and
carefully cultivated vegetables. Farmers and gardeners really do not have the time or the inclination to
painstakingly chop all their kitchen wastes into small pieces, and turn huge compost piles every second
day, in the sweltering heat. Besides, emergency housing developments such as Lookout and Davy Hill
have a higher than average proportion of elderly and disabled citizens, with the younger, perhaps more
adaptable, able-bodied citizens having left the island for the less hospitable climates of the UK,
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Canada, or other overseas destinations. Nevertheless, there are many potential benefits of composting
which could be realised if further attention was given to promotion, and to addressing some of the
constraints affecting farmers.

This report includes a comprehensive literature review of many of the issues impacting on composting,
water re-use and waste management in Montserrat, such as soil types, rainfall, prevailing illnesses
(especially those which may be transmitted through sludge compost), historical and present agricultural
activities, prevailing plant diseases, environmental problems such as soil erosion and weeds and
agricultural pests. Waste management in Montserrat is briefly reviewed, primarily focussing on waste
characterisation from a waste audit carried out in June 2001. As a result of information obtained from
the waste audit, observations and the literature review, recommendations are made to improve waste
management in Montserrat, primarily through increased promotion of composting at a household level
and, where commitment exists, at a community level.

Waste characterisation was carried out during a week-long audit of domestic solid waste at
Montserrat’s New Windward Landfill. Findings from the waste audit indicate that the average daily
domestic waste delivered to New Windward is 1.5 tonnes, and the average waste density is 70.9 kg/m3.
This indicates that the proposed purchase of a compactor vehicle is justified, as the number of waste
collection vehicle trips to New Windward landfill could be reduced (A small compactor vehicle could
transport several days’ waste). Domestic solid waste in Montserrat is primarily composed of 50% glass
by mass, 12% organic waste and 8% steel cans.

The feasibility of septic tank sludge composting has been reviewed, and it is considered technically
feasible, based on experience with a trial at New Windward. Some temperature and compost maturity
measurements have been made and the results of these tests indicate that the composting process is not
ideal, primarily due to low moisture levels and a high C:N ratio. However, these problems can easily be
resolved by adding moisture to the compost in the form of sludge, at more frequent intervals. While an
aerated static pile or in-vessel composting system would be completely incongruous on Montserrat, a
simple windrow composting system could be used quite effectively for the management of septic tank
sludge, to produce a quality product with potential applications for reforestation of Silver Hill, or for
use in the proposed community citrus orchard at Davy Hill. The main barrier to full-scale
implementation of septic tank sludge composting is that the Montserratians do not want it! It is in some
respects a solution in search of a problem. Another significant barrier is the lack of a reliable water
supply at New Windward Landfill, and a preliminary costing shows that it may actually be cheaper to
import compost, and find an alternative means of final disposal of the sludge.

The feasibility of large-scale municipal solid waste composting has not been examined in great detail.
There are many constraints affecting the likely success of such an initiative, including shortages of
source materials, lack of a suitable water and electricity supply, and the absence of operator facilities at
New Windward. The introduction of separate collection for biodegradable and non-biodegradable
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wastes would represent a major cultural change for many Montserratians, some of whom are still
adjusting to putting waste in a receptacle for collection instead of dumping it at the roadside or in a
ghaut (gully or ephemeral stream). The demand for compost is not a keenly felt need in Montserrat at
present, and with the absence of enforceable legislation, and no provisions for cost recovery from waste
collection and disposal services, there is little incentive for Montserratians to participate in a municipal
solid waste composting scheme.

The feasibility of household and community composting has been examined from a number of different
viewpoints, including the technical feasibility, based on the results of experimental work undertaken in
Montserrat. In spite of the constraints and negative influences, composting at a household level and, in
a limited number of cases where genuine commitment exists, at a community level, is considered
feasible and desirable in Montserrat. While it is unlikely that the majority of the population will be
involved in backyard composting, there is scope for expansion of these activities if sufficient attention
is given to the promotion of composting. This promotion would be a highly resource-intensive
exercise, involving regular follow-up visits to participating households, on a one-to-one basis. (ie.
bombarding a mass audience with leaflets or inviting them to workshops, will not be enough!!)

Experimental results indicate that the traditional Montserratian pit or trench composting method is ideal
for composting during the dry season. During the wet season, the use of compost bins is preferable.
Whichever method is used, there are no technical barriers to household composting in Montserrat.

The use of compost in Montserrat has the potential to improve the pH of Montserrat’s acidic volcanic
soils3, without the need for expensive applications of lime4. This would enable the growth of beneficial
soil bacteria, and reduce the amount of magnesium, potassium, calcium, copper and molybdenum
which would otherwise be leached out of the acidic soil during the wet season5. The use of compost
could also help to reduce the incidence of Fusarium, Anthracnose6 (Colletotrichum)7, Pythium and
Phytophthera, plant diseases which are prevalent in the West Indies8. Compost has been found to be
particularly good at providing protection from plant diseases affecting capsicum and chilli peppers,
lettuce and cabbage9, squash, cucumbers10, beans and tomatoes, plants which are commonly grown in
Montserratian farms and gardens. In Montserrat, over 50% of the land has a gradient of more than 20
percent11, and untethered livestock have contributed to a severe loss of topsoil in the northern part of
the island. Montserrat’s soil erosion problems could be ameliorated to some degree by the increased
application of compost. Compost could be applied to virtually all of the soils in the north of the island,
but should not be used in the wet season in the areas around Carr’s Bay, which is prone to
waterlogging12, or at St John’s, where the soil already has a high capacity for supplying moisture13.

Montserratian farmers can compost a wide variety of different kitchen scraps and garden wastes,
together with cow, goat, sheep, horse or chicken manure and shredded green waste. However,
poisonous plants such as Datura, Dumb Cane and Oleander, or plants which irritate the skin, such as
Poinsettia, Frangipani, Manchineel and Fishtail Palm, must never be composted. Fish wastes should not
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be composted if they are suspected of containing the toxins which cause ciguatera poisoning, unless
research can verify that the risk of ingesting these toxins through crops grown from the compost is
minimal. Until further research has been carried out, it is best not to compost either weeds or diseased
plants.

Compost can be used for forestry e.g. reforestation projects, but it is important to ensure that the
compost is added to the soil prior to the planting of the trees, not used directly in the tree planting pit,
to prevent the formation of an unnatural interface in the soil, which has been found to inhibit the plant’s
roots from spreading14. In Montserrat, it is best to apply compost when the wet season is just
beginning, to improve the soil’s drainage ability and prevent erosion and leaching of soil nutrients15.
Mulches are best applied when the dry season is just beginning, to prevent the soil and plant roots from
becoming too hot and to enable moisture to be retained in the soil.

Green waste compost should be promoted for use as a mulch throughout Montserrat, except in Carr’s
Bay, and the St John’s area. Stubble mulching or minimum tillage is not recommended for use in
Montserrat. The use of green manure is recommended for sweet potato farmers, especially those whose
plants are affected by the root rot fungus Phymatotrichum omnivorium16, and will also be useful for
commercial cotton production if this is ever reinstated.

The maximum possible demand for agricultural compost in Montserrat, for an application rate of
200t/ha applied once/year to all of Montserrat’s agricultural lands, is 9720 tonnes/year. In Montserrat,
approximately 10,290 kg of fertiliser were imported last year, for a cost of $22,311.00 Eastern
Caribbean (EC) dollars17. Compost cannot be directly substituted for fertiliser, however, using rough
estimates of the nutrient value of typical composts, and the current price of imported fertiliser, the
economic value of compost in Montserrat is of the order of 1.89 EC cents/kg. A rough calculation
shows that if all of the putrescible organic waste from New Windward landfill (not including paper)
was composted in backyard or community compost bins, then there is a potential saving of about
$9440EC/year in waste disposal charges and substitution for imported fertiliser. This will help in some
small way to improve Montserrat’s economy.

As part of the practical work undertaken in Montserrat, two reed bed systems for reuse of greywater
and septic tank effluent were designed, and the potential for water reuse in Montserrat was briefly
reviewed. This work is detailed in Appendices 2-4.

In the light of field experiences in Montserrat, information gained from a comprehensive literature
review and the results of experimental work, recommendations are made for solutions to address some
of the problems facing Montserrat. The recommendations primarily focus on composting for improved
agriculture, improved food security, reduced soil erosion and to lower the cost of reforestation
programs, to restore Montserrat’s environment and enhance its potential as a tourist destination.
Recommendations are also made for further research and improvements to waste management.
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1
Fergus, Howard, A., Montserrat, History of a Caribbean Colony, London and Basingstoke,
MacMillan Caribbean, 1994, p. 4.
2
Fergus, Howard, A., 1994, ibid, p. 93.
3
Bannochie, Iris and Light, Marilyn, Gardening in the Caribbean, London, Macmillan Caribbean,
1993.
4
URL: http://www.weblife.org/humanure/chapter3_11.html Humanure Handbook. Chapter 3:
Compost Myths
5
Warren Spring Consultancy, Shanks and McEwan (Energy Services) Ltd, and David Border
Composting Consultancy, The Technical Aspects of Controlled Waste Management Markets and
Quality Requirements for Composts and Digestates for the Organic Fraction of Household Wastes,
Report No. CWM 147/96, Department of the Environment, December 1996.
6
URL: http://www.weblife.org/humanure/chapter3_12.html Humanure Handbook, Chapter 3,
Compost Miracles
7
URL:http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Extension/Pathology/CropDiseases/Corn/corn2.html#anthracnosest
alkrot Crop Diseases in Corn
8
Warren Spring Consultancy, Shanks and McEwan (Energy Services) Ltd, and David Border
Composting Consultancy, December 1996, ibid.
9
Dougherty, Mark, Field Guide to On-Farm Composting, Ithaca, New York, Natural Resource
Agriculture and Engineering Service, 1999, page 85.
10
URL: http://www.weblife.org/humanure/chapter3_12.html Humanure Handbook, Chapter 3,
Compost Miracles
11
Island Resources Foundation and Montserrat National Trust, Montserrat Environmental Profile,
1993, p. 50.
12
Lang, D.M., Soil and Land Use Surveys, No. 22 – Montserrat, March 1967, Trinidad, University of
the West Indies, 1967
13
Kendle, Reading University, personal communication, 1996, cited in Warren Spring Consultancy,
Shanks and McEwan (Energy Services) Ltd, and David Border Composting Consultancy, The
Technical Aspects of Controlled Waste Management Markets and Quality Requirements for Composts
and Digestates for the Organic Fraction of Household Wastes, Report No. CWM 147/96, Department
of the Environment, December 1996.
14
Kendle, 1996, ibid.
15
Bannochie, Iris and Light, Marilyn, Gardening in the Caribbean, London, Macmillan Caribbean,
1993.
16
Follett, Roy H., Murphy, Larry S. and Donaghue, Roy L., Fertilizers and Soil Amendments, New
Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1981.
17
Montserrat Statistics Office, personal communication, 2001.