Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Notes 121129165717 Phpapp01

Electrical Engineering Workshop
Electrical Wiring
Lab 1: Introduction and some basic concepts: ---------------------------------3
 Fundamentals: Conductor, Insulators, Voltage, Current and Resistance ----------------3
 Measuring Instruments: Voltmeter, Ammeter, Ohmmeter ---------------------------------4
 Power Supplies: DC & AC system-------------------------------------------------------------------4
 Circuit Protections: Fuses, Circuit Breakers-----------------------------------------------------5
 Switches & connectors. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Lab 2: Wire and Cables ----------------------------------------------------------------7

 Parts of Cables -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
 Classification of Cables ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
 Cable Sizes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
 Measuring Systems--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
Lab 3: Wiring Systems -----------------------------------------------------------------11

 Cleat Wiring System ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
 Batten Wiring System ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
Lab 4: Conduit & Casing Capping Wiring Systems -------------------------------17

 Conduit wiring system ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
 Casing capping wiring system -------------------------------------------------------------------------19
Lab 5: Wiring Installation Method and Jointing ----------------------------------20
Lab 6: Electrical Drawings using Electric Circuit Symbols-----------------------23
Lab 7 : Voltage and Current calculation of various home equipment-------24
Lab 8: Practice and Wiring Project
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PCB Workshop
Lab1: PCB Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------26
• Introduction
• Types of PCB
Lab 2: Software for PCB designing (Proteus + Ares) ----------------------------27
Lab 3: Software Practice (Blinking LED)---------------------------------------------32
Lab 4: Software Practice (Glowing UOL)--------------------------------------------33
Lab 5: ARES Conversion-----------------------------------------------------------------34
Lab 6: PCB Manufacturing -------------------------------------------------------------39
Lab 7: Practice -----------------------------------------------------------------------------42
Lab 8: PCB Project
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LAB 1: Introduction
Fundamentals
Conductors:
A conductor is an object or type of material that permits the flow of electric charges in one or more
directions. For example, a wire is an electrical conductor that can carry electricity along its length.
Insulators:
An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and therefore
make it very hard to conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field. A perfect
insulator does not exist, but some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity,
are very good electrical insulators.
Voltage:
Voltage, electrical potential difference, electric tension or electric pressure (denoted ∆V and measured
in units of electric potential: volts, or joules per coulomb) is the electric potential difference between
two points, or the difference in electric potential energy of a unit charge transported between two
points. The SI International unit is volts (V).
Current:
An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In electric circuits this charge is often carried by
moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons
such as in a plasma.The SI unit is ampere (A).
Resistance:
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric
current through that conductor. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω).
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Measuring Instruments
Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in an
electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the
circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.It is
used in parallel with component.
Ammeter:
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.It is used in
series with the component.
Ohmmeter:
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the opposition to
an electric current.
Power Supplies
DC Power Supply:
A power unit that supplies direct current onlyi.e in one direction. Examples: battery, transformer /
rectifier / filter circuit, DC generator, and photovoltaic cell.
AC Power Supply:
A power unit capable of supplying varying current.i.e the direction of current is reversed after a fixed
time interval t.
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Circuit Protection
Fuses:
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse (from the French fuser, Italian fuso, "spindle"[1]) is a type
of low resistance resistor that acts as asacrificial device to provide overcurrent protection, of either the
load or source circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current
flows through it, interrupting the circuit that it connects. Short circuits, overloading, mismatched loads,
or device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current.
Circuit Breaker:
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition
and interrupt current flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers
are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
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Switches and Connectors

Switches:
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break or make an electrical
connection, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
Connectors:
An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical circuits as an interface using
a mechanical assembly. Connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks (female-ended). The
connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or
serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices. An adapter can be used to
effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.
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LAB 2: Wire and Cable

Any conductor which is made of conducting material, uniform in diameter and circular in cross-section is
called wire. A length of a single insulated conductor (solid or strand) is called cable. Two or more than
two cables lay up together and covered in insulation is called two-core at multi core cable.
Parts of Cable:
Wires used in electrical circuits are of many types but all consists of the following main parts:
a. Conductor
b. Insulation
c. Mechanical Protection
Conductors are usually made of copper, the conducting cores being formed from strands of copper wire
so that the cable is more flexible than if solid cores were used. If vulcanized rubber insulation is to be
used the copper conductors are tinned to prevent corrosion of the copper by the sulphur which is
present in vulcanized rubber. The size of wires used in domestic installations is normally stated as ,
(No. of strands / Diameter of each strand)
Insulation of wires used in domestic installations is normally of vulcanized rubber insulation (magnesia)
is employed the wire has a copper outer sheath, this type of wire being known as Mineral Insulated
Copper-Sheathed.
Mechanical protection is provided to prevent damage to the wire during installation and throughout its
subsequent service.
Classification of Cables:
The cable employed for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into different groups according to:
I. Type of insulation used
2. Number of cores used
3. Voltage grading and Conductor used
According to Insulation:
The following cables are used for different types of wiring installation
I. V.I.R (Vulcanized Insulation Rubber)
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II. C.T.S (Cabtyre sheathed) cable or T.R.S (Tough Rubber Sheathed) cable
III. P.V.C (Poly vinyl chloride) cable
IV. Lead sheathed cable
V. Flexible cable
VI. Whether proof cable
V.I.R Cables:
V.I.R insulation is applied on wires and cables of low and medium voltage. Vulcanized rubber contains
sulphur, which reacts readily with copper.A thin layer of pure rubber is first applied beneath the V.I.R
insulation. The copper rubber is tinned to provide protection against corrosion due to presence of traces
of sulphur, zinc oxide and other mineral ingredients . V.I.R cables are available in 250/440V as well as in
650/1100 volts cables and are used for general electric wiring in cleat, casing capping and conduit.
C.T.S or T.R.S Cables:

T.R.S cable is nothing but a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor with an outer protective cover of
tough rubber. These cables are cheaper in cost and lighter in weight than lead alloy sheathed cables.
P.V.C Cables:
In this type of cable, conductor is insulated with P.V.C insulation, It is a thermoplastic material, which is
resistant to oil, grease, water and is suitable for insulation P.V.C is harder than rubber so it does not
require covering over P.V.C for mechanical and moisture protection. These cables are available in
250/440 volts and are used for concealed wiring. These cables are not for heating appliances.
Lead Sheathed Cables:

The lead sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheathed
of lead. The lead sheathed provides good protection against mechanical injury and so can be used
without casing or conduit system. These cables are available in 250/440 volts grade and are used for
internal wiring where climate is not dry and has little bit moisture.
Flexible Cables:
The flexible cable consists of wires either silk or cotton or plastic covered. Plastic cover is more popular
as it is available in various colors. Flexibility and strength is achieved by using the conductors having
large number of strands. These cables are used for household appliances as radios, fans, lamps etc.
Weather Proof Cables:

These cables are used for out-door wiring and for power supply or industrial supply. These cables are
either P.V.C insulated or vulcanized rubber insulated conductors being suitably taped braided and then
compounded with weather resistant material. These cables are not affected by heat or sun or rain.
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Properties of insulation:
The conductor is covered with insulating material so that it may prevent leakage of current from the
conductor, i.e. the insulating material should be extremely highly resistive to the flow of electrical
current through them. The insulating material used in electrical cables must have the following
properties
I. High resistivity
II. High flexibility
III. Non inflammable
IV. High resistance against moisture, acids and alkalies
V. Capacity to withstand high temperature without much deterioration
VI. Capacity to withstand high rupturing voltages
VII. Should not be hygroscopic
According to the Number of Cores:

The cables may be divided into the classes known as single core cables, twin core cables, three core
cables, two cores with earth continuity conductor etc.
Core: It is one or several twisted strands of wire used as a conductor of electric current. A multi-core
conductor is a cable with several cores insulated from one another and enclosed in a common sheath.
The cables are manufactured as single core, twin core, three core and two cores with E.C.C.
Advantages of stranded conductors over solid conductors:

A number of single bare conductors twisted together from a multi-stranded conduction. Some
advantages of standard conductors over solid conductors are:
I. Stranded conductors are more flexible. Chances of cracking of insulation at bend are less. They
can be easily laid are comparatively easier to handle.
II. Connections and joints of stranded conductors are stronger and of longer life.
III. Stranded conductors become stronger when reinforced and have better gripping of insulation.
IV. Solid conductors between supports of overhead lines may break due to vibration. It is avoided
with stranded conductors.
V. Space between strands permits flow of oil in the underground cable to cool and insulate it.
According to the voltage grading:

The cables may be divided into two classes
250/440 volts cables
650/1100 volts cables
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Cable Size:
Different systems are used for calculation of cable size such as;
I. English system
II. Decimal System
English System:
In English system the thickness of conductors is given in inches and the cross sectional area of the cable
is given in inch. For example '3/0.029' here the number 3 shows that the number of conductors in this
cable and each conductor having a cross area of 0.029 inch.
Decimal System:
In this system, the thickness of conductors is given in millimeter and the area cable is given in mm2 e.g.
1/1.13mm shows that, the thickness of conductors is 1.13mm and the cross sectional area of the cable is
1mm2 and only conductor is present in this cable.
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LAB 3: Wiring System

Installation of different electrical equipments and connecting these equipments by the means of cables
and other types of conductors are known as ELECTRICAL WIRING. Different wiring methods are used for
installations, but every method has its own uses if you have a good design engineer then before starting
an electrical wiring system it is essential, you to recommend a good design procedure and factors which
are very useful for electric wiring system. A good home wiring is that which is completely safe and
sound.
In early days, there was very little planning to be taken in wiring practice but now proper planning and
designing have become essential .Everybody known that electricity is a very good servant, but if you
can’t control electricity properly then it can become very dangerous to human life.
When you have planned an installation there are many things which must be taken into account such as,
the correct sizes of cables , suitable switch gear, current rating of current devices and the number of
outlets which may b connected to a circuit. We always choose a wiring system according to our
requirement.
A good wiring system is that in which there is no leakage present, well looking , low voltage drop, losses
remain in specified limit, wires or cables are not heated, fuses and circuit breakers work properly, all the
switches and sockets are install to be correct rating and accessible to human reach. This is good
behavior of efficient wiring system.
Distinguish between different wiring systems

Before starting to learn about different wiring systems, first we briefly study about some very important
factors which are commonly used in design procedure of electric wiring system.
Choice of wiring system

Different factors must be kept in mind when you are selecting any wiring stem. These factors are given
below:
• Safety.
• Capacity.
• Nature of work in building.
• Voltages.
• Accessibility.
• Flexibility
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• Future requirements.
• Easy maintenance.
• Economical.
• Writing cost estimation.
• Weather condition.
• Building construction.
• Heat.
• Rain.
• Switchgears.
Some factors are briefly discussed here.
 Type of Building
If we install a conduit wiring on abortive wall of building then we see that after some duration
the conduits are loose an automatically fall on the floor of the buildings or hanged on the walls
so always choose the wiring system according to the type of building.
 Voltage
We know that the supply company is recommended the 220v for single-phase wiring system
and 440v for three phase wiring system. Therefore the design of an installation is always
depend upon the supply voltages. So, iy is better to design a wiring system according to easily
available rating of voltages.
 Nature of work in building
It is recommended that always choose the wiring system according to nature of work in
building if we use the batten wiring in foundry shop after some duration the insulation of cables
to be damage therefore always choose the wiring system according to nature of work.
 Weather conditions
The regulation relates to weather conditions, always exposed to hazardous environments. It is
seen that if the humidity of air is not affected on wiring then it is better. So always choose the
wiring system according to weather condition.
 Durability
The recommended wiring system have a durable and also have a well strength the design of
wiring system is selected according to nature of work. If we choose the wiring system according
to nature of working place, where this wiring system is installed then the durability and life of
wiring system is maintained in specified duration.
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 Safety
Always choose the correct size of cable because if you choose the correct size of cable then this
cable easily handles the load current and no any risk of fire and leakage are present in the
wiring system. The connections must be sound and suitable for purpose, weather in permanent
or temporary installations. Also, where any equipment has been disconnected in wiring, a check
should be made as to confirm that the connection must be insulated after replacement of
equipment for safety purpose.
 Economical
It is recommended that the selected system must be economical, well looking and also have a
good efficiency.
 Switch Gear
The switch gears used in wiring system must be withstand the fault condition if we install a
switch gear according to correct rating of circuit then our system work properly in normal
condition and in abnormal condition disconnect the wiring system through supply.
Systems of Wiring
The types of internal wiring usually employed in our country are:
• Cleat wiring system
• Batten wiring system
• Conduit wiring system
• Casing Capping wiring system
Cleat wiring system

In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either VIR (Vulcanized Insulation Rubber) or PVC
type. The cables are held by porcelain cleats about 6mm above the walls or ceilings. The cleats are made
of two halves, one base and the other cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap
is put over it and whole of it is then screwed on wooden gutties previously cemented into the wall and
ceiling. Thus the cables are firmly griped between the two halves of the cleats and secured to the
supporting wall and ceiling. The screws used are of size 38mm. the cross section of the wooden gutties is
38mmx38mm big end 25mm x25mm at small and length is about 6.5cm. The cleats used are of different
sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of various sizes and different numbers of
cables respectively. The cleats are of three types one groove, two grooves and three grooves to
accommodate one, two and three cables respectively. In order to ensure the longer life to cleat wiring
systems, cleats should be usually used at intervals of 30cm and in no case at more than 60cm.
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Advantages:
I. It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.
2. Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.
3. Material is recoverable after the displacement.
4. Inspection, alternations and additions can be easily made.
5. Skill required is little.
Disadvantages:
1. It is not good looking.
2. It is quite temporary solution.
3. The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.
4. The insulation catches dampness from the atmosphere and a common salt-like substance appears on
the insulations which lowers the insulation resistance and causes leakage.
5. This system cannot be used in damp places.
6. Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.
Fields of applications:
The wiring of this type is very suitable for temporary installations in dry places. This is also accepted
where appearance is not so important and cheapness is the main consideration. This is not suitable for
use in domestic premises.
Precautions:
1. The wooden gutties should be inserted in walls with their greater X-section towards the wall and
should be spaced at an interval not exceeding 60cm vertically or horizontally.
2. Proper type of cleats should be used i.e. one way should be used to carry one wire; two-way cleats
should be used to carry two wires and so on.
3. In no case two wires should be accommodated in one groove of porcelain cleats.
4. For low voltage installations, cleats used should be of such dimensions that cables shall not be less
than 205cm apart in branch circuits and 4cm apart in sub-mains.
5. The cables must be laid stretched between the cleats so that there is no contact with the wall or
ceiling.
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6. The cables should not be run near water pipes, gas pipes and structural work.
7. In cleat wiring, joint cut-outs or fuse cut-outs should not be used for any purpose. In case joints
become unavoidable wooden junction boxes may be used.
8. The cables should neither be compressed nor left loose.
9. While drawing cables, the insulation should not get damaged because of undue twisting or bending.
10. Sharp bends should be avoided and the spacing between the cleats under the bends must be
reduced.
11. When the cables are to pass though floors, walls, partitions, ceilings or other concealed locations,
they must be carried through conduits.
12. Wooden bushing should be used at end of the conduits.
13. After completing of work, two coatings of varnish should be given before putting it to use.
Batten wiring System

In this type of wiring the cables used may be single core, twin core or three cores T.R.S (Tough rubber
Sheathed) cables with a circular over shape. Usually single core cables are preferred. T.R.S cables are
sufficiently chemical proof, waterproof, steam proof but are slightly affected by lubricating oils. T.R.S
cables are run on well seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished teak wood batten of thickness
10nun at least. The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cable to carry by it. The
battens are available in width of 13, 19, 25, 31, 44, 50, 63, 69 and 75mm. the wood battens are secured
to the walls or ceilings by flat head wood screws to wood or other approved plugs at an interval not
exceeding 75cm. The cables are held on the wood batten by means of horizontal runs and 15cm in case
of vertical runs. The wiring after erection is nearly painted with two coats of oil less non cracking paint.
Advantages:
1. Its installation is easy and quick and saving in labor largely compensate for the extra cost of the cable.
2. Its life is long.
3. Within certain limits it is fire proof.
4. It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalies.
5 It is cheaper than other types of wiring except cleat wiring.
6. If the job is carried out with proper attention, it gives a nice appearance.
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Disadvantages:
1. Good workmanship is required to make a sound job in TRS wiring.
2. This type of wiring cannot be recommended for use in situations open to sun or rain unless
preventative steps are taken to preserve the insulation of cables.
Fields of application:
The TRS wiring is suitable for low voltage installations and is extensively used for lightening purpose
everywhere i.e. in domestic, commercial or industrial buildings except workshop where it is liable to
mechanical injury. This type of wiring is suitable in I situations where acids and alkalies are likely to be
present.
Precautions:
I. The batten used must be of well seasoned and perfectly straight teak wood and of thickness lOmm at
least.
2. The batten should be well varnished.
3. The wooden gutties or plugs to which batten is to be fixed should be spaced at an interval not
exceeding 75mm.
4. Fiber clips should not be used in damp situations.
5. The ends of the cables must be sealed with compounds in damp situations.
6. When the cables are to pass through floors, walls, partitions or other concealed locations, they must
be carried through conduits.
7. The wiring after erection must be neatly painted two coats of oil less non-cracking paint.
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LAB 4: Conduit and Casing Capping

Conduit wiring
In this system of wiring steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means of
saddles or pipe hooks or buried under plaster and PVC cables are drawn into afterwards by means of a
GI wire of size of about 18 SWG. In damp situations the conduits can b spaced from the walls by means
of small wooden blocks fixed below the pipes at regular intervals. In order to facilitate drawing of wires
number of inspection fittings is provided along its length. The conduits should be electrically and
mechanically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable point. The conduit used for this
purpose is of two types namely light gauge or split type conduit and heavy gauge or screwed type
conduit. Light gauge or spilt conduit with a seam along its length is used ,for cheap work. It is not water
tight or even damp proof and is not permitted on medium ; voltage. Screwed conduit is used for all
medium voltage (250v to 600v) circuits and in places where good mechanical protection and absolute
protection from moisture is desired. In general the finish of the conduit is black stove enameled, there
being a smooth coat of enamel both on the inside and outside surface of the tube. Galvanized conduit is
also employed, especially in damp situations when the condPit is on the surface but under ordinary
conditions buried in walls it offers little, if any, advantage over good enameled conduit. Conduit size is
stated in terms of its outer diameter. The smallest size is 12mm seldom employed except in cheap
competitive work, the next size is 16nun and the next 19mm after which it raises in size to 31mm and
next standard sizes are 38mm and 50mm. The largest standard size is 63mm but this is not much in use.
Advantages:
1. It provides protection against mechanical damage.
2. It provides complete protection against fire due to short circuit etc.
3. The whole system is water proof.
4. Replacement and alternation of defective wiring is easy.
5. Its life is long if the work is properly executed.
6. It is shock proof also if earthing and bonding is properly done.
Disadvantages:
I. It is very costly system of wiring.
2. Its erection is not so easy and requires time.
3. Experienced and highly skilled labor is required for carrying out the job.
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4. Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation unless the system outlets are
properly drained and ventilated.
Fields of Application:
As this system of wiring provides protection against fire, mechanical damage and dampness so this is the
only approved system of wiring for:
I. Places where considerable dust or fluff is present such as in textile mills, saw mills, flour mills
etc.
II. Damp situations.
III. In workshops for lighting and motor wirings.
IV. Places where there is possibility of fire hazards such as in oil mills, varnish factories etc.
V. Places where important documents are kept such as a record room.
VI. Residential and public buildings where the appearance is the prime thing.
The recessed type conduit wiring is preferred for residential and public buildings.
Precautions:
1.In order to avoid condensation of water the conduits must be well ventilated in order to allow
circulation of free air. In horizontal runs a fall should be given and it should be ensured that no pocket is
formed where condensation may rest.
2. Edges of the conduit should be filed before laying to remove burns etc and so to save cable insulation
from mechanical damage.
3.The oil used for threading the conduits must be wiped off in order to save cable insulation from
chemical injury.
4. The threads should be coated with aluminum paint in order to keep the conduit electrically
continuous.
5. When the conduits are buried under plaster the conduits must be screwed to the wall behind first so
that it may not become loose afterwards.
6. The conduit should be well painted, even if it is GI conduit, before burying it under plaster.
7. Wooden or ebonite bushes must be used at the edges of conduits in order to save the cable insulation
from mechanical damage.
8. The conduit should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before laying.
9. Over-crowding of cables should be avoided in conduits.
10. The bending of pipe should be done by pipe bending machine.
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Casing capping wiring system

It is the oldest wiring system and frequently used, few years ago but now today conduit wiring system is
used. Casing is rectangular batten strip. The grooves are made on the surface of casing. Casing is
available in two way and three way design. In this wiring system V.I.R and P.V.C cable is used. The
capping is fitted on the casing and screwed. The casing and capping is available in size of 1.5" or 30nun
in width and 5/8" or 16mm in thickness. The width of the groove is 6mm. Casing and capping is available
in the length of 1m or 10 feet it is also available in sizes of 4, 51, 64, 76 , 89 and 102 mm. Casing and
taping wiring is installed in both vertical and horizontal position. In this wiring system different joints are
also used such as 1-joint, L-joint and bridge joint. In figure these joints are shown. The life period of this
wiring system is 20 years approximately. Casing is a P.V.C rectangular strip it is installing on the wall. All
the cables are inserted in the casing and then capping are fitted on the casing. There is no need to
screwed the capping on the casing.
Advantages:
1. This wiring system is cheap and durable

2. There is no risk of electric shock because all cables are covered.
3. The installation of the wiring system is very easy.
4. It looks beautiful.
5. The alternations are possible in this system
6. It is cheaper compared to steel conduit and sheeted wiring system.
7. There is no risk of mechanical shock.
Disadvantages:
1. The humidity is directly affected on the casing and capping.

2. Fault finding process is difficult.
3. The initial cost of the system is high, therefore it is expensive
4. It is used upto 220V.
Precautions:
1. Always use the porcelain tube or conduit when cables are passing through the walls.
2. Do not insert the phase and neutral wire in one groove.
3. Always use the porcelain cleat or washel.
4. Fit the capping on the casing tightly and screwed.
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LAB 5: Wiring Installation Methods and Joints

Wiring Installation Method
Materials:
a) Thread
b) Colour
c) Caing capping
d) Rawal plug
e) Screws
f) Wooden switch board
g) PVC/VIR cable
h) Wooden round blocks
i) Conduit pipe or procelain tube
j) Insulation tape
k) Switches
l) Sockets
m) Ceiling roses
n) Lamp holders
o) Main switch
p) Junction boxes
Tools:
a) combinational plier
b) slide cutter
c) knife
d) screw drivers
e) drill machine
f) bradawal
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g) wood saw
h) measuring tape
i) phase tester
j) cold chisel
Procedure:
First of all draw the lines on the walls with-the colored thread. Made the holes on the wall at the
distance of 1 meter and these holes are made on equal distances from each other. Rawal plugs are
inserted in these holes with hammer and then casing is screwed on the wall. Remember that an
insulation or washel is used between casing and wall cables are inserted in the groove of the casing in
straight position. Phase and neutral wires inserted in separate groves.
Always start the installation of cable in groove from the last room. If wiring installed on the roof then
first start the wiring on the roof and in last main board cable is installed. Switches , socket, ceiling rose,
lamp holders and main switches are fitted on the wooden blocks.
Jointing
Joints between conductors are today carried out with the aid of mechanical junctions and for small
cables in particular the system of making twisted, scarf and married joints has been shifted to telegraph
wires and temporary wiring. Usually the wires and cables are manufactured in 100 meters length. For
house wiring, the length may be more or less those 100 meters. It is very necessary that the joints
should be mechanically and electrically strong. Its importance is realized when damages are caused by b
d joints. Hence, it is worthwhile to have good practice for making efficient joints.
Jointing of bare copper conductors:

In providing joints of any kind, contact surfaces must be made such that the resistance of the electrical
path does not exceed to that of the unbroken conductor. In this case it can be achieved by thoroughly
cleaning and wire brushing, followed by a coating of tinning to prevent oxidation before applying
pressure between the surfaces to be joints.
Jointing of insulated conductors:

The outer braid should be removed by slicing with a pocket knife, ensuring that the rubber and the
conductor are not cut or nicked. The serving tape should be removed and the braiding cut back further
than the rubber and the conductor, thus preventing moisture being carried along the braid to the
conductor itself. A good compounded insulating tape should be used to provide a seal for the outer
braiding.
Jointing of metal-sheathed cables:
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In jointing of metal sheathed cables, the same care must be taken as in jointing the insulated conductors
and in addition an mechanically and electrically continuous joint must be made in the metal sheath. This
is normally affected by means of suitably designed metal junction boxes with mechanical gripping
devices to provide satisfactory and speedy methods of jointing without the use of solder.
Jointing of heavy cables:

The jointing of heavy cables and particularly those of multi core type employing copper, aluminum or
lead sheaths is a matter for considerable skill and care. Jointing of this type of cable is carried out in a
specially designed cable box designed to carry all such jointing suitably insulated and protected and
providing continuity for the metal sheath either by means of mechanical grips or wiped glands
connecting the sheaths of the cables to be joint together via the box itself.
General Precautions:
I. The jointing should be carried out as for as possible in switches, ceiling roses or in junction
boxes.
II. It should never be done inside the conduit.
III. It new installations or repairing works, it should be made strong mechanically as well as
electrically.
IV. It is preferable to solder the joint.
V. The soldered joints should be taped.
22
LAB 6:Electric Circuit Symbols

An electric symbol is a pictogram used to represent various electrical and electronic devices (such as
wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors) in a schematic diagram of an electrical or electronic circuit.
They are useful because they let you give a pictorial representation of your design hence making it more
comprehensive and understandable.
23
LAB 7: Voltage and Current Calculation

Consider the following available equipment. Using Electric Symbols draw circuit diagram representing
the wiring of a room and fulfilling following conditions. Also calculate current and voltage of each
component.
• 3 bulbs (60W each)
• 2 fans (100W each)
• 1 lamp (50 W)
• 4 switches
Design a circuit such that there is a main switch (MS),used as enable switch for the rest of three
switches. Further
S1=3 bulbs , S2=1fan +1bulb , S3=1 fan+1lamp
24
Introduction
to
Proteus
25
LAB 1:Introduction
Proteus is software used for electronic circuit and PCB designing. There are many such tools available but the
uniqueness of Proteus lies in its user friendly environment and control. For an engineer, especially electrical
or electronics engineer who deals a lot with the circuits, learning Proteus is an essential thing. Proteus is just
a tool used for testing purposes and it always gives the optimal solution. So, never trust on it completely.
Many times it happens that your circuit works in Proteus but it doesn’t work when implemented. So, always
be careful of these things.
Purpose of Proteus:
Sometimes circuit works perfectly on Proteus but when we implement it on hardware, it doesn’t work.
That’s why never trust the circuit you design on Proteus. Proteus is very lenient in circuit designing and it
works on ideal conditions like if you don’t add pull up resistors etc in the Proteus then it wont bother at all
and runs the circuit.
So, as the circuit designing is concerned you must have sound knowledge of components, only then you can
design a working circuit. So, now the question arises what’s the use of Proteus then ???
The main and foremost use of Proteus is the PCB designing.
Types of PCB:
Single Sided Board: This is the least complex of the Printed Circuit Boards, since there is only a single
layer of substrate. All electrical parts and components are fixed on one side and copper traces are on the
other side.
Double Sided Board: This is the most common type of board, where parts and components are attached
to both sides of the substrate. In such cases, double-sided PCBs that have connecting traces on both the
sides are used. Double-sided Printed Circuit Boards usually use through-hole construction for assembly
of components.
Multi Layered Board: Multi layered PCB consists of several layers of substrate separated by insulation.
Most common multilayer boards are: 4 layers, 6 layers, 8 layers, and 10 layers. However, the total
number of layers that can be manufactured can exceed over 42 layers. These types of boards are used in
extremely complex electronic circuits.
26
LAB 2: Software for PCB design
Getting started:
Click on Proteus ISIS as shown in image below
Figure:1 Getting Started
27
TOOL BOX
Figure:2 User Interface
TOOLBAR :
It has simple functionality like first icon on the toolbar(Fig. 2) is to create a new layout, second is to open an
existing layout, next one is to save your layout, then there comes few zooming options and also some tools
which we will be discussed later. You can see ARES icon and we will also see its use when we will
design the PCB layout.
At bottom there are different buttons like play, stop etc. When you design some circuit in Proteus, then you
want to run it in order to check whether it’s working or not. So in order to run the circuit, you have to click on
this play button. So when you click on play button the circuit starts to run, now click on Pause button and it
will pause and Stop to stop the circuit running
On left side you can see a lot of functions. We will study each one of them in detail at the right time.For now
let’s discuss those which are most important and frequently used.
28
It is used to select anything on your toolbars or drawing board. Moreover if you want to drag a
component just click on it, hold it and drag to whatever position. You can also use it to delete unnecessary
items, select them and press DEL.
By selecting this proteus goes into Component mode and gives a list of recently used components. So that
you can reselect desired component.
It is used to label a wire in circuit for your ease, for example live, neutral etc.
This is also another most commonly used icon in Proteus. When you click on it,it shows few options. In
circuit designing, there are alot of components which require ground or power, so if we are going to add wires
for each of them then it got quite messy.
Proteus provides a very easy way of doing it. Ground and Power, are treated as component so wherever we
need GND we simply pick the Ground from here and place it there and same for the Power.
Then there’s Signal Generator, it is used to generate signal like sine wave of desired frequency.
The icon shown has many components which are very useful and this section is used for visualization. Like
there’s an oscilloscope, we use it for viewing the behavior of different signals generated.
It is the Graph mode. Like in some circuit you want to analyze the graphs of voltage and current then you
can do this using the graph mode, it has different style of graphs.
These are the voltage and current probes respectively. Suppose you have designed some circuit in
Proteus and now you want to check the value of voltage at any point in the circuit. In order to do so, simply
select this voltage probe and place it there and when you run your circuit, the probe will show the value of
voltage above it and same for current probe.
has lots of functionality, it is used when we want to design our own component in proteus.
is simply text section, like you want to add some text indication you use this one.
29
Circuit designing in Proteus:

Before we make PCB layout of a circuit, we first draw it in Proteus and check if it’s in working order or not.
Then we convert that schematics into ARES design.
Lets start with a simple circuit. Consider the following circuitry,
Figure:3 Police Light Schematics
Now lets draw it in Proteus,
First open Proteus from start menu and then select following components to draw your circuit by switching
to Component Mode ,
Now draw the circuit and make all connections as directed. Take special care of pin configuration of each IC
used.
30
Figure:4 Circuit Implementation in Proteus
In the above circuit (Fig. 4) we have assigned different values to resistors and capacitors as per our need. This
can be done by clicking on the attribute you want to change and then give it the value or name as you desire.
For example if you want to change the name of component, click on R1 and C1 and if you wish to change its
value click on their value (Fig. 5).
Figure 5: value assignment
31
LAB 3: Software Practice

Blinking LED
Connect the following circuit and answer the questions at the end after analyzing your circuit.
Questions:
Q1: What is the purpose of resistor R3 in series with LED.
Q2: What effect will changing the value of capacitor will cause.
32
LAB 4: Software Practice
Glowing UOL
33
LAB 5: ARES Conversion

PCB LAYOUT:-
Now as you have simulated your circuit and checked all connections validity, its time to draw its PCB
layout.PCB stands for printed circuit board. A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and
electrically connects electronic components using conductive tracks etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double
sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer.
To switch from circuit schematics to PCB layout click on .A window will open as follows ,
Figure:6
Here on left you can see all components that you use in circuit schematics. This is a plus point of this software
that it will provide you with all required components when you will switch to PCB mode from schematics.
34
Placing Components:
Before you start placing your components ,first draw working board by selecting 2D graphics box and
then opting the board edge as follows, (Fig. 7)
The box should be big enough to accommodate all

components within it. Start placing components from
the component list. The green lines appear(Fig. 9) as you
place your component on the working board is actually
the software intelligence. Using the circuit, it gives us
the routes automatically and we don’t need to panic any
more just need to follow these routes, if we are doing
manual routing.
ROUTING :-
There are two ways to do routing in Proteus.
1. Auto Routing
2. Manual Routing
Auto Routing:
To do auto routing first place all the components on

working board.And once you are done click on Auto-
Router tab, . A window will open, set the

properties and click on Begin Routing, the magic begins.
But it usually wouldn’t go in designer’s favor. Because software is not smart enough to
Figure:7 Board Edge avoid crossing of lines thus giving errors.
35
Manual Routing :
To do manual routing place components on working board one by one, not at once, and use track mode
to do routing.When you click on it a list for size of trace will appear.Select desireable size(Fig. 8) and follow
green lines to connect the components.
Figure:8 Figure:9
36
Printing the PCB :

Now as you are done with placing the component and routing, next step is to print the layout so that you can
take a trace of it on PCB plate.For that purpose click on “OUTPUT” then “EXPORT GRAPHICS” and select PDF.
Following window will open,set your priorities. Always opt for mirror reflection, so that you can get normal
reflection on PCB plate.Click OK and take a print of your PCB layout.
37
Ares Layout of Blinking Led Circuit:
38
LAB 6: PCB Manufacturing
Making of PCB Plate :

Things you’ll need:
1. Single sided PCB.
2. Access to a laser printer. (An inkjet printer will also do)
3. Photo paper for laser printer and sticker paper for inkjet printer. This is the most important part in making
the PCB, The kind of paper you use will decide how good the transfer will be.
4. Iron box.
5. Drilling machine which can hold 0.8mm and 1mm drill bits.
6. Ferric chloride powder(Etchant).
7. Nail polish remover or thinner
Other stuff:
1. Scotch Brite.
2. Plastic container slightly bigger than the PCB.
3. Gloves.
4. Safety Glasses.
5. Tooth brush.
Theory:
A PCB can be made by many methods like UV etching, Toner transfer method, using a CNC mill etc. We’ll be
doing it with the toner transfer method as it’s the only method which doesn’t require access to expensive
equipment/materials.
To make a PCB you need two things, an etchant and an etch resist. The etch resist is a material you put on the
PCB where you want the copper to stay intact. In the toner transfer method, the toner of the laser printer
acts as the resist. The toner is a kind of a polymer mixed with carbon that sticks to the paper when heated.
The toner should be heated until it becomes sticky enough to hold on to the paper but it’s not enough if it’s
just heated, a lot of pressure has to be applied to fuse it with the paper. This is what the laser printer does
when it prints a paper. What we need is to transfer the toner from the paper to the copper board to act as
the resist. To do this, we need to put the paper on the board and heat it using the iron box and apply a lot of
39
pressure. There are people who have modified laser printers to directly print on a copper board but that’s a
very complicated method. The kind of paper you use to print the layout can make a huge difference. After
the paper is pressed on to the board and heated, its removed by soaking it in water and rubbing it off. Only
the black toner remains on the board after this. Now the etchant comes into picture, the etchant used is
Ferric chloride but you can try a solution of HCL(about 20%) and Hydrogen peroxide(the stuff you get in
medical stores) if you can get a hold it. When the board is immersed in the etching solution, the etchant
removes the copper wherever there is no resist and the copper remains intact wherever there is resist(that’s
why its called a resist). You can now clean the board, drill holes and solder the components.
Preparing the PCB :
Before you can transfer the layout, you must cut and clean the PCB. Use a paper cutter to make deep
markings on the PCB and snap it to the required size, leave some room for error.Use a sandpaper to bring
shine to the copper side of pcb plate.Rub sandpaper against copper plated side until it become really clear
and shiny
Ironing the Plate:
Switch on your iron box and turn it up all the way to the maximum setting. Now take the printout paper and
cut it to the exact dimension, do not leave extra space around the edges as it’ll affect the outcome of the PCB
when you remove the paper. Place the layout facing down on the copper side and gently slide the iron box
until it covers the whole layout. Now put a lot of pressure and hold it for at least a minute but make sure you
don’t move the paper and also that the paper is flat. After this the paper will get stuck to the board. Now
slide the iron box all over the layout and cover every inch of it for a few times.Now incline the iron box so
that only a part of the tip touches the board and rub it all over the board putting pressure. The incline should
be really small so that the tip doesn’t accidentally cut the paper. This step will ensure that all the toner gets
transferred correctly. If you do this with a magazine paper or any other thin paper, the transfer gets
smudged and becomes useless. Now iron it again for a few times with the iron flat.
Taking Out the Paper :
Now place the pcb plate at some cool place and let it be there for 10-15 minutes. Now slowly try to remove
the paper, do not force it if it doesn’t come out,pour some water on it and then try to remove it layer by layer
by rubbing it in circular motion.When paper is completely removed, dry it with cloth.
Making the missing connections:
Once you have removed the paper, cross check the print on your pcb plate with the actual circuit design or
your pcb layout. Draw any missing connection with permanent marker.Be very careful about the lines as only
the copper behind the etch resist will persist to give copper connection or flow path. Any missing connection
will result in an open circuit.
Etching:
Fill the plastic lid with water, and slowly add the ferric chloride powder. The amount of ferric chloride you
add depends on the amount of water you’ve taken. For example to make 1 liter of solution you need 500gm
40
of ferric chloride.Now slowly put the board inside the solution and immense it completely. Now start rocking
the container back and forth to speed up the etching process.After about 10 minutes, take out the board
using the forceps and put it under running water. See how much of the etching is complete and put it back.
This’ll give you an estimate for how much longer you’ll have to etch. Etching it for longer than necessary is
also not a good idea as even the copper under the resist gets removed. So stop it as soon as its done. After a
couple of minutes take it out again and see how much is complete, if its fully complete move on to the next
step, else put it back and rock it till its complete.
Drilling holes:
After you’ve etched the PCB, clean it and dry it. Now its time to drill the holes. To drill the holes you need a
drilling machine which can hold really small drill bits. Drill machine is available in the lab. Make holes where
required.
Soldering the Components:
Before you can start soldering, you have to remove the toner. Just scrub it with cotton buds dipped in
nailpolish remover or thinner till you can see the coppe. It’s a good idea to solder it right after you’ve done
this, if you leave the board for a long time then the copper will oxidize and make it harder to solder, in which
case you have to scrub it again.
41
LAB 7 : Practice
Draw a circuit in proteus that can glow last three numbers of your Registration number.
Convert that circuit to PCB layout using ARES.
42

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Electrical Engineering Workshop

Lab 2: Wire and Cables ----------------------------------------------------------------7

Lab 3: Wiring Systems -----------------------------------------------------------------11

Lab 4: Conduit & Casing Capping Wiring Systems -------------------------------17

Lab 5: Wiring Installation Method and Jointing ----------------------------------20

Lab 6: Electrical Drawings using Electric Circuit Symbols-----------------------23

Lab 7 : Voltage and Current calculation of various home equipment-------24

Lab 8: Practice and Wiring Project

Lab 2: Software for PCB designing (Proteus + Ares) ----------------------------27

Lab 3: Software Practice (Blinking LED)---------------------------------------------32

Lab 4: Software Practice (Glowing UOL)--------------------------------------------33

Lab 5: ARES Conversion-----------------------------------------------------------------34

Lab 6: PCB Manufacturing -------------------------------------------------------------39

Lab 7: Practice -----------------------------------------------------------------------------42

Lab 8: PCB Project

Switches and Connectors

LAB 2: Wire and Cable

(No. of strands / Diameter of each strand)

I. Type of insulation used

2. Number of cores used

3. Voltage grading and Conductor used

I. V.I.R (Vulcanized Insulation Rubber)

C.T.S or T.R.S Cables:

Lead Sheathed Cables:

Weather Proof Cables:

According to the Number of Cores:

Advantages of stranded conductors over solid conductors:

According to the voltage grading:

250/440 volts cables

650/1100 volts cables

LAB 3: Wiring System

Distinguish between different wiring systems

Choice of wiring system

• Nature of work in building.

• Writing cost estimation.

Some factors are briefly discussed here.

• Cleat wiring system

• Batten wiring system

• Conduit wiring system

• Casing Capping wiring system

Cleat wiring system

I. It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.

2. Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.

3. Material is recoverable after the displacement.

4. Inspection, alternations and additions can be easily made.

5. Skill required is little.

1. It is not good looking.

2. It is quite temporary solution.

3. The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.

5. This system cannot be used in damp places.

6. Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.

3. In no case two wires should be accommodated in one groove of porcelain cleats.

8. The cables should neither be compressed nor left loose.

12. Wooden bushing should be used at end of the conduits.

Batten wiring System

2. Its life is long.

3. Within certain limits it is fire proof.

5 It is cheaper than other types of wiring except cleat wiring.

1. Good workmanship is required to make a sound job in TRS wiring.

2. The batten should be well varnished.

4. Fiber clips should not be used in damp situations.

LAB 4: Conduit and Casing Capping

1. It provides protection against mechanical damage.

2. It provides complete protection against fire due to short circuit etc.