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ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR DIFFERENT MASONRY SYSTEMS: CRITICAL REVIEW

Conference Paper · September 2003

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 ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR DIFFERENT MASONRY SYSTEMS:
CRITICAL REVIEW
Ahmed H. Alwathaf1, Waleed A. M. Thanoon2, Jamaloddin Noorzaei2, Mohd. Saleh Jaafar2
and Mohd. Razali Abdulkadir2,
1
Ph.D. Student, Faculty of Engineering, (UPM), 2Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, (UPM)
E-mail walid@eng.upm.edu.my

ABSTRACT
Numerous analytical models have been developed to simulate the behavior of different types of masonry
system used in worldwide. This paper presents a general review for different structural masonry models.
Masonry systems are classified here as two categories; conventional mortared and non-conventional
mortarless interlocking blocks masonry. Different analytical models for masonry joints that were developed
to simulate their behavior in structural masonry systems are also reviewed.

1. INTRODUCTION

Although masonry system is widely used in building, its full structural potential has not yet been realized,
this is mainly due to the lack of information that is available to designers as to the exact behavior of masonry
system under different loading conditions. The numerous variety of types currently used in masonry system
promotes to develop many analytical models to understand the realistic structural behavior of such different
systems.

From a constructional engineering perspective, masonry is classified as conventional mortared and non-
conventional interlocking mortarless masonry system. The latter system was developed recently. The
objective of such activities is to develop concrete masonry blocks whose configurations are deliberately
shaped in such a way that they can be laid without conventional mortar bedding.

This paper aims at presenting an extensive review for the structural masonry models, for conventional and
non-conventional systems, that were developed to investigate the structural behavior of the masonry walls.
Furthermore, attention is paid to discuss different masonry joint models due to the significant effect of
masonry joints on the overall behavior of masonry system.

2. REVIEW FOR STRUCTURAL MASONRY MODELS

Masonry is, whether it is conventional or interlocking mortarless, a complex material consisting of an

assemblage of solid or hollow blocks, mortar joints, grout and reinforced bars each with different material
properties. Its behaviour is made more complex by the discontinuity of its units in mortarless masonry or by
mortar joints acting as planes of weakness due to their low tensile and shear bond strength in conventional
masonry.

The finite element method (FEM) is now firmly established as a powerful engineering tool of wide
applicability. One of the principal advantages of the finite element method is the unifying approach it offers
to the solution of complex engineering problems. FEM technique has been extensively used in analyzing of
masonry structures as one of the structural engineering application for the technique.

2.1 Conventional masonry models

The analysis of the behaviour of masonry has become progressively more sophisticated with the development
of numerical techniques. Early analyses were hampered by the lack of a suitable material model, and
masonry was often assumed to be an isotropic elastic continuum with no provision for failure (Rosenhaupt
and Sokal 1965). Analyses of these types were useful in predicting deformations at low stress levels, but
were inadequate at high stress levels, when extensive stress redistribution takes place due to nonlinear
material behaviour and localized failure.

Further improvements have been obtained by Page (1978). He considered bricks and joints separately and
allowing for local failure in the mortar joints for solid masonry. The in-plane behavior of masonry is modeled
using a continuum of plane stress elements with superimposed linkage elements simulating the mortar joints.
Figure 1(a) shows the typical FE subdivision of the model. The model offered a realistic alternative to an
analysis based on isotropic elastic behavior to predict the ultimate load. Bending tests on a masonry deep
beam were used as the basis of comparison between theory and experiments. Vertical stress distributions on
middle level obtained from experiment were compared to the finite element solution in Fig. 1(b). The model
analysis results are relatively not accurate at higher stresses.

(a) (b)

Fig.1 Typical finite element subdivision and test results comparison, Page (1978).

Ali and Page (1988) presented a model treats bricks and joints separately, and allows for nonlinear
deformation characteristics and progressive local failure of both bricks and joints under concentrated load.
The load is applied incrementally, thus allowing the behaviour of a wall to be simulated from first crack
through to final failure. Figure 2(a) shows the typical plane stress FE mesh and Fig. 1(b) represents a
comparison between the finite element model and experimental tests result of vertical load versus lateral
strain for triple splitting test. The values of the strain softening parameter were varying from one to six. The
same model was used by Ali and Page (1989) to analyzed local cracking of solid concrete masonry subjected
to concentrated loads using two different crack modelling techniques. One technique smears the effects of the
crack over the width of the element and the other progressively disconnects the appropriate nodes of adjacent
elements. The effectiveness of the models is demonstrated by comparison of the predicted and observed
performance of concrete masonry wallettes subjected to concentrated loads. The model could be improved
further if more realistic crack propagation criteria were derived.
The failure analysis of masonry structures depends significantly on modelling techniques developed in
concrete mechanics. For modern fully grouted reinforced masonry, the influence of mortar joints on the
mechanical behaviour of a masonry assemblage is generally insignificant. Consequently, the smeared crack
approach, which has been widely used to analyze concrete structures, can be applied to the analysis of such
masonry structures. Cerioni and Doinda (1994) proposed a materially nonlinear layered finite element model
for the analysis of reinforced and/or prestressed masonry wall panel under monotonic loading in the plane
and/or out of the plane. After cracking, the smeared coaxial rotating crack model was adopted and tension
stiffening, reduction in compressive strength and stiffness after cracking, and strain softening in compression
were accounted for in the model. The analysis of results showed good agreement between the values obtained
by the proposed model and those obtained experimentally.

Afshari and Kaldjian (1989) presented an attempt to predict the behavior and ultimate strength of brick or
concrete block masonry prisms or assemblage using 3-Dimensional FE model. Failure envelopes were
established for the mortar following Mohr‟s theory of failure line, and for the block from the results of
numerical analysis of solid masonry prism. Figure 3 shows the 3-D FE model of one-eighth of a masonry
prism and the proposed behavior of masonry prism under uniform compression loading. Similar relationships
for other ranges of mortar strength are needed to extend the use of the model further.

Test results reveal that the behaviour and failure mechanism of hollow block subjected to compression are
different from those of solid masonry (Page and Shrive 1990). Sayed-Ahmed and Shrive (1996a) developed a
nonlinear elasto-plastic finite element model for face-shell-bedded hollow masonry using isoperimetric shell
elements, Fig.4(a). They concluded that the failure of face-shell-bedded hollow masonry started by web
cracking in the plane of the wall in a mechanism similar to deep beam bending. Figure 4(b) shows the load
versus horizontal deformation at web centre line of a prism. The model also was used by Sayed-Ahmed and
Shrive (1996b) to investigate analytically many parameters that affect the behaviour and failure of face-shell
bedded hollow masonry subjected to concentrated load.

(a) (b)

Fig.2. Typical FE mesh and comparison between the FE model and experimental result,
Ali and Page (1988).
 Fig.3. 3-D FE model and the proposed behavior of masonry prism, Afshari and Kaldjian, (1989)

(a) (b)
Fig.4. FE mesh and load versus horizontal deformation at web CL, Sayed-Ahmed and Shrive (1996a)

Some researchers introduced micromechanical approach into the masonry modelling. This approach allows
one to derive the masonry response, modelling the masonry as a heterogeneous material, often with periodic
microstructures, realized by bricks in a matrix of mortar (Pande et al., 1989). Recently, this approach has
been used to simulate the repaired masonry material. Luciano and Sacco (1997) carried out a damage model
for ancient masonry material characterized by periodic structures from a micromechanical analysis. A
repetitive unit cell was chosen and eight possible undamaged and damaged states for the masonry are
identified. Fig.5 shows the repetitive unit cell for the regular masonry material. The homogenization theory
for material with periodic microstructure was also used to define the overall moduli of the uncracked and
cracked masonry. Two strength criteria for mortar behaviour were adopted in the study. D‟Ayala (1998)
reported that the use of regressions curves and homogenisation technique allowed obtaining satisfactory
results with the numerical simulation. Mafria and Sacco (2001) presented a micromechanical investigation
for the evaluation of the overall response of the masonry material reinforced by fiber reinforced plastic
(FRP). This composite material is used mainly for strengthening concrete and wood structures. A
homogenization procedure was developed for a one-dimensional masonry problem, considering the
progressive damage and plasticity of the mortar and the block. Fig.6 shows the unit cell obtained from the
periodicity used by the authors. Giordano et al. (2002) carried out three different numerical techniques for the
analysis of historical masonry structures. Three finite element packages were utilized and all results were
compared with experimental test results.

Fig.5. Repetitive unit cell for the regular Fig.6. Unit cell obtained from the periodicity,
masonry material, Luciano and Sacco (1997) Mafria and Sacco (2001)

2.2. Interlocking mortarless masonry models

The term „interlocking masonry system‟ is defined as a masonry structural wall system in which the
constituting masonry units are intentionally shaped so that they are not only dry stacked in a self-aligning
manner but also function as structural units (Oh, 1994). These types of block masonry system, often called
interlocking and/or mortarless dry stacking block, aim at a more economical and rational solution to the
conventional masonry system by replacing the conventional masonry system with more efficient
configurations.

From structural point of view, several evidences have shown that the mortarless masonry will be equally
good and competitive as alternative to traditional building materials if its peculiarity is taken into account
(Anand and Ramamurthy, 2000; Najm, 2001; Marzahn, 1998). Conventional bedding mortar masonry has
some disadvantages that can be overcome in mortarless masonry system. Some of these disadvantages are as
follow:
 Mortar joints are the major source of weakness and material nonlinearity in conventional
masonry system.
 The time-dependent characteristics of masonry can also be attributed to the influence of the
mortar.
 The capacity of masonry is governed by the tensile properties of the block, as failure occurs
by splitting due to transverse tension in the block caused by the differential lateral expansion
of the stiffer block and more flexible mortar.
Furthermore, absence of mortar at the mortarless masonry joints may improve the ductility in this system
(Oh, 1994). Although there is lacking in shear strength in mortarless masonry assemblage compared to the
conventional masonry system, this deficiency can be compensated by vertical and horizontal stiffeners, grout
and reinforcement bars, or by additional compressive stresses normal to the bedding area of the units
efficiently done by prestressing (Marzahn, 1997).

Though a number of interlocking block systems have been reported in the literature, experimental and
theoretical investigations are available only for a few. Tracing the theoretical studies of interlocking
mortarless reveals that there are two analytical investigations that will be reviewed here briefly.
Oh (1994) presented a three-dimensional nonlinear FE model for mortarless masonry prism developed by
ANSYS software package, Fig.7(a) shows the 3-D mesh of the dry-stacked hollow prism and the joints
model used by the author. The studied prism was dry-stacked without interlocking action. A focus was made
on the effect of the geometric imperfection at the bed joints to the structural behavior of the mortarless
masonry prism under axial compression. The stress-strain relation obtained from the FEM model was
compared to the test results of WCP prisms, Fig. 7(b), and the material stress-strain relationship obtained
from test. Elastic-perfect behavior (for both compression and tension) was assumed under a pure uniaxial
state of stress. The model can be improved by implementing more dedicated material models to account for
the behavior near the peak.

Longitudinal stress, psi

(a) (b)
Fig.7. FE mesh of the dry-stacked hollow prism, joint model and stress-strain
relation results, Oh (1994)

Sadoun (2000) presented a theoretical investigation for Putra Block using FE analysis by LUSAS software
package. The structural behavior of individual blocks, prisms and wall panels were studied under axial and
eccentric loads for the wall panels. Shell element and 3-D solid element were used to model the individual
blocks and 3-D solid element only was used to model prisms and wall panels. Figure 8(a) shows the 3-D
meshes of stretcher, prism and a half of wallette that were used by the author. The study was on hollow
system and was not extended to grouted system. The carrying load capacities obtained from the FE analysis
were relatively higher than the loads obtained from the test results due to neglecting the material and
geometrical nonlinearity and initial imperfection. Correlation between wall efficiency and load eccentricities
was obtained from the FE analysis of Putra Block, Fig. 8(b).
 Fig.8(a) 3-D FE meshes of stretcher, prism and a half of wallette of Putra Block,
Sadoun (2000)

FE analysis

1.2

1
Wall Efficiency

0.8

0.6 FE analysis

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Eccentricity

Fig. 8(b) Wall efficiency versus eccentricity of Putra Block, Sadoun (2000)

2.3. Masonry joint models

There are two approaches to model the masonry joint: smeared and discrete modelling. In the smeared
modelling approach joint properties are assumed to be “diffused” to the adjacent continuum so that failure at
the joint results in the directional stiffness loss of the adjacent continuum. In the discrete modelling the
individual components are modelled separately. Because of the relatively small thickness of the joints,
however, use of continuum element such as 2-D rectangular isoperimetric element for the joint is quite
limited to small masonry assemblage due to the resulting increased number of elements in the FEM model.

Zero thickness linkage elements have been used as an alternative for the joint modelling. Since no Poisson's
effect is included. This element has been selectively used for the joint filled masonry where behaviour of a
structure is dominated by joint slip or separation such as the case of shear wall. The technique of adding the
linkage element stiffness to the total stiffness was first developed by Ngo and Scordellis (1967) in modelling
of reinforced concrete.

To address the discontinuity problem of joints, Goodman et al. (1968) adapted the element in the area of rock
mechanics. In rock mechanics the discontinuities are intended to represent rock joints faults and interfaces.
They have used the finite element technique to analyze rock mechanics problems of discontinuity of a jointed
rock mass using a two-dimension interface element. This element has length but zero width. This element is
connected to the nodal points of the adjacent continuum elements simulating the joint behavior. Figure 9
shows the constant strain triangle (CST) and 2-D joint elements. Stiffness across the joint in the normal and
tangential directions were simulated by the stiffness due to the relative displacements of its nodes.

Fig.9. CST and 2-D joint elements used by Goodman (1968)

Ghaboussi et al. (1973) developed a discrete finite element model for joints that is able to represent a wide
range of joint properties including positive or negative dilatency (expansion or compaction accompanying
shear). The Joint element developed used relative displacements, as the independent degrees of freedom. The
element is essentially an improved version of discrete linkage element developed by Goodman et al. (1968).

Page (1978) used linkage elements simulating the mortar joints in block masonry modelling. To evaluate the
masonry joint stiffness properties, he conducted experimental investigation using 1/2 scale masonry
assemblages. The typical joint element is shown in Fig. 1(a).

Saadeghvaziri and Mehta (1993) used a 2-dimension contact element to model a thin mortar joint to reduce
the unavoidable increase in degree of freedom in the FEM model. A hollow shear wall was studied and
diagonal cracking on the wall was discussed. Blocks were assumed to be linear elastic. The ANSYS finite
element package was utilized. Figure 10 represents the joint element and proposed discretized model.

Fig.10. Joint element and proposed discretized model, Saadeghvaziri and Mehta (1993)

Lotfi and Shing. (1994) used an isoperimetric interface element, shown in Fig.11, to study the structural
behavior of hollow masonry shear walls. Constitutive relations of the joints were derived by implementing
Mohr-Coulomb yield criteria. A hollow concrete masonry panel was simulated and analytical results were
compared with experimental data to verify the developed FE model.
 Fig.11. isoperimetric interface element: (a) Global coordinate system;
(b) Local coordinate system, Lotfi and Shing. (1994)

Riddington and Noam (1994) developed a FE program for the purpose of prediction the ultimate compressive
strength of masonry. The brick-mortar interface was represented by a series of horizontal and vertical link
elements. Each link element is a fictitious linear element with zero length. Shear slip-failure and tension bond
failure were proposed as a brick-mortar interface failure criteria. Figure 12 shows the typical wall segment
with link elements.

Giambanco and Gati (1997) developed formulation for an interface model to predict the mechanical response
of joints in block masonry structures. The interface laws were formulated in the framework of softening
materials elstoplasticity and simulate properly the loss of cohesion process which occurs in the joint due to
the shear or tension stresses applied. The cohesive-frictional joint transition was treated incorporating some
concepts derived from rock mechanics.

More recently, Coutinho et al. (2003) presented two new interface elements for 3-D analysis with no
kinematic inconsistencies. A simple technique to allow link elements to simulate the responses of thin-solids
or zero-thickness interfaces in case of homogeneous loading was also presented and a new link element for 2-
D analysis was proposed. They reported that the effects of kinematic inconsistencies appear when tangent
nodal forces applied on the same face of the interface element are unequal, and that the link elements
proposed avoid these inconsistencies with no additional costs.

Fig.12. Typical wall segment showing link element, Riddington and Noam (1994)

3. CONCLUSION

Interlocking mortarless masonry, as a new masonry system, seems to be a good alternative to conventional
mortared masonry system. However, analytical studies regarding this system are very rare and limited.
Therefore further analytical models to simulate all aspects of behavior of this system should be conducted.
Some questions such as interlocking action and grouted system have not been conducted before and some of
them such as nonlinear behavior and failure mechanism have not received sufficient attention.
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