LESSON 1: THE SELF FROM

VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVES
(EASTERN)
The Self in Eastern Thoughts

I. Confucianism
II. Taoism
III.Buddhism
I. Confucianism

Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system based

upon the teachings of the Chinese sage, Confucius.

Confucius was a famous thinker and social philosopher of

China, whose teachings have deeply influenced East Asia for
centuries.
• Living in the Spring and Autumn period, he was convinced of his
ability to restore the world's order, though failed.

• After much travelling around China to promote his ideas among

rulers, he eventually became involved in teaching disciples.

• His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness

of social relationships, and justice and sincerity.
• Confucianism

• Can be seen as a code of ethical conduct (how one

should act according to their relationship with others).

• Thus, it is focused on having a harmonious social life

(Ho, 1995).
• The identity and self-concept of the individual are
interwoven with the identity and status of his/her
community or culture, sharing its pride as well as its
failures (Ho, 1995).
• Self-cultivation is the ultimate purpose of life.
• The characteristics of a chun-tzu (a man of virtue and noble
character) is still embedded in his social relationships (Ho,
1995).

• Cultivated self is subdued self (personal needs are

repressed) for the good of many.
The Analects is a short collection of Confucius’ discussions
with disciples.
The following quotes from The Analects demonstrate the
simplicity and wisdom of Confucianism.

• “Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.”

• “ Everything has its beauty but not everyone sees it.”
• “ Forget injuries, never forget kindnesses.”
• “ Respect yourself and others will respect you.”
II. Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the
universe.

Taoism is one of the great religions / philosophies of

Ancient China (along with Buddhism and
Confucianism).
In 440 B.C. Taoism was adopted as a state religion of
China, with Lao Tzu (so called founder of Taoism)
honored as a deity.

Lao Tzu was a contemporary of Confucius and wrote a

book called the Tao te Ching, composed some time
between the sixth and third centuries B.C.

State support of Taoism ended in 1911 with the end of

the Ch'ing Dynasty and much Taoist heritage was
destroyed.
• Tao can be literally defined as 'path', or ’way'.

• The way of the Tao is the way of Nature and of

ultimate reality.

• Tao is often described as a force that flows

through all life.
• Three distinct interpretations
1. the way of ultimate reality (eternally existent and
transcends all that is material)
2. the way of the universe (unites all that exists)
3. the way of human life (bonds the flow of one life
with the flow of the universe)
• A happy and virtuous life is one that is in
harmony with the Tao, with Nature.

• The philosophy of Taoism understands Tao as

the One Thing which exists and connects the
Many things.

• Tao, Nature, Reality are One.

• Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought
by Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle
and its teaching thus aim to attain that life (Ho,
1995).

• The SELF is not just an extension of the family or

community; it is part of the universe, one of the
forms and manifestations of the Tao (Ho, 1995).
The ideal self is
• selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self,
• it is living a balanced life with society and nature,
• being open and accepting to change,
• forgetting about prejudices and egocentric ideas, and
• thinking about equality as well as complementarity
among humans as well as other beings (Ho, 1995).
• Thus, we can act spontaneously because we
are not restricted by some legalistic
standards but because we are in harmony
with everything.
III. Buddhism

is a moral philosophy / religion based upon the

teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (566 - 486 B.C.).

'Buddha' (from the ancient Indian languages of Pali

and Sanskrit) means "one who has awakened".
• The Buddha offered metaphysical knowledge into
the nature of reality as well as a moral way of life.

• The Middle Way is an important idea in Buddhist

thought and practice. To seek moderation and
avoid the extremes of self-indulgence and
self-mortification.
• At the age of 35, meditating under a Bodhi
tree, Siddhartha reached Enlightenment,
awakening to the true nature of reality, which
is Nirvana (Absolute Truth).

• Nirvana – the final goal of Buddhism

• We suffer in life because of our desire to
transient things.

• Liberation from suffering may come by

training the mind and acting according to the
laws of karma (cause and effect) i.e. with right
action, good things will come to you.
• This teaching is known as the Four Noble Truths:

Dukkha: Suffering is everywhere

Samudaya: There is a cause of suffering, which is

attachment or misplaced desire (tanha) rooted in
ignorance.
Nirodha: There is an end to suffering, which is Nirvana
(the possibility of liberation exists for everyone).

Maggo: There is a path that leads out of suffering,

known as the Noble Eightfold Path (right view, right
thought, right speech, right conduct, right vocation, right
effort, right attention and right concentration).
• The SELF is seen as an illusion, born out of
ignorance, of trying to hold and control things
or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also
the source of all these sufferings (Ho, 1995).
• Buddhism stands unique in the history of human
thought in denying the existence of such a Soul, Self,
or Atman.

• According to the teaching of the Buddha, the idea

of self is imaginary, false belief which has no
corresponding reality, and it produces harmful
thoughts of ‘me’ and ‘mine’, selfish desire, craving,
attachment, hatred, ill-will, conceit, pride, egoism,
and other defilements, impurities and problems.
• What should we search then?

It is our quest to
• forget about the self,
• forget about the cravings of the self,
• break the attachments we have with the world, and
• renounce the self which is the cause of all suffering and in
doing so, attain a state of nirvana (Ho, 1995)
Remember:
Confucianism and Taoism
• In striving to become a better person, one does
not create a self above other people or nature but
a self that is beneficial to his community as well as
in order and harmony with everything else (Alata,
et. al., 2018)
 As for Buddhism, the self with all its
connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just
out of the center of the picture, but from the
whole picture entirely (Alata, et. al., 2018)
• Ref:
• Alata, et. al., (2018). Understanding the Self.
• Ho, D. (1995). Selfhood and Identity in Confucianism,Taoism, Buddhism
and Hinduism: Contrast with the West. Journal for the Theory of
Social Behavior 25:2