Solar Energy 76 (2004) 781–792

www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Human bioclimatic atlas for Mexico

David Morill
alvez a,*, Ricardo Salda~
on-G
na-Flores b,1
,
c,2
Adalberto Tejeda-Mart
ınez
a
Instituto de Ingenier
ıa, Universidad Nacional Aut
onoma de M
exico, Cd. Universitaria, Coyoac
an, 04510 M
exico, D.F., Mexico
b
Gerencia de Energ
ıas no Convencionales, Instituto de Investigaciones El
ectricas, Reforma 113, Col. Palmira, Temixco, Mor., Mexico
c
Centro de Ciencias de la Tierra de la Universidad Veracruzana, Zona Universitaria, 91000 Xalapa, Ver., Mexico
Received 1 October 2002; received in revised form 30 October 2003; accepted 20 November 2003

Communicated by: Associate Editor John Reynolds

Abstract
This work presents bioclimatic charts for Mexico, as a result of an analysis of climate for the period 1951–1980. The
basis to define the zone of thermal comfort was the equation proposed by Auliciems combined with the bioclimatic
chart of Olgyay and the diagram of Givoni for bioclimatic control in buildings. Other tools used to carry out the
diagnosis were the equations of Fanger. The results obtained were validated according to the parameters established by
the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineering (ASHRAE), for the different cli-
mates of Mexico. The climatic data were those reported by 700 climatological stations throughout the country. The
charts were developed using the ArcInfo program, in which the conditions of comfort, cool and warm were identified in
order to achieve better thermal comfort in buildings and the profitable use of this renewable energy.
Ó 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Human bioclimatic charts; Mexico

1. Antecedents emphasize the importance of determining the strategies

The purpose of this paper is to contribute toward a
wider knowledge of the climate as an energy resource, in
order to achieve better thermal comfort in constructions
and the profitable use of this renewable energy.
This work is focused on two basic aspects of the
human bioclimate: thermal comfort and climate. A
deeper understanding of this subject will allow designers
to propose solutions for passive air conditioning, or save
energy in places which need active air conditioning
systems for comfortable thermal situations. We
* bibliography on human bioclimate in Mexico.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52-5-622-81-32/36x3; fax:
+52-5-622-81-37.
E-mail addresses: damg@pumas.iingen.unam.mx (D. Mo-
rill

on-G
alvez), rsf@iie.org.mx (R. Salda~
na-Flores), atejeda@
uv.mx (A. Tejeda-Mart
ınez).
1
Tel.: +52-7-318-38-11x7254; fax: +52-7-318-24-36.
2
Tel./fax: +52-28-8178522.
0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2003.11.008
for bioclimatic air conditioning, starting from a study of
the climate.
This work is divided in two parts. The first one is
related to the specific topic of the bioclimate, and deals
directly with the detection of the main variables that
affect the thermal comfort of a human being. In the
second part of the work the charts of the bioclimate of
the country are presented, based on the isopleth dia-
grams of air conditioning requirements.
The sources considered in preparing this section are
the Proceedings of the Asociaci
on Nacional de Energ
ıa
Solar (National Association of Solar Energy of Mexico,
ANES), published from 1979 to 2001, and a review of
J
auregui and Soto (1967) made the first human bio-
climatic charts for Mexico. This work reports wet bulb
temperature and the discomfort index distribution as a
function of the average of dry and wet bulb tempera-
tures. The Atlas Nacional de M
exico includes mean
monthly maps for 6 am and 2 pm solar time of effective
782 D. Morill
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alvez et al. / Solar Energy 76 (2004) 781–792
temperature (J
auregui, 1990a) from the application of
the Missenard (1933) equation to 93 climatological sta-
tions for year 1980, and enthalpy (J
auregui, 1990a,b) by
using the equation of Gregorrczuk (1968) in 65 clima-
tological stations for 1981. The more drastic discomfort
zones were localized on the coastal areas of Mexico and
the desert in the north of the country.
For architectural design purposes, the Instituto
Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Institute of Social
Security, 1994), and Deffis (1997) present bioclimatic
design recommendations for regions of the country; but
the bioclimatic methodology is not clear, while King
(1995) includes recommendations for human bioclimate
zones and cities of Mexico. The Instituto de Fomento a
la Vivienda de los Trabajadores (Mexican Institute for
Encouragement of Housing for the Workers, 1989)
present bioclimatic design recommendations for housing
of the country. In this way, Lechner (2000), and Brown
and Dekay (2000) detailed explanations on how to
process outdoor climate to inform the design of build-
ings. In contrast, this paper fills a gap concerning
information about the bioclimate, the thermal sensa-
tions and conditions and the air conditioning require-
ments.
For the past decade, in developed countries the use of
simple indexes or diagrams has been supplanted by
physical and physiological models based on the energy
balance between the human body and its environment.
These models need information on radiant energy, wind
speed and direction, humidity, temperature, materials of
the buildings; size, food regime and clothing of the
people (see for example Jendritzky and Tinz, 2000;
H€oppe, 1997). In contrast, for developing countries the
availability of data is limited and the use of sophisticated
indexes with simple information is sufficient to apply
bioclimatic diagrams or simple functions of humidity
and temperature, as seen in McGregor (1993), J
auregui
(1997), and J
auregui et al. (1997).
Tejeda-Mart
ınez and Garc
ıa-Cueto (2002) compared
the degree and duration of thermal discomfort for seven
hot/warm cities of Mexico, by means of empirical
equations that depend of humidity, temperature and
solar radiation data. They applied statistical methods
for estimate mean monthly hourly temperature and
relative humidity. The conclusion is that different in-
dexes can get different degrees of discomfort for each
city. This paper compares the results of various indexes
for comfort needs evaluation.
2. Data estimation
In Mexico there are 80 meteorological observatories
that supply hourly data on temperature and relative
humidity or vapor pressure. The climatological stations
(around three thousand) only provide information on
daily extreme temperatures, precipitation and evapora-
tion. The bases for the present work were the climatic
data reported by the 700 climatological stations of the
country for the period 1951–1980.
It is necessary to emphasize that the climatological
stations provide measurements of maximum, minimum
and average temperature, but not of hourly tempera-
tures, nor relative humidity. This situation is common in
the world, for which reason many authors have resorted
to modeling the daily variations of temperature, as
shown in the revision of Reicosky et al. (1989).
Hourly temperature data were calculated from
monthly means of maximum (Tmax ) and minimum tem-
peratures (Tmin ) compiled by the Servicio Meteorol
ogico
Nacional (Mexican Meteorological Service, 1982). The
used estimation model provides a smoothing procedure.
This means that calculated bioclimatic indexes like this
are representative of one normal (average of 30 years,
1951–1980) and homogeneous (smooth) condition.
The mean monthly hourly temperature (Thor ) for each
climatological station was calculated with the equation
Tejeda-Mart
ınez (1991):
Thor ¼ Tmin þ yðTmax
Tmin Þ ð1aÞ
where
y ¼ ½atb  exp½ct ð1bÞ
Here a, b and c depend on the season and the latitude. t
is in hours as a function of local time (H ) and local
sunrise time (Ho):
T ¼ H
Ho if H P Ho
T ¼ H þ 24
Ho if H < Ho
The accuracy of the Eq. (1a) (Tejeda-Mart
ınez, 1991) is
greater than the model of De Wit et al. (1978), which is
the best model according to a review made by Reicosky
et al. (1989).
The mean monthly vapor pressure (pa in Hectopas-
cals hPa) is parameterized as a polynomial function of
the mean monthly minimum temperature (Tmin in °C) as
was proposed by Tejeda-Mart
ınez and Rivas-Camargo
(2001):
pa ¼ 5:0  10
6 Tmin
5
þ 1:9  10
4 Tmin
4

1:7  10
3 Tmin
3
þ 3:7  10
2 Tmin
2
þ 8:5  10
2 Tmin þ 7:5 ð2Þ
Observed versus estimated data of pa (Eq. (2)) for 67
Mexican meteorological observatories during 12 months
(804 cases), have a correlation coefficient of 0.91 and a
standard regression error of 3.1 hPa.
The saturation vapor pressure (Es in hPa) is derived
from a fourth order polynomial (Adem, 1967) applied to
the mean monthly maximum temperature. This regres-
sion model has a correlation coefficient equal to 0.9998
 D. Morill
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and a standard error of regression of 0.7 mb in com-
parison with observed values of Es for temperatures
between )10 and 50 °C (Tejeda-Mart
ınez, 1994):
Es ¼ 3:2  10
6 T 4 þ 3:046  10
4 T 3 þ 1:4206  10
2 T 2
þ 4:2915  10
1 T þ 6:115 ð3Þ
Eq. (2) multiplied by 100 and divided by Eq. (3) get the
mean monthly values of relative humidity (RH in %).
The mean monthly minimum relative humidity (RHmin )
values were estimated from the combination of the mean
monthly vapor pressure and the maximum saturation
vapor pressure. It was considered (as Geiger, 1957) that
the vapor pressure is almost invariant between the time
of occurrence of the mean and minimum relative
humidity (approximately between 10 and 11 am and 2
and 3 pm, respectively). The next step was to obtain the
mean monthly maximum relative humidity (RHmax )
from the mean monthly relative humidity and the esti-
mated mean monthly minimum relative humidity.
The curve of the daily relative humidity is inverted
with respect to the temperature curve. Since from Eq.
(1), y has values between 0 and 1, it is possible to use
the previous process for the estimation of the mean
monthly hourly relative humidity (RHhor ) with the
expression:
RHhor ¼ RHmin þ ð1
yÞðRHmax
RHmin Þ ð4Þ
3. Bioclimatic methods
As it was suggested by Mesa and Morill
on (1997),
in order to apply a high level confidence procedure to
evaluate the iso-requirements of air conditioning (Figs.
Fig. 1. Diagram of isopleths conditioning requirements for Cuernavaca.
783
1–16) we calculate them as the average of the proce-
dures of Olgyay (1963) modified by Arens (Szokolay,
1984) and Givoni (1976). Those instruments were de-
signed for mean latitudes (close to 40°) and for indi-
viduals with common or ordinary clothing performing
sedentary activity. For both procedures we considered
the center of comfort area as the neutrality tempera-
ture (Auliciems, 1990) with a relative humidity of
50%.
The neutrality temperature (Tn ) was calculated (Au-
liciems, 1990) as a function of the outdoor average
monthly temperature (Tma °C):
Tn ¼ 17:6 þ 0:31ðTma Þ ð5Þ
This evaluation was based on the 24 h mean monthly
temperature and relative humidity data and was cor-
roborated with the results of the method of Fanger
(1972), known as the predicted mean vote (PMV), for
three cities of Mexico: Cuernavaca (18°550 N, 99°440 ,
1529 m above sea level; climate rainy sub-warm),
Guadalajara (20°410 N, 103°230 W, 1590 above sea level;
climate rainy temperate) and Mexico City (19°240 N,
99°120 W, 2300 m above sea level; climate sub- rainy
temperate), for which the required information for
Fanger’s method was available. The result is an isopleths
diagram of requirements (Fig. 1), showing the condi-
tions of thermal sensations for the whole year in a
particular location. The conditions of warm, cool and
comfort were fitted with the ASHRAE (2001) scale. The
final results are those reported in the Figs. 2–16.
The maps were produced using the ArcInfo program,
and introduced to the SIGER (Geographic Information
System for the Renewable Energy), developed by the
784 D. Morill
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Fig. 2. Bioclimate for average conditions (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 3. Bioclimate for coldest conditions (warm, comfort and cool).

Management of Renewable Energy of the Mexican 3.1. Fanger’s method

Institute of Electric Investigations, sponsored by the
National Commission for the Saving of Energy and the The results of biocliamtic diagrams of Olgyay (1963)
Secretary of Energy (Salda~na et al., 2001). and Givoni (1976) were compared with the resulting
 D. Morill
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Fig. 4. Bioclimate for hottest conditions (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 5. Average bioclimate for January (warm, comfort and cool).

PMV values. The algorithms proposed by Fanger
(1972) for the calculation of the PMV index provide an
estimation, on a psycho-physical scale, of the sensation
of comfort that would be experienced by a large group
of people, taking into account the values of ambient
temperature, speed and humidity of the air, mean
radiant temperature (MRT), value of the clothes the
individual is wearing, measured in clo, as well as the
activity the individual is performing, measured in
W/m2 .
The equation of Fanger (1972) for the calculation of
the PMV index is the following:
786 D. Morill
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Fig. 6. Average bioclimate for February (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 7. Average bioclimate for March (warm, comfort and cool).

   
M M M
PMV ¼ 0:352 exp
0:042 þ 0:032 ð1
gÞ
0:35 43
0:061 ð1
gÞ
pa
 AD AD AD
M M M h h ii

0:42 ð1
gÞ
50
0:0023 ð44
pa Þ
0:0014 ð34
ta Þ
3:4ð10
8 Þfcl ðtcl þ 273Þ4
ðMRT þ 273Þ4
h AD i i AD AD
0:25

fcl 2:05ðtcl
ta Þ ðtcl þ ta Þ ð6Þ
 D. Morill
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Fig. 8. Average bioclimate for April (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 9. Average bioclimate for May (warm, comfort and cool).

where M=AD : relationship between the metabolic rate
and Du Bois’s area; g: external mechanical efficiency
of the body; pa : vapor pressure; ta : ambient tempera-
ture; fcl : relationship between the area of the dressed
body and the area of the naked body; tcl : external
temperature of clothing; MRT: mean radiant temper-
ature; hc : convective coefficient for the transfer of
heat.
To compute the values of the PMV index corre-
sponding to each situation under study, we used the
788 D. Morill
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Fig. 10. Average bioclimate for June (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 11. Average bioclimate for July (warm, comfort and cool).

previously gathered data on the hourly temperature and In this scale, 0 (zero) is the value associated with a
relative humidity. The results thus derived were com- neutral sensation (absence of discomfort), i.e., when a
pared against the scale of values of thermal sensations person is in equilibrium with his thermal environment
(Table 1), proposed by Fanger (1972). and feels comfortable. The negative values correspond
 D. Morill
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Fig. 12. Average bioclimate for August (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 13. Average bioclimate for September (warm, comfort and cool).

to sensations of cold and the positive ones with sensa- October, temperature and relative humidity are average
tions of heat. for 30 years. The last column shows the diagnosis of
Table 2 shows a typical analysis carried out for the thermal sensation in this city for the climatic condi-
city of Cuernavaca, with hourly data for the month of tions.
790 D. Morill
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Fig. 14. Average bioclimate for October (warm, comfort and cool).

Fig. 15. Average bioclimate for November (warm, comfort and cool).

4. Results sented in Figs. 5–16. We consider that they represent

Figs. 2–4 show coldest conditions (or worst-case
heating) during all months at 6:00 AM, another one for
hottest conditions (or to evaluate worst-case cooling),
and one for mean conditions. Monthly charts are pre-
adequately the periodic behavior of thermal seasonal
variations.
With minimum average temperatures and maximum
relative humidity for typical coldest outdoor conditions
found within the day, the thermal conditions are cool
 D. Morill
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Fig. 16. Average bioclimate for December (warm, comfort and cool).

Table 1 Table 2
Values of thermal sensation based on the PMV index proposed Results of thermal sensations as a function PMV index in Cu-
by Fanger (1972) ernavaca City, for 0.7 Clo (usual garments worn in this city)
PMV Thermal sensation ASHRAE Solar Temperature RH % PMV Thermal
)3 Cold time (°C) index sensation
)2 Cool 9 19 74 1.1 Comfort
)1 Slightly cool 10 22 64 1.9 Slightly
0 Neutral warm
+1 Slightly warm 11 24 56 2.4 Warm
+2 Warm 12 26 50 2.9 Hot
+3 Hot 13 26 47 2.8 Hot
14 27 46 3.0 Hot
15 26 48 2.8 Hot
16 25 50 2.6 Warm
(includes slightly cool and cold). With the maximum 17 24 54 2.3 Warm
average temperature and lowest relative humidity for
Cuernavaca: latitude 18°550 longitude 99°150 altitude 1560. Sex:
typical warmest outdoor conditions found within the
man height (m) 1.69 weight (kg) 75 age (a) 35 activity (W) 145.
day, the thermal conditions are comfort and warm (in-
cludes slightly warm, and hot). With mean temperature
and relative humidity, the conditions are comfort and Autumn. The conditions for September are of
cool, and some warm. comfort in the center of the country and high parts,
Just by observing these charts we can easily find out and warm in the north. In October, 50% of the
what the thermal seasonal variations would be for the country presents conditions of comfort and the other
whole country or a specific region. half presents overheated conditions. November is the
Spring. Transition stage between winter and summer. month with the best conditions; there is comfort in a
It is characterized in our country as the sunniest season large part of the territory, excluding the coasts of the
of the year, mainly in April and May. In a large part of country and the peninsulas of Yucatan and Baja
the country the conditions are overheated during April, California.
and May is the warmest month of the year. Winter. January is the coldest month, mainly in the
Summer. June is warm in most parts of the country, north of the country and high parts, with very similar
July and August are warm on the coasts but comfortable conditions during December. Both in December and
on the central part of the country and the mountains. January the coast from Colima to Chiapas presents
792 D. Morill
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overheated conditions. February presents similar con-
ditions to those of January and December.
5. Concluding remarks
These charts of the present paper make it possible to
identify when the external environment allows the use of
passive conditioning, in a specific geographical location,
so that a system of air conditioning can be avoided, if a
good architectural design is achieved. For a building
with a good bioclimatic design one has to consider the
proper use of the available materials, the orientation of
the building, the size and location of windows, external
or internal solar control, natural ventilation, etc., so that
a completely comfortable architectural design can be
achieved, minimizing the need of electrical energy in a
large part of the country.
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