Progressivism is the support for or advocacy of improvement of society by reform.

[1] It is today largely

synonymous with left-of-centre political ideology. As a philosophy, it is based on the idea of progress, which
asserts that advancements in science, technology, economic development and social organization are vital
to the improvement of the human condition. Progressivism became highly significant during the Age of
Enlightenment in Europe, out of the belief that Europe was demonstrating that societies could progress
in civility from uncivilized conditions to civilization through strengthening the basis of empirical
knowledge as the foundation of society.[2]Figures of the Enlightenment believed that progress
had universal application to all societies and that these ideas would spread across the world from Europe.[2]
The meanings of progressivism have varied over time and from different perspectives. The contemporary
common political conception of progressivism in the culture of the Western world emerged from the
vast social changes brought about by industrialization in the Western world in the late 19th century,
particularly out of the view that progress was being stifled by vast economic inequality between the rich and
the poor; minimally regulated laissez-faire capitalism with monopolistic corporations; and intense and often
violent conflict between workers and capitalists, thus claiming that measures were needed to address these
problems.[3] Early progressivism was also tied to eugenics[4][5][6] and the temperance movement.[7][8]

Educational perennialism is a normative educational philosophy. Perennialists believe that one should
teach the things that are of everlasting pertinence to all people everywhere, and that the emphasis should
be on principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, rather than
machines or techniques, and liberal rather, than vocational topics.
Although perennialism may appear similar to essentialism, perennialism focuses first on personal
development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula thus tend to be
much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based. Both philosophies are
typically considered to be teacher-centered, as opposed to student-centered philosophies of education
such as progressivism. However, since the teachers associated with perennialism are in a sense the
authors of the Western masterpieces[clarification needed] themselves, these teachers may be open to student
criticism through the associated Socratic method, which, if carried out as true dialogue, involves a
balance between teacher activity and student activity, with the teacher promoting discussion.
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870. [1] Its origins are
often attributed to the philosophers William James, John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Peirce. Peirce
later described it in his pragmatic maxim: "Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception.
Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object." [2]
Pragmatism considers thought as an instrument or tool for prediction, problem solving and action, and
rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality.[3] Pragmatists
contend that most philosophical topics—such as the nature of knowledge, language, concepts, meaning,
belief, and science—are all best viewed in terms of their practical uses and successes. The philosophy of
pragmatism "emphasizes the practical application of ideas by acting on them to actually test them in
human experiences".[4] Pragmatism focuses on a "changing universe rather than an unchanging one as
the Idealists, Realists and Thomists had claimed".[4]
Progressivism is the support for or advocacy of improvement of society by reform.[1] It is today largely
synonymous with left-of-centre political ideology. As a philosophy, it is based on the idea of progress, which
asserts that advancements in science, technology, economic development and social organization are vital
to the improvement of the human condition. Progressivism became highly significant during the Age of
Enlightenment in Europe, out of the belief that Europe was demonstrating that societies could progress
in civility from uncivilized conditions to civilization through strengthening the basis of empirical
knowledge as the foundation of society.[2]Figures of the Enlightenment believed that progress
had universal application to all societies and that these ideas would spread across the world from Europe. [2]

In philosophy, naturalism is the "idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or spiritual)
laws and forces operate in the world."[1] Adherents of naturalism (i.e., naturalists) assert that natural laws
are the rules that govern the structure and behavior of the natural universe, that the changing universe at
every stage is a product of these laws.[2]
"Naturalism can intuitively be separated into an ontological and a methodological component," argues
David Papineau.[3] "Ontological" refers to the philosophical study of the nature of reality. Some
philosophers equate naturalism with materialism. For example, philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature
is best accounted for by reference to material principles. These principles include mass, energy, and
other physical and chemical properties accepted by the scientific community. Further, this sense of
naturalism holds that spirits, deities, and ghosts are not real and that there is no "purpose" in nature. Such
an absolute belief in naturalism is commonly referred to as metaphysical naturalism.[4]