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THE POLYMERISATION OF ALKENES

This page looks at the polymerisation of alkenes to produce polymers like poly(ethene)
(usually known as polythene, and sometimes as polyethylene), poly(propene) (old name:
polypropylene), PVC and PTFE. It also looks briefly at how the structure of the polymers
affects their properties and uses.

Propane C3H8

Propene or Propylene C3H6

Poly(ethene) (polythene or polyethylene)

Low density poly(ethene): LDPE

Manufacture

In common with everything else on this page, this is an example of addition


polymerisation.

An addition reaction is one in which two or more molecules join together to give a single
product. During the polymerisation of ethene, thousands of ethene molecules join
together to make poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene.

Ethene is known as the monomer. Poly(ethene) is the polymer.

The number of molecules joining up is very variable, but is in the region of 2000 to 20000.

Conditions

Temperature: about 200°C


Pressure: about 2000 atmospheres
Initiator: a small amount of oxygen as an impurity

Note: If you want the mechanism for this reaction, you can get it by following this
link to the mechanism section of the site.

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Properties and uses

Low density poly(ethene) has quite a lot of branching along the hydrocarbon
chains, and this prevents the chains from lying tidily close to each other. Those
regions of the poly(ethene) where the chains lie close to each other and are
regularly packed are said to be crystalline. Where the chains are a random
jumble, it is said to be amorphous. Low density poly(ethene) has a significant
proportion of amorphous regions.

Note: Various sources quote estimated values for the proportion of low density
poly(ethene) which is crystalline. These vary from 50% to 75%. I have no idea what
the correct value is!

One chain is held to its neighbours in the structure by van der Waals dispersion
forces. Those attractions will be greater if the chains are close to each other. The
amorphous regions where the chains are inefficiently packed lower the
effectiveness of the van der Waals attractions and so lower the melting point and
strength of the polymer. They also lower the density of the polymer (hence: "low
density poly(ethene)").

Note: Follow this link if you don't understand van der Waals forces.
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Low density poly(ethene) is used for familiar things like plastic carrier bags and
other similar low strength and flexible sheet materials.

High density poly(ethene): HDPE

Manufacture

This is made under quite different conditions from low density poly(ethene).

Conditions

Temperature: about 60°C


Pressure: low - a few atmospheres
Ziegler-Natta catalysts or other metal
Catalyst:
compounds

Ziegler-Natta catalysts are mixtures of titanium compounds like titanium(III)


chloride, TiCl3, or titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4, and compounds of aluminium like
aluminium triethyl, Al(C2H5)3. There are all sorts of other catalysts constantly being
developed.

These catalysts work by totally different mechanisms from the high pressure
process used to make low density poly(ethene). The chains grow in a much more
controlled - much less random - way.

Properties and uses

High density poly(ethene) has very little branching along the hydrocarbon chains -
the crystallinity is 95% or better. This better packing means that van der Waals
attractions between the chains are greater and so the plastic is stronger and has a
higher melting point. Its density is also higher because of the better packing and
smaller amount of wasted space in the structure.

Note: Despite the names, HDPE is only about 3% denser than LDPE! HDPE has a
density of about 0.95 g cm -3compared with about 0.92 for LDPE.
High density poly(ethene) is used to make things like plastic milk bottles and
similar containers, washing up bowls, plastic pipes and so on. Look for the letters
HDPE near the recycling symbol.

Poly(propene) (polypropylene): PP

Poly(propene) is manufactured using Ziegler-Natta and other modern catalysts.


There are three variants on the structure of poly(propene) which you may need to
know about, but we'll start from the beginning with a general structure which fits all
of them.

Note: You should check your syllabus to find out exactly how much you need to
know. It is pointless getting bogged down in this if you don't need to! If you are
studying a UK-based syllabus and haven't got a copy of that syllabus, follow this link
to find out how to get one.

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this page later.

The general structure

If your syllabus simply mentions the structure of poly(propene) with no more detail,
this is adequate.

The trick is to think about the shape of the propene in the right way:

Now line lots of them up in a row and join them together. Notice that the double
bonds are all replaced by single bonds in the process.
In a simple equation form, this is normally written as:

The three variations on this structure

You have got to remember that the diagrams above are 2-dimensional. Real
poly(propene) chains are 3-dimensional. There are three different sorts of
poly(propene) depending in how the CH3 groups are arranged in space.

These are called isotactic, atactic and syndiotacticpoly(propene). The commonly


used version is isotactic poly(propene).

Isotactic poly(propene)

A bit of the isotactic poly(propene) chain looks like this:

Note: Dotted lines show bonds going back into the screen or paper, and wedge
shapes show them coming out towards you. If you aren't very happy about the
various ways of drawing organic structures it might be worth following this link before
you go on.

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This very regular arrangement of the CH3 groups makes it possible for the chains
to pack close together and so maximise the amount of van der Waals bonding
between them. That means that isotactic poly(propene) is quite strong either as a
solid object or when it is drawn into fibres.

This is the common form of poly(propene) which is used to make plastic crates and
ropes amongst many other things. Look for the letters PP near the recycling
symbol.

Atactic poly(propene)

In atactic poly(propene) the CH3 groups are orientated randomly along the chain.

This lack of regularity makes it impossible for the chains to lie closely together and
so the van der Waals attractions between them are weaker. Atactic poly(propene)
is much softer with a lower melting point.

It is formed as a waste product during the manufacture of isotactic poly(propene)


and its uses are limited. It is used, for example, in road paint, in making roofing
materials like "roofing felt", and in some sealants and adhesives.

Syndiotactic poly(propene)

Syndiotactic poly(propene) is a relatively new material and is another regularly


arranged version of poly(propene). In this case, every alternate CH3 group is
orientated in the same way.

This regularity means that the chains can pack closely, and van der Waals
attractions will be fairly strong. However, the attractions aren't as strong as in
isotactic poly(propene). This makes syndiotactic poly(propene) softer and gives it a
lower melting point.

Because syndiotactic poly(propene) is relatively new, at the time of writing uses


were still being developed. It has uses in packaging - for example, in plastic film for
shrink wrapping food. There are also medical uses - for example, in medical tubing
and for medical bags and pouches. There are a wide range of other potential uses
- either on its own, or in mixtures with isotactic poly(propene).

Poly(chloroethene) (polyvinyl chloride): PVC

Poly(chloroethene) is commonly known by the initials of its old name, PVC.

Structure

Poly(chloroethene) is made by polymerising chloroethene, CH2=CHCl. Working out


its structure is no different from working out the structure of poly(propene) (see
above). As long as you draw the chloroethene molecule in the right way, the
structure is pretty obvious.

The equation is usually written:

It doesn't matter which carbon you attach the chlorine to in the original molecule.
Just be consistent on both sides of the equation.

The polymerisation process produces mainly atactic polymer molecules - with the
chlorines orientated randomly along the chain. The structure is no different from
atactic poly(propene) - just replace the CH3 groups by chlorine atoms.
Because of the way the chlorine atoms stick out from the chain at random, and
because of their large size, it is difficult for the chains to lie close together.
Poly(chloroethene) is mainly amorphous with only small areas of crystallinity.

Properties and uses

You normally expect amorphous polymers to be more flexible than crystalline ones
because the forces of attraction between the chains tend to be weaker. However,
pure poly(chloroethene) tends to be rather hard and rigid.

This is because of the presence of additional dipole-dipole interactions due to the


polarity of the carbon-chlorine bonds. Chlorine is more electronegative than
carbon, and so attracts the electrons in the bond towards itself. That makes the
chlorine atoms slightly negative and the carbons slightly positive.

These permanent dipoles add to the attractions due to the temporary dipoles which
produce the dispersion forces.

Note: If you aren't happy about the various sorts of intermolecular forces, it is
important to follow this link.

If you don't understand about electronegativity and polar bonds, then follow this one
as well.

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this page.

Plasticisers are added to the poly(chloroethene) to reduce the effectiveness of


these attractions and make the plastic more flexible. The more plasticiser you add,
the more flexible it becomes.

Poly(chloroethene) is used to make a wide range of things including guttering,


plastic windows, electrical cable insulation, sheet materials for flooring and other
uses, footwear, clothing, and so on and so on.
Poly(tetrafluoroethene): PTFE

You may have come across this under the brand names of Teflon or Fluon.

Structure

Structurally, PTFE is just like poly(ethene) except that each hydrogen in the
structure is replaced by a fluorine atom.

The PTFE chains tend to pack well and PTFE is fairly crystalline. The chains are
rather rod-like, and can lie closely together rather like pencils in a box.

Properties and uses

PTFE has a relatively high melting point of 327°C and is very resistant to chemical
attack. The carbon chain is so wrapped up in fluorine atoms that nothing can get at
it to react with it. This makes it useful in the chemical and food industries to coat
vessels and make them resistant to almost everything which might otherwise
corrode them.

Equally important is that PTFE has remarkable non-stick properties - which is the
basis for its most familiar uses in non-stick kitchen and garden tools. It also has a
very low coefficient of friction and is used in things like low-friction bearings.

Note: The reasons for the high melting point, the non-stick properties and the low
coefficient of friction are far more complex than most sources suggest. You will find
a detailed discussion of all this on a page about the physical properties of PTFE in
the section of questions that I can't answer to my satisfaction! This has become
increasingly more accurate over the years, and I am now fairly confident that it is as
close to the truth as I am likely to get.

If you might be asked about this in an exam, it is essential that you find out what
your examiners want by looking at past papers and mark schemes.

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to this page.

Questions to test your understanding

If this is the first set of questions you have done, please read the introductory page before you
start. You will need to use the BACK BUTTON on your browser to come back here afterwards.

questions on the polymerisation of alkenes

answers

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