96 MECHANICAL ENGINEER’SDATA HANDBOOK

I_Centre distance

s
/

2. IO. I Classification of gears

Type of gear Relation of axes Pitch surfaces Elements of teeth

Spur Parallel Cylinder Straight, parallel to

axis
Parallel helical Parallel Cylinder Helical
Herringbone Parallel Cylinder Double helical
Straight bevel Intersecting Cone Straight
Spiral bevel Intersecting Cone Spiral
Crossed helical Crossed but not Cylinder Helical
intersecting
worm Right angle but Cylinder Helical
not intersecting

2.10.2 Metric gear teeth

D
Metric module m=- (in millimetres)
T
2.25m
where: D=pitch circle diameter, T=number of teeth.
The preferred values of module are: 1, 1.25, 1.5,2,2.5, 0.39m

3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50. Datum

ItD
Circular pitch p = -=r m
T
Height of tooth = 2.25m
Addendum = m The figure shows the metric tooth form for a ‘rack’ (Le.
Dedendum = 1.25m a gear with infinite diameter).
APPLIED MECHANICS 97

Design of gears Tangential force on gears F, = F cos r#J

Separating force on gears F, = F , tan q5
The design of gears is complex and it is recommended
that British Standards (or other similar sources) be Torque on driver gear T I=-FIDI
consulted. 2
See BS 436 for the design of gears and BS 1949 for
permissible stresses. Torque on driven gear T , =-FID,
2
2.10.3 Spur gears . N , D, n
Speed ratio - - - = A
N2 D , n,
Symbols used: D
F =tooth force Input power P i = 271N F,, 2
F, =tangential component of tooth force
F , =separating component of tooth force D
r#J =pressure angle of teeth Output power P , = 2 n N 2 F , ~ q
2
D , =pitch circle diameter of driver gear
D, =pitch circle diameter of driven gear
Po
Efficiency q = -
N , =speed of driver gear pi
N , =speed of driven gear
n, =number of teeth in driver gear Rack and pinion drive
n2 =number of teeth in driven gear For a pinion, pitch circle diameter D speed N and
P =power torque T :
T = torque
9 =efficiency Rack velocity V = n D N
2T
Force on rack F=-
D
Rack power P = F Vq = 2nN Tq
where: 9 =efficiency.

2.10.4 Helical spur gears

In this case there is an additional component of force

Fa in the axial direction.
98 MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S DATA HANDBOOK

Let: Spiral bevel gear

&=pressure angle normal to the tooth
a= helix angle Let:
a =spiral angle of pinion
-
Separating force F, =F, tan (6" c$,, = normal pressure angle
cos a
Axial force Fa= F, tan a Force on pinion F , = F,
tan 6,sin
[ cosa
cos B -
1
ktan a cosg
Double helical gears

To eliminate the axial thrust, gears have two sections

with helices of opposite hand. These are also called
Force on gear F,= F,
[
tan
cosa
+tan a sin
1
'herringbone gears'.

- @ 3 -1-

Single helical gear

For the diagram shown the signs are '+' for F, and
'-' for F,. The signs are reversed if the hand of the
. .
helix is reversed or the speed is reversed; they remain
the same if both are reversed.

Double helical gear

2.10.5 Bevel gears

Straight bevel gears

Let: r i g h t bevel gear

4 =pressure angle of teeth
B =pinion pitch cone angle
Tangential force on gears = F,
I '~
Separating force F, = F, tan (b
Pinion thrust F, =F, sin B
Gear thrust F, = F, cos fl

,,' p,
Spiral bevel gear
APPLIED MECHANICS 99

2.10.6 Worm gears

The worm gear is basically a screw (the worm)

engaging with a nut (the gear). The gear is, in effect, a
partial nut whose length is wrapped around in a circle.
Let :
b,,=normal pressure angle
u =worm helix angle
n, = number of threads or starts on worm
n, = number of teeth in gear
D, = worm pitch circle diameter
D, =gear pitch circle diameter
L = lead of worm
p=pitch of worm threads and gear teeth
p =coefficient of friction
q =efficiency
T, =worm torque
u = velocity of gear teeth
N, = speed of worm
N , = speed of gear

Worm
\

Tangential force on worm ,F,=axial force on gear$,=- 2TW

DW
cos 4,, - p tan u
Tangential force on gear ,F, =axial force on worm = ,F,
cos 4"tan u + p
sin 4"
Separating force on each component F,= ,F,
cos 4, sin u + p cos u
L
tanu=-; L=pn,; D,=pn,Jn
nDW
cos b,,-/*tan LY
Efficiency q =

Input power P,
( 1
cos 4" + p cot a
= 2nN,T,

Gear tooth velocity u = nD,N,

100 MECHANICAL ENGINEER’SDATA HANDBOOK

Coefficient of friction for worm gears

Velocity (m s - * )

0.5 1.o 2.0 5.0 10.0 20.0

Hard steel worm/phosphor bronze wheel 0.06 0.05 0.035 0.023 0.017 0.014
Cast iron worm/cast iron wheel 0.08 0.067 0.050 0.037 0.022 0.018

2.10.7 Epicyclic gears Let :

N = speed
The main advantage of an epicyclic gear train is that n = number of teeth
the input and output shafts are coaxial. The basic type Note that a negative result indicates rotation reversal.
consists of a ‘sun gear’ several ‘planet gears’ and a ‘ring
gear’ which has internal teeth. Various ratios can be
obtained, depending on which member is held station-
ary.

Ratio of output to input speed for various types

 Thermodynamics and heat
transfer

3.1 Heat

3. I.I Heat capacity 3.1.3 Latent heat

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a body or quantity of substance by
1 K. The symbol is C (units joules per kelvin, J K - I )
Heat supplied Q = C ( t 2 - t l )
where: t , and t , are the initial and final temperatures.
3. I.2 Specific heat capacity
This is the heat to raise 1 kg of substance by 1 K. The
symbol is c (units joules per kilogram per kelvin,
Jkg-' K-').
Q=mc(t,-t,)
where: m=mass.
This is the quantity of heat required to change the state
of 1 kg of substance. For example:
Solid to liquid: specific heat of melting; h,, (J kg- ')
Liquid to gas: specific heat ofevaporation, h,, (J kg- * )
3. I.4 Mixing of fluids
If m1 kg of fluid 1 at temperature t , is mixed with m, kg
of fluid 2 at temperature t,, then
Final mass m = m l + m , at a temperature
t=
"lClt1 +m,c,t,
m1c1 +m2c2

3.2 Perfect gases

3.2 Gas laws

For a so-called 'perfect gas': where: m =mass, R =the gas constant

Boyle's law: pv = constant for a constant V
temperature T specific volume u=- (m3kg-')
m

V so that: p v = R T
Charles' law: -=constant for a constant pressure p
T
where: p =pressure, V = volume, T=absolute 3.2.2 Universal gas constant
temperature.
Combining the two laws: If R is multiplied by M the molecular weight of the gas,
then :
e=
T
constant = mR
Universal gas constant R,= MR=8.3143
kJ kg-' K - ' (for all perfect gases)
APPLIED MECHANICS 101
THERMODYNAMICS A N D HEAT TRANSFER 103

3.2.3 Specific heat relationships or, if the kinetic energy is small (which is usually the
case)
There are two particular values of specific heat: that at
h, - h l =Q- W (neglecting height differences)
constant volume c,, and that at constant pressure cp.
C 3.2.7 Entropy
Ratio of specific heats y =-1!
C"
Entropy, when plotted versus temperature, gives a
R curve under which the area is heat. The symbol for
Also (cp- c,) = R, so that c, = -
(Y-1) entropy is s and the units are kilojoules per kilogram
per kelvin (kJkg-'K-').
3.2.4 Internal energy

This is the energy of a gas by virtue of its temperature.

u =cVT (specific internal energy)
U =mc,T (total internal energy)
Change in internal energy:
U , - U , =mc,( T, - T , )
u2-u1=c,(T2-T1)

3.2.5 Enthalpy

Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy and pressure

energy p V , i.e.
h = u + p v , or H = U + p V
where: h = specific enthalpy, H = total enthalpy
and it can be shown that
h=c,T.
Change in enthalpy h , - h , = ( u , - u , ) +
P b , - 01 1 =CJT, - Tl 1 3.2.8 Exergy and anergy
H , - H , =mc,(T, - T I ) In a heat engine process from state 1 with surroundings
at state 2 exergy is that part of the total enthalpy drop
3.2.6 Energy equations available for work production.
Non-pow energy equation

Gain in internal energy =Heat supplied - Work done

uz-ul=Q- W

where: W =
j12 pdv.

Steady pow energy equation

This includes kinetic energy and enthalpy:

I
S
104 MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S DATA HANDBOOK

Exergy c f , = ( H , - H , ) - T , ( S , - S , ) Constant temperature (isothermal)

That part of the total enthalpy not available is called In this case:
the ‘anergy’.
pv =constant
Anergy d ,= To@,- S o )

3.2.9 Reversible non-flow processes

Constant volume

In this case:
(s2-sl)= R In e) ):( = R In

F 7
P

\
1 T5C 2
-=constant
T
pv=c

(st -sl)=c,In (2) V

Isothermal process
S

Constant entropy (isentropic)

In this case:
C
pvY=constant, where y =2
CV

Constant-volume pmceSS
W = PlVl -P2V2
Y-1
Q=O
Constant pressure (s2 -SI) = 0
Also:

Constant-entropypmcess

Polytropic process

In this case:
Constant-pressurepr0cB.s pv” =constant, where n = any index
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER 10.5

3.2. I I Mixtures o f gases

The thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases

can be determined in the same way as for a single gas,
the most common example being air for which the
properties are well known. Using Dalton’s law of
W = PlVl - P 2 V 2 partial pressures as a basis, the properties of mixtures
n-1 can be found as follows.

Q= w(g) Symbols used:

m=total mass of mixture
m,, mB,etc.=masses of constituent gases
p = pressure of mixture
PA, p e , etc. =pressures of constituents
R,, RE, etc. =gas constants of constituents
T = temperature of mixture
V = volume of mixture
Dalton’s law:
Polytropic process P = P A + P B + P ~ + . . . +Pi
m=rnA+m,+m,+. . . +mi
where: pi=miRi(T/V)
3.2. I O Irreversible processes
Z(miRi)
Apparent gas constant R = -
Throttling (constant enthalpy process) m
Apparent molecular weight M = R,/R
h,=h2, where: R,= universal gas constant.
For perfect gas T, = T ,
W i 4 )
h
Internal energy u = -
h
m

Entropy s=-
%vi)
m
Throttling process
Specific heats:
Adiabatic mixing

When two flows of a gas rkl and m2 at temperatures T,

and T2 mix:
mT, +m2T,
Final temperature T3=
m, +m,