106
3.3 Vapours
A substance may exist as a solid, liquid, vapour or gas.
A mixture of liquid (usually in the form of very small
drops) and dry vapour is known as a ‘wet vapour’.
When all the liquid has just been converted to vapour
the substance is referred to as ‘saturated vapour’ or
‘dry saturated vapour’. Further heating produces what
is known as ‘superheated vapour’ and the temperature
Symbols used:
p=pressure (Nm-’ (=pascal); Nmm-2; bar
(E1OSNm-’); millibar (E100Nm-’))
t = temperature ( “ C )
t, = saturation temperature (“C)
+
T = absolute temperature (K N “C 273)
u = specific volume (m3kg - ’)
u,=specific volume of liquid (m3kg-’)
u,=specific volume of saturated vapour (m3kg-’)
u = specific internal energy (kJ kg- I )
u, = specific internal energy of liquid (kJ kg- ’)
ug= specific internal energy of vapour (kJ kg-’)
u,, = specific internal energy change from liquid to
vapour (kJkg-’)
h =specific enthalpy (kJ kg - I )
h, =specific enthalpy of liquid, kJ/kg
h, =specific enthalpy of vapour, kJ/kg
h,, =specific enthalpy change from liquid to vapour
(latent heat) kJ/kg
s =specific entropy, kJ/kg K
sf =specific entropy of liquid, kJ/kg K
sg = specific entropy of vapour, kJ/kg K
sfg=specific entropy change from liquid to vapour,
kJ/kg K
x =dryness fraction
3.3. I Properties of vapours
Mass of dry vapour
Dryness fraction x =
Mass of wet vapour
Specific volume of wet vapour u, = uf( 1 -x) + XD,==XU,
(since u, is small)
Specific internal energy of wet vapour
+
u, = Uf x(u, - Uf) =Uf +XUfs
MECHANICAL ENGINEER’SDATA HANDBOOK
rise (at constant pressure) required to do this is known
as the ‘degree of superheat’. The method of determin-
ing the properties of vapours is given, and is to be used
in conjunction with vapour tables, the most compre-
hensive of which are for water vapour. Processes are
shown on the temperature-entropy and en-
thalpy-entropy diagrams.
Specific enthalpy of wet vapour
h, =h, + x(h, - h,) = h, + xh,,
specific entropy of wet vapour
sx=sf+x(s,-sf)=sf +xs,,
Superheated vapour Tables (e.g. for water) give
values of u, u, h, and s for a particular pressure and a
range of temperatures above the saturation tempera-
ture t,. For steam above 70 bar use u=h-pu.
3.3.2 TemperatureEntropy diagram
(T-s diagram)
Various processes are shown for a vapour on the T-s
diagram. AB is an isothermal process in which a wet
vapour becomes superheated. CD shows an isentropic
expansion from the superheat to the wet region. EF is a
polytropic process in the superheat region.
regm
Liquid i
Fv
T
region
\ P1
/ Wet vapour
region
\
S
3.3.3 Enthalpy of a vapour
The enthalpy is represented by the area under a
constant pressure line on the T-s diagram. Area h, is
the enthalpy of the liquid at saturation temperature,
h,, is the enthalpy corresponding to the latent heat,
THERMODYNAMICS A N D HEAT TRANSFER 107

3.3.5 Enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram

J

Lines of constant pressure, temperature, dryness frac-

tion and specific volume are shown on the diagram.
AB represents an isentropic process, AC a polytropic
process and DE a constant enthalpy process.

Superheat region
S h

and h,, is the superheat. The total enthalpy is,

therefore,
h = hf + h,,+ h,,

3.3.4 Dryness fraction fa*

v
The dryness fraction at entropy s is

x = ( y ) and h=h,+xh,,

The area xh,, is shown.

3.4 Data tables

3.4. I Temperature conversion

Conversion formulae :
"F- 32
OC=-
1.8
'F=('Cx 1.8)+32
108 MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S DATA HANDBOOK

"C "F "C "F "C "F

0 32 160 320 350 662

10 50 170 338 400 752
20 68 180 356 450 842
30 86 190 374 500 932
40 104 200 392 550 1022
50 122 210 410 600 1112
60 140 220 428 650 1202
70 158 230 446 700 1292
80 176 240 464 750 1382
90 194 250 482 800 1472
100 212 260 500 850 1562
110 230 270 518 900 1652
120 248 280 536 950 1742
130 266 290 554 lo00 1832
140 284 300 572 1050 1922
150 302 310 590 1100 2012

3.4.2 Latent heats and boiling points

Latent heat of evaporation (kJkg-') at atmospheric pressure

Liquid hfk! Liquid hf, Liquid hfk!

Ammonia 1230 Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) 863 Sulphur dioxide 381
Ether 379
Bisulphide of 372 Methanol (methyl or wood 1119 Turpentine 309
carbon alcohol)
Water 2248

Latent heat of fusion (kJkg-') at atmospheric pressure

Substance h*f Substance hsf Substance hsf

Aluminium 387 Paraffin (kerosene) 147.2 Sulphur 39.2

Bismuth 52.9 Phosphorus 21.1 Tin 59.7
Cast iron, grey 96.3 Lead 23.3 Zinc 117.8
Cast iron, white 138.2 Silver 88.2 Ice 334.9
Copper 180 Nickel 309 Magnesium 372
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER 109

Boiling point ("C) at atmospheric pressure

Substance b.p. Substance b.p.

Ammonia - 33 Methanol (methyl alcohol or 66

Benzine 80 wood alcohol)
Bromine 63 Napthalene 220
Butane 1 Nitric acid 120
Carbon dioxide - 78.5 (sublimates) Nitrogen - 195
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) 78 Oxygen - 183
Ether 38 Petrol 200 (approx.)
Freon 12 - 30 Propane -45
Hydrogen - 252.7 Saturated brine 108
Kerosine (paraffin) 150-300 Sulphuric acid 3 10
Mercury 358 Water 100
Water, sea 100.7 (average)

3.4.3 Properties of air

Analysis of air

Gas Symbol Molecular weight YOvolume YOmass

Oxygen 0 2 3 1.999 20.95 23.14

Nitrogen NZ 28.013 78.09 75.53
Argon Ar 39.948 0.930 1.28
Carbon dioxide CO, 44.010 0.030 0.050

Approximate analysis of air (suitable for calculations)

Molecular
Gas weight % volume YOmass
Oxygen 32 21 23
Nitrogen 28 79 77

General properties of air (at 300K, 1 bar)

Mean molecular weight M = 28.96

Specific heat at constant pressure cP= 1.005 kJ kg-'
Specific heat at constant volume c,=0.718 kJ kg-' K - '
Ratio of specific heats y= 1.40
Gas constant R=0.2871 k J k g - ' K - '
Density p = 1.183 kgm-3
Dynamic viscosity p=1.853x 1 0 - 5 N s m - Z
Kinematic viscosity v=1.566x 1 0 - 5 m 2 s - 1
Thermal conductivity k =0.02614 W m- K - '
Thermal diffusivity a = 2203 m2 s -
Prandtl number P,=0.711
110 MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S DATA HANDBOOK

3.4.4 Specific heat capacities

Specific heat capacity of solids and liquids

(kJkg-' K-')

Aluminium 0.897 Oil, machine 1.676

Aluminium bronze 0.897 Paraffin 2.100
Brass 0.377 Paraffin wax 2.140
Bronze 0.343 Petroleum 2.140
Cadmium 0.235 Phosphorus 0.796
Constantan 0.410 Platinum 0.133
Copper 0.384 Rubber 2.010
Ethanol 2.940 Salt, common 0.880
(ethyl alcohol) Sand 0.796
Glass: crown 0.670 Seawater 3.940
flint 0.503 Silica 0.800
Pyrex 0.753 Si1icon 0.737
Gold 0.129 Silver 0.236
Graphite 0.838 Tin 0.220
Ice 2.100 Titanium 0.523
Iron: cast 0.420 Tungsten 0.142
pure 0.447 Turpentine 1.760
Kerosene 2.100 Uranium 0.116
Lead 0.130 Vanadium 0.482
Magnesia 0.930 Water 4.196
Magnesium 1.030 Water, heavy 4.221
Mercury 0.138 Wood (typical) 2.0 to
Molybdenum 0.272 3.O
Nickel 0.457 Zinc 0.388

Specific heat capacity of gases, gas constant and molecular weight (at normal pressure and temperature)

Specific (kJ kg-' K-') C

Gas constant, Molecular
heats )l=" R weight,
Gas CP C" C" (kJkg-'K-') M
~ ~~ ~

Air 1.005 0.7 18 1.4 0.2871 28.96

Ammonia 2.191 1.663 1.32 0.528 15.75
Argon 0.5234 0.3136 1.668 0.2081 40
Butane 1.68 1.51 1.11 0.17 58
Carbon dioxide 0.8457 0.6573 1.29 0.1889 44
Carbon monoxide 1.041 0.7449 1.398 0.2968 28
Chlorine 0.511 0.383 1.33 0.128 65
Ethane 1.7668 1.4947 1.18 0.2765 30
Helium 5.234 3.1568 1.659 2.077 4
Hydrogen 14.323 10.1965 1.405 4.124 2
Hydrogen chloride 0.813 0.583 1.40 0.230 36.15
Methane 2.2316 1.7124 1.30 0.5183 16
Nitrogen 1.040 0.7436 1.40 0.2968 28
Nitrous oxide 0.928 0.708 1.31 0.220 37.8
Oxygen 0.9182 0.6586 1.394 0.2598 32
Propane 1.6915 1.507 1.12 0.1886 44
Sulphur dioxide 0.6448 0.5150 1.25 0.1298 64
THERMODYNAMICS A N D HEAT TRANSFER 111

3.5 Flow through nozzles

Nozzles are used in steam and gas turbines, in rocket nozzle’, where the flow is subsonic; and the ‘conver-
motors, in jet engines and in many other applications. gent divergent nozzle’, for supersonic flow.
Two types of nozzle are considered: the ‘convergent

Symbols used:
p =inlet pressure
p , =outlet pressure
p , =critical pressure at throat
u I =inlet specific volume
u2 =outlet specific volume
C , =outlet velocity
C , =throat velocity

r =pressure ratio =P2

-
P1
Note that C , is independent of p 2 and that the nozzle
P
rc =critical pressure ratio =2 flow is a maximum. In this case the nozzle is said to be
P1 ‘choked’.
A, =outlet area
A, =throat area
n =index of expansion 3.5.2 Convergent-divergent nozzle
h=mass flow rate

/m
In this case:
Critical pressure ratio r, = -
(n: I)(*) Throat velocity C, = n+ 1

mu,
3.5. I Convergent nozzle Throat area A, = -, r, =
CArJ
Outlet pressure p 2 greater than p,. i.e. r > r ,

Outlet velocity C , = =
/ -
Outlet velocity C,= =
/ -

mV
Outlet area A , = L
mv 1 C,(rf
Outlet area A,=7
C,(r).

Outlet pressure p 2 equal to or less than p c ,

i.e. r < r ,

mu
Outlet area A,=+ Values of the index n and the critical pressure ratio r,
C*(rF for different fluids are given in the table.
112 MECHANICAL ENGINEER’SDATA HANDBOOK

Fluid n IC

Air ( n = y ) 1.4 0.528

Initially dry saturated steam 1.135 0.577
Initially superheated steam 1.3 0.546

3.6 Steam plant

The simplest steam cycle of practical value is the
Rankine cycle with dry saturated steam supplied by a
boiler to a power unit, e.g. a turbine, which exhausts to
a condenser where the condensed steam is pumped
back into the boiler. Formulae are given for work
output, heat supplied, efficiency and specific steam
consumption. Higher efficiency is obtained if the steam
is initially superheated which also reduces specific
steam consumption and means smaller plant can be
used. If the steam is ‘reheated’ and passed through a
second turbine the final dryness fraction is increased
with beneficial effects (e.g. reduced erosion of turbine
blades due to water droplets); in addition, there is a
further reduction in specific steam consumption.
In the ‘regenerative cycle’ efficiency is improved by
bleeding off a proportion of the steam at an intermedi-
ate pressure and mixing it with feed water pumped to
the same pressure in a ‘feed heater’. Several feed
heaters may be used but these are of the ‘closed’variety
to avoid the necessity for expensive pumps.

3.6. I Rankine cycle -

dry saturated
steam a t turbine inlet
From the T-s diagram:

s2 =SI, x 2 = (s2 -sf21

~

Sf,,
h,=hfz+xZh,g2
Work output W = ( h , - h 2 )
Heat supplied Q=(hl -hf3)
Cycle efficiency q = W/Q (neglecting pump work)
Specific steam consumption
SSC = 36001W kg kW - ‘h -
C

Note: if the turbine isentropic efficiency vi is allowed $ =

v) ssc
for: W= (h, -h2)qi and expansion is to point 2’ on the
diagram.

3.6.2 Rankine cycle - with superheat

The method is the same as for dry saturated steam. The
graph shows the effect of superheat temperature on
I
efficiency and specific steam consumption. In this case
S h , is the enthalpy for superheated steam.
THERMODYNAMICS A N D HEAT TRANSFER 1 I3

a
4

3.6.3
3
\

2 - 2

Rankine cycle with reheat

\

At point 2 the steam is reheated to point 6 and passed

A bleed pressure pb is selected to correspond to the
saturation temperature t,.

Dryness fractions: xb=-

Enthalpy: h, =h,,
'1 -'fb;

'Pgb
2-
'1 - s f 2

+ xbhfg,;h2 = hf, + xzhfg2

Quantity of bled steam y=- hfb-hfZ

hb-h2
Sfg2

kg/kg total steam

Work done per kg steam W=(h,-h,)+(l-y)(h,-h2)

Heat supplied per kg steam Q = (h, -hfb)
through a second turbine.
W
W = ( h , -hz)+ ( h 6 - h 7 ) Cycle efficiency 4 = -
Q=(hl-h3)+(h6-h2)
Q
The value of p 6 is found using T6= TI (usually) and
sgz,= s, from which h6 is found. The value of h , is found Specific steam consumption (SSC)= 3600 kg kW
~ ~ h '
W
using s, = s6.

3.6.4 Regenerative cycle

Turbine inlet conditions pl, t,, h ,

Turbine outlet conditions p , , t , , h,
Bleed steam conditions p,, t,, h,
(tl + t 2 )
For maximum efficiency tb=-
2